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A method to study and enhance the energy efficiency of soft electrostatic actuators.

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Title: A method to study and enhance the energy efficiency of soft electrostatic actuators.
Authors: Zhang, Steven L.1, Fukushima, Toshihiko1, Kirkman, Sophie1, Adrian Koh, Soo Jin1, Rothemund, Philipp1,2 philipp.rothemund@iams.uni-stuttgart.de, Keplinger, Christoph1,3,4 ck@is.mpg.de
Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2/10/2026, Vol. 123 Issue 6, p1-11. 28p.
Subjects: Electrostatic actuators, Energy conversion, Energy consumption, Soft robotics, Robotics
Abstract: Actuators drive robotic motion, and their energy conversion efficiency is a key performance metric that informs power consumption. Soft electrostatic actuators promise new opportunities for bioinspired and wearable robotics, being driven by electrical signals and producing high-speed, muscle-like motion. Unlike electromagnetic motors, for which efficiency has been systematically studied, efficiency of soft actuators lacks a standardized definition and measurement method, highlighting the need for a unified framework for the evaluation of their efficiency. Here, we propose a comprehensive method to study electrical-to-mechanical energy conversion in soft electrostatic actuators by analyzing closed cycles on planes spanned by work-conjugate variables: voltage– charge and force–position; our experimental setup allows us to prescribe and measure in real-time all work-conjugate variables and thus, to evaluate efficiency as function of load, electric potential, frequency, and actuator materials. We introduce a practical work cycle to evaluate actuators, and, using Peano-HASEL (Hydraulically Amplified Self-healing ELectrostatic) actuators as a model system, we reveal that efficiency is highly dependent on applied voltage, force, and actuation frequency; within the tested range of parameters, we measure a maximum efficiency of 63.6%, which is more than three times the previously reported value for HASEL actuators. We further study energy losses inherent in mechanical and electrical cycles. We show the general applicability of our method across different electrostatic actuators by applying it to a pure-shear dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA), demonstrating efficiencies up to 62.9%. This comprehensive method will facilitate the study and development of electrostatic actuators for the next generation of highly efficient soft robots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America is the property of National Academy of Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Database: Engineering Source
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DbLabel: Engineering Source
An: 191672553
AccessLevel: 6
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
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  Data: A method to study and enhance the energy efficiency of soft electrostatic actuators.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Zhang%2C+Steven+L%2E%22">Zhang, Steven L.</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Fukushima%2C+Toshihiko%22">Fukushima, Toshihiko</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kirkman%2C+Sophie%22">Kirkman, Sophie</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Adrian+Koh%2C+Soo+Jin%22">Adrian Koh, Soo Jin</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rothemund%2C+Philipp%22">Rothemund, Philipp</searchLink><relatesTo>1,2</relatesTo><i> philipp.rothemund@iams.uni-stuttgart.de</i><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Keplinger%2C+Christoph%22">Keplinger, Christoph</searchLink><relatesTo>1,3,4</relatesTo><i> ck@is.mpg.de</i>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Electrostatic+actuators%22">Electrostatic actuators</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Energy+conversion%22">Energy conversion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Energy+consumption%22">Energy consumption</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Soft+robotics%22">Soft robotics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Robotics%22">Robotics</searchLink>
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  Data: Actuators drive robotic motion, and their energy conversion efficiency is a key performance metric that informs power consumption. Soft electrostatic actuators promise new opportunities for bioinspired and wearable robotics, being driven by electrical signals and producing high-speed, muscle-like motion. Unlike electromagnetic motors, for which efficiency has been systematically studied, efficiency of soft actuators lacks a standardized definition and measurement method, highlighting the need for a unified framework for the evaluation of their efficiency. Here, we propose a comprehensive method to study electrical-to-mechanical energy conversion in soft electrostatic actuators by analyzing closed cycles on planes spanned by work-conjugate variables: voltage– charge and force–position; our experimental setup allows us to prescribe and measure in real-time all work-conjugate variables and thus, to evaluate efficiency as function of load, electric potential, frequency, and actuator materials. We introduce a practical work cycle to evaluate actuators, and, using Peano-HASEL (Hydraulically Amplified Self-healing ELectrostatic) actuators as a model system, we reveal that efficiency is highly dependent on applied voltage, force, and actuation frequency; within the tested range of parameters, we measure a maximum efficiency of 63.6%, which is more than three times the previously reported value for HASEL actuators. We further study energy losses inherent in mechanical and electrical cycles. We show the general applicability of our method across different electrostatic actuators by applying it to a pure-shear dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA), demonstrating efficiencies up to 62.9%. This comprehensive method will facilitate the study and development of electrostatic actuators for the next generation of highly efficient soft robots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
– Name: AbstractSuppliedCopyright
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  Data: <i>Copyright of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America is the property of National Academy of Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.</i> (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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        Value: 10.1073/pnas.2527676123
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        Text: English
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        PageCount: 28
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      – SubjectFull: Electrostatic actuators
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Energy conversion
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      – SubjectFull: Energy consumption
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      – SubjectFull: Soft robotics
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      – SubjectFull: Robotics
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      – TitleFull: A method to study and enhance the energy efficiency of soft electrostatic actuators.
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              Text: 2/10/2026
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