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Minimum and Maximum Void Ratios of Sand–Rubber and Crushed Concrete–Rubber Mixtures.

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Title: Minimum and Maximum Void Ratios of Sand–Rubber and Crushed Concrete–Rubber Mixtures.
Authors: Kowalska, Magdalena1 (AUTHOR) magdalena.kowalska@polsl.pl, Bdzionek, Bartosz2 (AUTHOR), Gabryś, Katarzyna3 (AUTHOR), Zatorski, Iwo4 (AUTHOR), Ferreira, Cristiana5 (AUTHOR)
Source: Materials (1996-1944). May2026, Vol. 19 Issue 9, p1721. 30p.
Subjects: Recycled concrete aggregates, Soil compaction, Porosity, Waste products as building materials
Abstract: Highlights: What are the main findings? Boundary void ratios of well-graded RCA, TDA and RCA-TDA were determined using various methods. The lowest emin was achieved in Proctor compaction for RCA and RCA-TDA and in static loading for TDA. Dry RCA, TDA, and RCA-TDA reach emax by cylinder inversion, though particle segregation is induced. What are the implications of the main findings? Particle characteristics and water content significantly influence emin and emax of recycled geomaterials. Standard vibration overestimates emin for RCA, TDA and RCA-TDA but is effective in sand–TDA. The minimum void ratio concept for rigid soils is not directly applicable to rubber-rich geomaterials. There are no unique and universally accepted procedures for the determination of the maximum and minimum void ratios, emax and emin. This issue is particularly pertinent in the characterisation of the alternative sustainable materials examined in this study: well-graded tyre-derived aggregate (TDA), recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and their mixtures (RCA-TDA), with a rubber content by weight of ΧM = 11, 23 and 55%. Uniformly graded TDA–sand mixtures with ΧM = 0, 15, 27, 42, and 100% were also considered. The results from dry and moist samples were compared with void ratios obtained after Proctor compaction and static loading. It was found that, in contrast to vibration for sand and sand–TDA mixtures, the most efficient densification techniques involve impact compaction at the optimum water content for RCA and RCA-TDA and static loading for TDA. Inversion of dry RCA, TDA and RCA-TDA samples in a graduated cylinder was the most effective to consistently achieve emax but induced visible segregation. Unlike sand–rubber mixtures, well-graded RCA-TDA did not exhibit a threshold rubber content at which emax and emin fell below those of RCA and TDA alone, suggesting reduced segregation. The findings offer practical guidance for improving specimen preparation reproducibility in the laboratory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Materials (1996-1944) is the property of MDPI and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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  Label: Title
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  Data: Minimum and Maximum Void Ratios of Sand–Rubber and Crushed Concrete–Rubber Mixtures.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kowalska%2C+Magdalena%22">Kowalska, Magdalena</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> magdalena.kowalska@polsl.pl</i><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Bdzionek%2C+Bartosz%22">Bdzionek, Bartosz</searchLink><relatesTo>2</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gabryś%2C+Katarzyna%22">Gabryś, Katarzyna</searchLink><relatesTo>3</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Zatorski%2C+Iwo%22">Zatorski, Iwo</searchLink><relatesTo>4</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ferreira%2C+Cristiana%22">Ferreira, Cristiana</searchLink><relatesTo>5</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22Materials+%281996-1944%29%22">Materials (1996-1944)</searchLink>. May2026, Vol. 19 Issue 9, p1721. 30p.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Recycled+concrete+aggregates%22">Recycled concrete aggregates</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Soil+compaction%22">Soil compaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Porosity%22">Porosity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Waste+products+as+building+materials%22">Waste products as building materials</searchLink>
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Highlights: What are the main findings? Boundary void ratios of well-graded RCA, TDA and RCA-TDA were determined using various methods. The lowest emin was achieved in Proctor compaction for RCA and RCA-TDA and in static loading for TDA. Dry RCA, TDA, and RCA-TDA reach emax by cylinder inversion, though particle segregation is induced. What are the implications of the main findings? Particle characteristics and water content significantly influence emin and emax of recycled geomaterials. Standard vibration overestimates emin for RCA, TDA and RCA-TDA but is effective in sand–TDA. The minimum void ratio concept for rigid soils is not directly applicable to rubber-rich geomaterials. There are no unique and universally accepted procedures for the determination of the maximum and minimum void ratios, emax and emin. This issue is particularly pertinent in the characterisation of the alternative sustainable materials examined in this study: well-graded tyre-derived aggregate (TDA), recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and their mixtures (RCA-TDA), with a rubber content by weight of ΧM = 11, 23 and 55%. Uniformly graded TDA–sand mixtures with ΧM = 0, 15, 27, 42, and 100% were also considered. The results from dry and moist samples were compared with void ratios obtained after Proctor compaction and static loading. It was found that, in contrast to vibration for sand and sand–TDA mixtures, the most efficient densification techniques involve impact compaction at the optimum water content for RCA and RCA-TDA and static loading for TDA. Inversion of dry RCA, TDA and RCA-TDA samples in a graduated cylinder was the most effective to consistently achieve emax but induced visible segregation. Unlike sand–rubber mixtures, well-graded RCA-TDA did not exhibit a threshold rubber content at which emax and emin fell below those of RCA and TDA alone, suggesting reduced segregation. The findings offer practical guidance for improving specimen preparation reproducibility in the laboratory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
– Name: AbstractSuppliedCopyright
  Label:
  Group: Ab
  Data: <i>Copyright of Materials (1996-1944) is the property of MDPI and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.</i> (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.3390/ma19091721
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      – Code: eng
        Text: English
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        PageCount: 30
        StartPage: 1721
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Recycled concrete aggregates
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Soil compaction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Porosity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Waste products as building materials
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Minimum and Maximum Void Ratios of Sand–Rubber and Crushed Concrete–Rubber Mixtures.
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          Name:
            NameFull: Kowalska, Magdalena
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            NameFull: Bdzionek, Bartosz
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            NameFull: Gabryś, Katarzyna
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            NameFull: Zatorski, Iwo
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            NameFull: Ferreira, Cristiana
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            – D: 01
              M: 05
              Text: May2026
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
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              Value: 19
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              Value: 9
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            – TitleFull: Materials (1996-1944)
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