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Radiation Transport Through the Martian Atmosphere as a Function of the Zenith Angle.

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Title: Radiation Transport Through the Martian Atmosphere as a Function of the Zenith Angle.
Authors: Khaksari, Salman1 (AUTHOR) khaksari@physik.uni-kiel.de, Phipps, Phillip H.2,3,4 (AUTHOR) phillip.h.phipps@nasa.gov, Wimmer‐Schweingruber, Robert F.1 (AUTHOR), Stubbs, Timothy J.4 (AUTHOR), Looper, Mark D.5 (AUTHOR), Guo, Jingnan6,7 (AUTHOR), Charpentier, Gabin8,9,10 (AUTHOR), Ehresmann, Bent11 (AUTHOR), Löwe, Jan Leo1 (AUTHOR), Matthiä, Daniel12 (AUTHOR), Hassler, Donald M.11 (AUTHOR), Zeitlin, Cary13 (AUTHOR), Löffler, Sven1 (AUTHOR)
Source: Journal of Geophysical Research. Planets. Dec2025, Vol. 130 Issue 12, p1-20. 20p.
Subject Terms: *Atmosphere, *Radiation, Mars (Planet), Topography, Particle physics, Space exploration, Cosmic rays, Zenith distance
Abstract: The topographic influence of the radiation environment on the Martian surface radiation is crucial for future human exploration. Topographic maps help assess radiation flux variations, aiding in hazard evaluation. Creating a global radiation map requires accounting for seasonally varying atmospheric density, heliospheric modulation, and topography. Here, we use a radiation model to derive the flux of secondary downward particles generated by the interaction of primary protons with the Martian atmosphere. Our model examines two key factors: (a) the dependence of atmospheric column depth on the zenith angle, affecting radiation directionality as horizon‐arriving particles traverse more atmosphere than vertical ones and (b) atmospheric conditions at surface heights in Gale Crater, crucial for developing radiation dose maps that incorporate topographic effects. Our model is validated against Radiation Assessment Detector measurements and benchmarked with existing models. We construct response matrices representing the ratio of secondary particles at the Martian surface to primary inputs across zenith angles, assessing atmospheric effects. We combine these matrices with the incident spectrum to compute secondary particle fluxes from all zenith angles for Galactic Cosmic Rays and Solar Energetic Particles. These fluxes will be integrated into a topographic map of Mars in a follow‐up study, providing a detailed representation of surface radiation levels across different terrains. This approach aids mission planners in identifying safe landing sites for astronauts. Plain Language Summary: Radiation on the surface of Mars is influenced by the planet's topography, which is an important factor for future human exploration. Understanding how radiation levels vary across different terrains can help identify safer landing sites for astronauts. To study this, we used a radiation model to calculate how high‐energy protons from space interact with the Martian atmosphere, producing secondary particles that reach the surface. Our model focuses on two key aspects: (a) how the amount of atmosphere particles travel through, depends on the angle at which they enter the atmosphere, which affects radiation levels at different locations, and (b) how atmospheric conditions at different surface heights, such as in Gale Crater, impact radiation exposure. We validated our model using data from the Radiation Assessment Detector on the Curiosity rover and compared it with previous models. By analyzing how secondary particles form at different angles, we created a method to calculate radiation fluxes from Galactic Cosmic Rays and Solar Energetic Particles across the Martian surface. In future work, we will integrate these results into a topographic radiation map of Mars, which will help assess radiation risks in different regions and support mission planning for future astronauts. Key Points: We model the flux of secondary particles on Mars as a function of the zenith angle of incoming primary protonsResults enable the calculation of surface radiation fluxes from Galactic Cosmic Rays and Solar Energetic Particles by incorporating angle‐dependent secondary particle fluxesOur model shows how atmospheric column depth varies with zenith angle, shaping radiation directionality and conditions at Gale Crater [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Journal of Geophysical Research. Planets is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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  Data: Radiation Transport Through the Martian Atmosphere as a Function of the Zenith Angle.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Khaksari%2C+Salman%22">Khaksari, Salman</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> khaksari@physik.uni-kiel.de</i><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Phipps%2C+Phillip+H%2E%22">Phipps, Phillip H.</searchLink><relatesTo>2,3,4</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> phillip.h.phipps@nasa.gov</i><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Wimmer‐Schweingruber%2C+Robert+F%2E%22">Wimmer‐Schweingruber, Robert F.</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Stubbs%2C+Timothy+J%2E%22">Stubbs, Timothy J.</searchLink><relatesTo>4</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Looper%2C+Mark+D%2E%22">Looper, Mark D.</searchLink><relatesTo>5</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Guo%2C+Jingnan%22">Guo, Jingnan</searchLink><relatesTo>6,7</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Charpentier%2C+Gabin%22">Charpentier, Gabin</searchLink><relatesTo>8,9,10</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ehresmann%2C+Bent%22">Ehresmann, Bent</searchLink><relatesTo>11</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Löwe%2C+Jan+Leo%22">Löwe, Jan Leo</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Matthiä%2C+Daniel%22">Matthiä, Daniel</searchLink><relatesTo>12</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hassler%2C+Donald+M%2E%22">Hassler, Donald M.</searchLink><relatesTo>11</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Zeitlin%2C+Cary%22">Zeitlin, Cary</searchLink><relatesTo>13</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Löffler%2C+Sven%22">Löffler, Sven</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22Journal+of+Geophysical+Research%2E+Planets%22">Journal of Geophysical Research. Planets</searchLink>. Dec2025, Vol. 130 Issue 12, p1-20. 20p.
