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A Study of Initial Dislocation Density on Ballistic Performance of High-Strength Steels for Armor Application.

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Title: A Study of Initial Dislocation Density on Ballistic Performance of High-Strength Steels for Armor Application.
Authors: Li, Kejian1 (AUTHOR) likejiann@126.com
Source: Metallurgical & Materials Transactions. Part A. Jul2026, Vol. 57 Issue 7, p3668-3680. 13p.
Subjects: Dislocation density, Ballistics, Strain hardening, Martensitic transformations, Austenite, Strengthening mechanisms in solids, High strength steel
Abstract: This study investigates the effect of initial dislocation density on the ballistic penetration resistance of high-strength steels (HSSs) for armor application. Two HSSs with identical chemical composition and prior austenite grain size (~ 8.0 to 8.1 μm) but distinct dislocation densities and retained austenite contents were compared. Ballistic tests showed that the sample with higher initial dislocation density (#2) effectively resisted projectile penetration, while the sample #1 with low dislocation density was penetrated. Microstructure characterization via SEM, EBSD, and TEM revealed that sample #1 was strengthened mainly by high-density nano-precipitates with low initial dislocation density, whereas sample #2 was dominated by high dislocation density strengthening. EBSD and XRD verified that sample #2 possessed higher initial retained austenite (RA) content (1 pct) than sample #1 (0.4 pct), and the RA content in the impact crater of sample #2 decreased to 0.4 pct, confirming the occurrence of stress-induced martensitic transformation (TRIP effect). Texture and grain boundary distributions were similar in both steels, ruling out their influence on ballistic performance differences. Constitutive model extrapolation indicated that sample #2 exhibited higher flow stress and work-hardening capacity over a wide range of plastic strain. The superior ballistic performance of sample #2 originates from the synergy of high initial dislocation density and localized TRIP effect: the dense dislocation network provides strong deformation resistance and promotes dislocation pile-ups to lower the critical condition for martensitic transformation. This "high dislocation-density-dominated + localized-TRIP-effect-assisted" synergistic mechanism efficiently dissipates impact energy, delays plastic instability and adiabatic shear band formation, and significantly improves penetration resistance under ultra-high-strain-rate ballistic impact. The results demonstrate that tailoring initial dislocation density is more effective than relying solely on nano-precipitation strengthening for armor steel design, providing a new strategy for developing next-generation ballistic steels with balanced ultra-high strength and dynamic toughness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of Metallurgical & Materials Transactions. Part A is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Database: Engineering Source
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  Data: A Study of Initial Dislocation Density on Ballistic Performance of High-Strength Steels for Armor Application.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Li%2C+Kejian%22">Li, Kejian</searchLink><relatesTo>1</relatesTo> (AUTHOR)<i> likejiann@126.com</i>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22Metallurgical+%26+Materials+Transactions%2E+Part+A%22">Metallurgical & Materials Transactions. Part A</searchLink>. Jul2026, Vol. 57 Issue 7, p3668-3680. 13p.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Dislocation+density%22">Dislocation density</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ballistics%22">Ballistics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Strain+hardening%22">Strain hardening</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Martensitic+transformations%22">Martensitic transformations</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Austenite%22">Austenite</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Strengthening+mechanisms+in+solids%22">Strengthening mechanisms in solids</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+strength+steel%22">High strength steel</searchLink>
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
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  Data: This study investigates the effect of initial dislocation density on the ballistic penetration resistance of high-strength steels (HSSs) for armor application. Two HSSs with identical chemical composition and prior austenite grain size (~ 8.0 to 8.1 μm) but distinct dislocation densities and retained austenite contents were compared. Ballistic tests showed that the sample with higher initial dislocation density (#2) effectively resisted projectile penetration, while the sample #1 with low dislocation density was penetrated. Microstructure characterization via SEM, EBSD, and TEM revealed that sample #1 was strengthened mainly by high-density nano-precipitates with low initial dislocation density, whereas sample #2 was dominated by high dislocation density strengthening. EBSD and XRD verified that sample #2 possessed higher initial retained austenite (RA) content (1 pct) than sample #1 (0.4 pct), and the RA content in the impact crater of sample #2 decreased to 0.4 pct, confirming the occurrence of stress-induced martensitic transformation (TRIP effect). Texture and grain boundary distributions were similar in both steels, ruling out their influence on ballistic performance differences. Constitutive model extrapolation indicated that sample #2 exhibited higher flow stress and work-hardening capacity over a wide range of plastic strain. The superior ballistic performance of sample #2 originates from the synergy of high initial dislocation density and localized TRIP effect: the dense dislocation network provides strong deformation resistance and promotes dislocation pile-ups to lower the critical condition for martensitic transformation. This "high dislocation-density-dominated + localized-TRIP-effect-assisted" synergistic mechanism efficiently dissipates impact energy, delays plastic instability and adiabatic shear band formation, and significantly improves penetration resistance under ultra-high-strain-rate ballistic impact. The results demonstrate that tailoring initial dislocation density is more effective than relying solely on nano-precipitation strengthening for armor steel design, providing a new strategy for developing next-generation ballistic steels with balanced ultra-high strength and dynamic toughness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
– Name: AbstractSuppliedCopyright
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  Data: <i>Copyright of Metallurgical & Materials Transactions. Part A is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.</i> (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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        Value: 10.1007/s11661-026-08264-2
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      – Code: eng
        Text: English
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        PageCount: 13
        StartPage: 3668
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      – SubjectFull: Dislocation density
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Ballistics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Strain hardening
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Martensitic transformations
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      – SubjectFull: Austenite
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Strengthening mechanisms in solids
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: High strength steel
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      – TitleFull: A Study of Initial Dislocation Density on Ballistic Performance of High-Strength Steels for Armor Application.
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              M: 07
              Text: Jul2026
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
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