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Mechanistic Investigation of Lecithin Enabled Efficient Vulcanization of Rubber With Reduced Zinc Oxide.

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Title: Mechanistic Investigation of Lecithin Enabled Efficient Vulcanization of Rubber With Reduced Zinc Oxide.
Authors: Chen, Lin1 (AUTHOR), Zhou, Meng‐Zhen1 (AUTHOR), Wang, Ning2 (AUTHOR), Tu, Zhikai1 (AUTHOR) zhikaitu@hainanu.edu.cn, Wei, Yan‐Chan1 (AUTHOR) weiyanchan@hainanu.edu.cn, Liao, Shuangquan1 (AUTHOR) lsqhnu@hainanu.edu.cn
Source: Polymer Engineering & Science. Mar2026, Vol. 66 Issue 3, p2166-2177. 12p.
Subjects: Vulcanization, Zinc oxide, Reaction mechanisms (Chemistry), Density functional theory, Lecithin, Rubber
Abstract: In the conventional vulcanization of rubber, heavy reliance on zinc oxide (ZnO) results in resource waste and significant environmental pollution. Consequently, developing green and efficient strategies to reduce ZnO usage remains critical. In this study, lecithin, a bio‐based activator, is introduced into rubber to reduce ZnO usage during vulcanization. The addition of only 1.2 phr lecithin enables a 60% reduction in ZnO content while still maintaining the vulcanization efficiency and mechanical strength of natural rubber (NR). Notably, under reduced ZnO content, the NR sample with lecithin shows tensile strength increasing from 2.14 to 11.75 MPa compared to the sample without lecithin. Mechanistic investigations reveal that lecithin coordinates with Zn2+, which greatly improves dispersion of ZnO in the NR and enhances its utilization efficiency. Moreover, density functional theory (DFT) calculations confirm that lecithin‐Zn2+ chelates increase the nucleophilicity of sulfur atoms in the accelerator toward elemental sulfur (S8), lowering the Gibbs free energy for zinc polysulfide formation (ΔG is reduced from 71.59 to 55.68 kJ/mol) and accelerating vulcanization. In summary, lecithin acts as an effective bio‐based activator to enable a significant reduction in ZnO content without compromising the properties of NR. This approach provides a sustainable, efficient, and practical strategy for the development of low‐ZnO rubber composites. Summary: Lecithin enables 60% ZnO reduction without sacrificing NR properties.Lecithin‐Zn2+ chelates improve ZnO dispersion and activate sulfur.Mechanism clarified by combined experimental analysis and DFT calculations.A bio‐based, green approach offers a scalable rubber vulcanization route. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Polymer Engineering & Science is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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  Label: Title
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  Data: Mechanistic Investigation of Lecithin Enabled Efficient Vulcanization of Rubber With Reduced Zinc Oxide.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Chen%2C+Lin%22">Chen, Lin</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Zhou%2C+Meng‐Zhen%22">Zhou, Meng‐Zhen</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Wang%2C+Ning%22">Wang, Ning</searchLink><relatesTo>2</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Tu%2C+Zhikai%22">Tu, Zhikai</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> zhikaitu@hainanu.edu.cn</i><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Wei%2C+Yan‐Chan%22">Wei, Yan‐Chan</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> weiyanchan@hainanu.edu.cn</i><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Liao%2C+Shuangquan%22">Liao, Shuangquan</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> lsqhnu@hainanu.edu.cn</i>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22Polymer+Engineering+%26+Science%22">Polymer Engineering & Science</searchLink>. Mar2026, Vol. 66 Issue 3, p2166-2177. 12p.
– Name: Subject
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  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Vulcanization%22">Vulcanization</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Zinc+oxide%22">Zinc oxide</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reaction+mechanisms+%28Chemistry%29%22">Reaction mechanisms (Chemistry)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Density+functional+theory%22">Density functional theory</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Lecithin%22">Lecithin</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Rubber%22">Rubber</searchLink>
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: In the conventional vulcanization of rubber, heavy reliance on zinc oxide (ZnO) results in resource waste and significant environmental pollution. Consequently, developing green and efficient strategies to reduce ZnO usage remains critical. In this study, lecithin, a bio‐based activator, is introduced into rubber to reduce ZnO usage during vulcanization. The addition of only 1.2 phr lecithin enables a 60% reduction in ZnO content while still maintaining the vulcanization efficiency and mechanical strength of natural rubber (NR). Notably, under reduced ZnO content, the NR sample with lecithin shows tensile strength increasing from 2.14 to 11.75 MPa compared to the sample without lecithin. Mechanistic investigations reveal that lecithin coordinates with Zn2+, which greatly improves dispersion of ZnO in the NR and enhances its utilization efficiency. Moreover, density functional theory (DFT) calculations confirm that lecithin‐Zn2+ chelates increase the nucleophilicity of sulfur atoms in the accelerator toward elemental sulfur (S8), lowering the Gibbs free energy for zinc polysulfide formation (ΔG is reduced from 71.59 to 55.68 kJ/mol) and accelerating vulcanization. In summary, lecithin acts as an effective bio‐based activator to enable a significant reduction in ZnO content without compromising the properties of NR. This approach provides a sustainable, efficient, and practical strategy for the development of low‐ZnO rubber composites. Summary: Lecithin enables 60% ZnO reduction without sacrificing NR properties.Lecithin‐Zn2+ chelates improve ZnO dispersion and activate sulfur.Mechanism clarified by combined experimental analysis and DFT calculations.A bio‐based, green approach offers a scalable rubber vulcanization route. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
– Name: AbstractSuppliedCopyright
  Label:
  Group: Ab
  Data: <i>Copyright of Polymer Engineering & Science is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.</i> (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/pen.70343
    Languages:
      – Code: eng
        Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 2166
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Vulcanization
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Zinc oxide
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reaction mechanisms (Chemistry)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Density functional theory
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Lecithin
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Rubber
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Mechanistic Investigation of Lecithin Enabled Efficient Vulcanization of Rubber With Reduced Zinc Oxide.
        Type: main
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      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Chen, Lin
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Zhou, Meng‐Zhen
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Wang, Ning
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            NameFull: Tu, Zhikai
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            NameFull: Wei, Yan‐Chan
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            NameFull: Liao, Shuangquan
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 03
              Text: Mar2026
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
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              Value: 00323888
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              Value: 66
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Polymer Engineering & Science
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