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Grade Retention Across Borders: A Cross-Country Analysis of the Role of Schools.

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Title: Grade Retention Across Borders: A Cross-Country Analysis of the Role of Schools.
Authors: Pepels, Janneke1 (AUTHOR) janneke.pepels@maastrichtuniversity.nl, Belfi, Barbara1 (AUTHOR), Goos, Mieke2 (AUTHOR), Haelermans, Carla1 (AUTHOR)
Source: School Effectiveness & School Improvement. Jun2026, Vol. 37 Issue 2, p196-221. 26p.
Subject Terms: *Grade repetition, *Middle school education, *Educational evaluation, *Educational equalization, *School size, Multilevel models, Cross-sectional method
Abstract: Grade retention – although widely used – remains controversial because of its implications for equity and long-term outcomes. While student-level predictors are well documented, less is known about how school and system characteristics shape grade retention practices across countries. Adopting a multilevel perspective, this study examines (1) which school-level characteristics are related to grade retention in lower-secondary education and (2) whether these relationships vary by national educational stratification. Using PISA 2018 data from 124,126 students in 5,693 schools across 24 systems, we estimate three-level regression models. School composition, within-class ability grouping, and shortages of educational materials are linked to grade retention probability, net of individual characteristics. Cross-level interaction analyses show that educational material shortages predict higher grade retention likelihoods only in low-stratification systems, while the association with within-class ability grouping is substantially lower in these contexts. These findings underscore that grade retention practices are shaped by both institutional structures and school organisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Copyright of School Effectiveness & School Improvement is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
Database: Education Research Complete
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  Data: Grade Retention Across Borders: A Cross-Country Analysis of the Role of Schools.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="JN" term="%22School+Effectiveness+%26+School+Improvement%22">School Effectiveness & School Improvement</searchLink>. Jun2026, Vol. 37 Issue 2, p196-221. 26p.
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  Data: *<searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+repetition%22">Grade repetition</searchLink><br />*<searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Middle+school+education%22">Middle school education</searchLink><br />*<searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+evaluation%22">Educational evaluation</searchLink><br />*<searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+equalization%22">Educational equalization</searchLink><br />*<searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+size%22">School size</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Multilevel+models%22">Multilevel models</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cross-sectional+method%22">Cross-sectional method</searchLink>
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  Data: Grade retention – although widely used – remains controversial because of its implications for equity and long-term outcomes. While student-level predictors are well documented, less is known about how school and system characteristics shape grade retention practices across countries. Adopting a multilevel perspective, this study examines (1) which school-level characteristics are related to grade retention in lower-secondary education and (2) whether these relationships vary by national educational stratification. Using PISA 2018 data from 124,126 students in 5,693 schools across 24 systems, we estimate three-level regression models. School composition, within-class ability grouping, and shortages of educational materials are linked to grade retention probability, net of individual characteristics. Cross-level interaction analyses show that educational material shortages predict higher grade retention likelihoods only in low-stratification systems, while the association with within-class ability grouping is substantially lower in these contexts. These findings underscore that grade retention practices are shaped by both institutional structures and school organisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
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  Data: <i>Copyright of School Effectiveness & School Improvement is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites without the copyright holder's express written permission. Additionally, content may not be used with any artificial intelligence tools or machine learning technologies. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.</i> (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
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        Value: 10.1080/09243453.2026.2658545
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      – Code: eng
        Text: English
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        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Middle school education
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      – SubjectFull: Educational evaluation
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      – SubjectFull: Educational equalization
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      – SubjectFull: School size
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      – SubjectFull: Multilevel models
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      – SubjectFull: Cross-sectional method
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              Text: Jun2026
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              Y: 2026
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