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  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The topographic influence of the radiation environment on the Martian surface radiation is crucial for future human exploration. Topographic maps help assess radiation flux variations, aiding in hazard evaluation. Creating a global radiation map requires accounting for seasonally varying atmospheric density, heliospheric modulation, and topography. Here, we use a radiation model to derive the flux of secondary downward particles generated by the interaction of primary protons with the Martian atmosphere. Our model examines two key factors: (a) the dependence of atmospheric column depth on the zenith angle, affecting radiation directionality as horizon‐arriving particles traverse more atmosphere than vertical ones and (b) atmospheric conditions at surface heights in Gale Crater, crucial for developing radiation dose maps that incorporate topographic effects. Our model is validated against Radiation Assessment Detector measurements and benchmarked with existing models. We construct response matrices representing the ratio of secondary particles at the Martian surface to primary inputs across zenith angles, assessing atmospheric effects. We combine these matrices with the incident spectrum to compute secondary particle fluxes from all zenith angles for Galactic Cosmic Rays and Solar Energetic Particles. These fluxes will be integrated into a topographic map of Mars in a follow‐up study, providing a detailed representation of surface radiation levels across different terrains. This approach aids mission planners in identifying safe landing sites for astronauts. Plain Language Summary: Radiation on the surface of Mars is influenced by the planet's topography, which is an important factor for future human exploration. Understanding how radiation levels vary across different terrains can help identify safer landing sites for astronauts. To study this, we used a radiation model to calculate how high‐energy protons from space interact with the Martian atmosphere, producing secondary particles that reach the surface. Our model focuses on two key aspects: (a) how the amount of atmosphere particles travel through, depends on the angle at which they enter the atmosphere, which affects radiation levels at different locations, and (b) how atmospheric conditions at different surface heights, such as in Gale Crater, impact radiation exposure. We validated our model using data from the Radiation Assessment Detector on the Curiosity rover and compared it with previous models. By analyzing how secondary particles form at different angles, we created a method to calculate radiation fluxes from Galactic Cosmic Rays and Solar Energetic Particles across the Martian surface. In future work, we will integrate these results into a topographic radiation map of Mars, which will help assess radiation risks in different regions and support mission planning for future astronauts. Key Points: We model the flux of secondary particles on Mars as a function of the zenith angle of incoming primary protonsResults enable the calculation of surface radiation fluxes from Galactic Cosmic Rays and Solar Energetic Particles by incorporating angle‐dependent secondary particle fluxesOur model shows how atmospheric column depth varies with zenith angle, shaping radiation directionality and conditions at Gale Crater [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
– Name: AbstractSuppliedCopyright
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  Data: <i>Copyright of Journal of Geophysical Research. Planets is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.</i> (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1029/2025JE009352
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      – Code: eng
        Text: English
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        PageCount: 20
        StartPage: 1
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Atmosphere
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Radiation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mars (Planet)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Topography
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Particle physics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Space exploration
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cosmic rays
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Zenith distance
        Type: general
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      – TitleFull: Radiation Transport Through the Martian Atmosphere as a Function of the Zenith Angle.
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              M: 12
              Text: Dec2025
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