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3D-printed PCL scaffolds: optimising material selection for specific bone regeneration applications.

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Title: 3D-printed PCL scaffolds: optimising material selection for specific bone regeneration applications.
Authors: Rajzer, Izabella1 (AUTHOR), Novotna, Renata2 (AUTHOR), Kurowska, Anna1 (AUTHOR), Janusz, Jarosław1 (AUTHOR), Fabia, Janusz3 (AUTHOR), Jabłoński, Adam1 (AUTHOR), Piekarczyk, Wojciech4 (AUTHOR), Castano, Oscar5,6,7 (AUTHOR), Ziąbka, Magdalena8 (AUTHOR), Frankova, Jana2 (AUTHOR) jana.frankova@upol.cz
Source: Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine. 4/24/2026, Vol. 37 Issue 1, p1-16. 16p.
Subjects: Polycaprolactone, Additives, Mechanical behavior of materials, Nanoparticles, Bone regeneration, Tissue scaffolds, Biocompatibility, Three-dimensional printing
Abstract: Significant clinical challenges are posed by large bone defects, necessitating the use of scaffolds that combine mechanical stability with osteoinductive properties. While polycaprolactone (PCL) lends itself well to 3D printing, its limited bioactivity means it needs to be modified with bioactive additives. Various additives have been proposed to enhance PCL scaffolds, but a systematic comparative evaluation of their mechanical and biological effects is lacking. This hinders the optimal selection of materials for specific applications. In this study, we compared the effects of four additives—silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), osteogenon (OST), zinc oxide (ZnO) and vitroceramic calcium phosphate (CaPNPs)—when incorporated at a concentration of 0.5 wt% into 3D-printed PCL scaffolds. We comprehensively evaluated the mechanical properties, thermal characteristics, and osteoblast biocompatibility using tensile testing, differential scanning calorimetry, and SaOS-2 cell culture assays (MTT test, activity of alkaline phosphatase, production of collagen I and fluorescent staining with acridine orange or phalloidin). ZnO modification significantly enhanced the mechanical properties (834% strain at break versus 658% for pure PCL and an increased Young's modulus), as well as supporting cell viability (87 and 85%). Meanwhile, CaPNPs demonstrated the highest level of early-stage cell viability (103% after 24 h), although this was not statistically significant. All additives exhibited non-cytotoxic profiles with >80% cell viability and demonstrated time-dependent increases in alkaline phosphatase activity, but further evaluation for clinical application is essential. These findings provide evidence-based guidance for selecting PCL scaffold additives based on specific application requirements: ZnO is optimal for mechanically demanding applications, while CaPNPs could be optimal for facilitating rapid cell integration. Highlights: All modified PCL filaments exhibited stable thermal properties under injection-molding conditions, confirming their suitability for further scaffold fabrication. ZnO nanoparticles markedly increased PCL's mechanical performance, unlike other additives. The viability of all the PCL samples with additives is higher than 80%. However, collagen I production was not detected in cells cultivated on PCL_ZnO. Other samples with additives revealed time-dependent collagen I production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: 3D-printed PCL scaffolds: optimising material selection for specific bone regeneration applications.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rajzer%2C+Izabella%22">Rajzer, Izabella</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Novotna%2C+Renata%22">Novotna, Renata</searchLink><relatesTo>2</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kurowska%2C+Anna%22">Kurowska, Anna</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Janusz%2C+Jarosław%22">Janusz, Jarosław</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Fabia%2C+Janusz%22">Fabia, Janusz</searchLink><relatesTo>3</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jabłoński%2C+Adam%22">Jabłoński, Adam</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Piekarczyk%2C+Wojciech%22">Piekarczyk, Wojciech</searchLink><relatesTo>4</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Castano%2C+Oscar%22">Castano, Oscar</searchLink><relatesTo>5,6,7</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ziąbka%2C+Magdalena%22">Ziąbka, Magdalena</searchLink><relatesTo>8</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Frankova%2C+Jana%22">Frankova, Jana</searchLink><relatesTo>2</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> jana.frankova@upol.cz</i>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22Journal+of+Materials+Science%3A+Materials+in+Medicine%22">Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine</searchLink>. 4/24/2026, Vol. 37 Issue 1, p1-16. 16p.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Polycaprolactone%22">Polycaprolactone</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Additives%22">Additives</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mechanical+behavior+of+materials%22">Mechanical behavior of materials</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Nanoparticles%22">Nanoparticles</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Bone+regeneration%22">Bone regeneration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Tissue+scaffolds%22">Tissue scaffolds</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Biocompatibility%22">Biocompatibility</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Three-dimensional+printing%22">Three-dimensional printing</searchLink>
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Significant clinical challenges are posed by large bone defects, necessitating the use of scaffolds that combine mechanical stability with osteoinductive properties. While polycaprolactone (PCL) lends itself well to 3D printing, its limited bioactivity means it needs to be modified with bioactive additives. Various additives have been proposed to enhance PCL scaffolds, but a systematic comparative evaluation of their mechanical and biological effects is lacking. This hinders the optimal selection of materials for specific applications. In this study, we compared the effects of four additives—silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), osteogenon (OST), zinc oxide (ZnO) and vitroceramic calcium phosphate (CaPNPs)—when incorporated at a concentration of 0.5 wt% into 3D-printed PCL scaffolds. We comprehensively evaluated the mechanical properties, thermal characteristics, and osteoblast biocompatibility using tensile testing, differential scanning calorimetry, and SaOS-2 cell culture assays (MTT test, activity of alkaline phosphatase, production of collagen I and fluorescent staining with acridine orange or phalloidin). ZnO modification significantly enhanced the mechanical properties (834% strain at break versus 658% for pure PCL and an increased Young's modulus), as well as supporting cell viability (87 and 85%). Meanwhile, CaPNPs demonstrated the highest level of early-stage cell viability (103% after 24 h), although this was not statistically significant. All additives exhibited non-cytotoxic profiles with >80% cell viability and demonstrated time-dependent increases in alkaline phosphatase activity, but further evaluation for clinical application is essential. These findings provide evidence-based guidance for selecting PCL scaffold additives based on specific application requirements: ZnO is optimal for mechanically demanding applications, while CaPNPs could be optimal for facilitating rapid cell integration. Highlights: All modified PCL filaments exhibited stable thermal properties under injection-molding conditions, confirming their suitability for further scaffold fabrication. ZnO nanoparticles markedly increased PCL's mechanical performance, unlike other additives. The viability of all the PCL samples with additives is higher than 80%. However, collagen I production was not detected in cells cultivated on PCL_ZnO. Other samples with additives revealed time-dependent collagen I production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
– Name: AbstractSuppliedCopyright
  Label:
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  Data: <i>Copyright of Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.</i> (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s10856-026-07047-w
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      – Code: eng
        Text: English
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        PageCount: 16
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    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Polycaprolactone
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Additives
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mechanical behavior of materials
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Nanoparticles
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      – SubjectFull: Bone regeneration
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      – SubjectFull: Tissue scaffolds
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      – SubjectFull: Biocompatibility
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      – SubjectFull: Three-dimensional printing
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      – TitleFull: 3D-printed PCL scaffolds: optimising material selection for specific bone regeneration applications.
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              M: 04
              Text: 4/24/2026
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              Y: 2026
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