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Microstructural Evolution and Electrical Reliability of TiO2-Reinforced SAC Solder Interconnections under Thermomechanical Fatigue.

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Title: Microstructural Evolution and Electrical Reliability of TiO2-Reinforced SAC Solder Interconnections under Thermomechanical Fatigue.
Authors: Mohammad, Suleiman Ibrahim1,2 (AUTHOR), Vasudevan, Asokan3,4 (AUTHOR), Sujai, S.5 (AUTHOR), Pradhan, Premananda6 (AUTHOR), Thykattusserry, Nivin Joy7 (AUTHOR), Singh, Ripendeep8 (AUTHOR), Bisht, Yashwant Singh9 (AUTHOR) yashwantb3@gmail.com
Source: Journal of Electronic Materials. Mar2026, Vol. 55 Issue 3, p3248-3262. 15p.
Subjects: Titanium dioxide, Solder joints, Thermal fatigue, Electronic packaging, Microstructure, Reliability of electronics, Dislocation density, Intermetallic compounds
Abstract: This study examined the influence of TiO2 nanoparticles on the thermomechanical fatigue reliability of SAC305 solder joints, with the aim of linking their microstructural evolution, interfacial stability, and electrical performance degradation. Solder joints with and without 0.5 wt.% TiO2 reinforcement were fabricated by reflowing between copper substrates and subjected to 1000 thermal cycles from −40°C to +125°C. Microstructural changes were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, and geometrically necessary dislocation (GND) density mapping, while electrical reliability was assessed through resistance monitoring, current–voltage characterization, and electrical noise analysis. Results revealed that TiO2 nanoparticles refine the morphology of intermetallic compounds (IMCs), suppress coarsening, and preserve smoother interfacial layers during cycling. GND mapping demonstrated that reinforced joints exhibit reduced strain localization and fewer dislocation hotspots, indicating more uniform plastic strain accommodation. These microstructural improvements translate into superior electrical performance: TiO2-doped joints showed a markedly slower resistance increase, maintained near-ohmic I–V characteristics after cycling, and exhibited significantly lower low-frequency electrical noise. Together, these findings establish a direct mechanistic correlation between nanoparticle-induced microstructural refinement and enhanced electrical reliability, highlighting TiO2 reinforcement as an effective strategy for improving the durability of solder interconnections in advanced electronic packaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Journal of Electronic Materials is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Database: Engineering Source
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Header DbId: egs
DbLabel: Engineering Source
An: 191486994
AccessLevel: 6
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
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  Data: Microstructural Evolution and Electrical Reliability of TiO<subscript>2</subscript>-Reinforced SAC Solder Interconnections under Thermomechanical Fatigue.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Mohammad%2C+Suleiman+Ibrahim%22">Mohammad, Suleiman Ibrahim</searchLink><relatesTo>1,2</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Vasudevan%2C+Asokan%22">Vasudevan, Asokan</searchLink><relatesTo>3,4</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sujai%2C+S%2E%22">Sujai, S.</searchLink><relatesTo>5</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Pradhan%2C+Premananda%22">Pradhan, Premananda</searchLink><relatesTo>6</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Thykattusserry%2C+Nivin+Joy%22">Thykattusserry, Nivin Joy</searchLink><relatesTo>7</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Singh%2C+Ripendeep%22">Singh, Ripendeep</searchLink><relatesTo>8</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Bisht%2C+Yashwant+Singh%22">Bisht, Yashwant Singh</searchLink><relatesTo>9</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> yashwantb3@gmail.com</i>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22Journal+of+Electronic+Materials%22">Journal of Electronic Materials</searchLink>. Mar2026, Vol. 55 Issue 3, p3248-3262. 15p.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Titanium+dioxide%22">Titanium dioxide</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Solder+joints%22">Solder joints</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Thermal+fatigue%22">Thermal fatigue</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Electronic+packaging%22">Electronic packaging</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Microstructure%22">Microstructure</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reliability+of+electronics%22">Reliability of electronics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Dislocation+density%22">Dislocation density</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intermetallic+compounds%22">Intermetallic compounds</searchLink>
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study examined the influence of TiO2 nanoparticles on the thermomechanical fatigue reliability of SAC305 solder joints, with the aim of linking their microstructural evolution, interfacial stability, and electrical performance degradation. Solder joints with and without 0.5 wt.% TiO2 reinforcement were fabricated by reflowing between copper substrates and subjected to 1000 thermal cycles from −40°C to +125°C. Microstructural changes were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, and geometrically necessary dislocation (GND) density mapping, while electrical reliability was assessed through resistance monitoring, current–voltage characterization, and electrical noise analysis. Results revealed that TiO2 nanoparticles refine the morphology of intermetallic compounds (IMCs), suppress coarsening, and preserve smoother interfacial layers during cycling. GND mapping demonstrated that reinforced joints exhibit reduced strain localization and fewer dislocation hotspots, indicating more uniform plastic strain accommodation. These microstructural improvements translate into superior electrical performance: TiO2-doped joints showed a markedly slower resistance increase, maintained near-ohmic I–V characteristics after cycling, and exhibited significantly lower low-frequency electrical noise. Together, these findings establish a direct mechanistic correlation between nanoparticle-induced microstructural refinement and enhanced electrical reliability, highlighting TiO2 reinforcement as an effective strategy for improving the durability of solder interconnections in advanced electronic packaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
– Name: AbstractSuppliedCopyright
  Label:
  Group: Ab
  Data: <i>Copyright of Journal of Electronic Materials is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.</i> (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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RecordInfo BibRecord:
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s11664-025-12669-x
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      – Code: eng
        Text: English
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      Pagination:
        PageCount: 15
        StartPage: 3248
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      – SubjectFull: Titanium dioxide
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Solder joints
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Thermal fatigue
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Electronic packaging
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Microstructure
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reliability of electronics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Dislocation density
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intermetallic compounds
        Type: general
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      – TitleFull: Microstructural Evolution and Electrical Reliability of TiO2-Reinforced SAC Solder Interconnections under Thermomechanical Fatigue.
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            NameFull: Mohammad, Suleiman Ibrahim
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            NameFull: Vasudevan, Asokan
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            – D: 01
              M: 03
              Text: Mar2026
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
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