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Five Recommendations to Implementing Cross-Age Tutoring in Reading

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Title: Five Recommendations to Implementing Cross-Age Tutoring in Reading
Language: English
Authors: Andrew Chang (ORCID 0009-0003-1441-1310), Emily Mauer (ORCID 0000-0002-3408-6987)
Source: Grantee Submission. 2024 78(2):113-120.
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 9
Publication Date: 2024
Sponsoring Agency: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
Contract Number: R305R220024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Descriptors: Cross Age Teaching, Tutoring, Reading Instruction, Elementary School Teachers, Instructional Effectiveness, Evidence Based Practice, Peer Relationship, Individualized Reading, Student Leadership, Socialization, Positive Reinforcement, Progress Monitoring, Behavior Modification, Student Behavior
DOI: 10.1002/trtr.2351
Abstract: Teaching elementary students how to read is undeniably crucial, yet a substantial number of children encounter difficulties despite early interventions (NCES, 2022). Cross-age tutoring, a pedagogical approach that pairs older students with younger peers, emerges as a cost-effective solution that brings academic and social benefits to both the tutor and the tutee (Romero et al., 2022). Consequently, cross-age tutoring programs are widely adopted globally. To maximize the effectiveness of cross-age tutoring, we offer five evidence-based recommendations tailored for its implementation. When integrated into the preparation and implementation steps, these recommendations hold the potential to significantly improve learning outcomes for both tutors and tutees.
Abstractor: As Provided
IES Funded: Yes
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: ED671609
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0179045348;ret01sep.24;2024Aug19.06:50;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0179045348-1">Five Recommendations to Implementing Cross‐Age Tutoring in Reading </title> <p>Teaching elementary students how to read is undeniably crucial, yet a substantial number of children encounter difficulties despite early interventions. Cross‐age tutoring, a pedagogical approach that pairs older students with younger peers, emerges as a cost‐effective solution that brings academic and social benefits to both the tutor and the tutee. Consequently, cross‐age tutoring programs are widely adopted globally. To maximize the effectiveness of cross‐age tutoring, we offer five evidence‐based recommendations tailored for its implementation. When integrated into the preparation and implementation steps, these recommendations hold the potential to significantly improve learning outcomes for both tutors and tutees.</p> <p>Keywords: cross‐age tutoring; reading; elementary students; implementation</p> <p>Cross‐age tutoring is a model that provides both academic and social benefits to tutors and tutees. To support this in your classroom, we offer five evidence‐based recommendations below.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-2">PAUSE AND PONDER</hd> <p></p> <ulist> <item> What are some of the biggest challenges to ensure lessons are differentiated to support all students? How can cross‐age tutoring allow for greater individualization?</item> <p></p> <item> What current opportunities are set up for older students to be leaders in your school?</item> <p></p> <item> How can cross‐age tutoring be leveraged to support reading growth for a wide range of students across your school campus?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0179045348-3">What Is Cross‐Age Tutoring?</hd> <p>Learning to read is one of the most essential skills for students to master in the elementary years. Teachers devote extensive time in grades K‐2, building their students' phonological awareness, letter/sound correspondence, and ultimately, word reading. In the intermediate grades, students begin to apply these skills with greater fluency and understanding of vocabulary, gaining deeper comprehension of the content. Even with such considerable focus placed on literacy instruction, too many students continue to struggle with gaining reading proficiency (Irwin et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref1">6</reflink>]). In fact, students who struggle at the end of first grade are likely to continue struggling throughout elementary school (Petersen et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref2">11</reflink>]). Some conservatively estimate that one‐third of first graders in the average classroom may be behind in reading (Amplify Education, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref3">1</reflink>]). Amidst these academic challenges, schools are also facing barriers related to large class sizes and limited teachers. Cost‐effective approaches are needed that support individualization for a large number of learners, even in the presence of limited staffing and rising class sizes.</p> <p>One such approach that highlights a powerful, often overlooked resource includes cross‐age tutoring. This model pairs a younger student, the tutee, with an older peer, and the tutor. Students learn and work with their peers (typically one on one), as they receive individualized support, with benefits for both the tutor and tutee (Leung, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref4">7</reflink>]). This model presents an academic and social benefit for all learners, as students may grow in reading while also gaining a new friend.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-4">Benefits and Challenges of Cross‐Age Tutoring Based on the Research</hd> <p>Cross‐age tutoring has been found to be effective in improving academic performance. It has proven to be advantageous for both tutors and tutees by fostering social connections between tutors and tutees, and improving school attachment and attendance (Pridmore & Stephens, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref5">12</reflink>]). Older tutors act as positive role models for younger tutees (Topping & Hill, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref6">19</reflink>]), providing them with increased opportunities for learning and immediate feedback (Merrill et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref7">10</reflink>]). Furthermore, cross‐age tutoring can positively impact socio‐emotional outcomes, such as self‐efficacy, self‐assurance, and academic confidence (Margolis, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]).</p> <p>There are numerous ongoing cross‐age tutoring programs around the world. In the United States, initiatives like the America Reads Challenge have produced manualized tutoring programs such as Book Buddies, utilizing college student volunteers to help children in reading (Meier & Invernizzi, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>]). UK's Beanstalk charity guided adult community volunteers in tutoring interactions (Shenderovich et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref10">13</reflink>]). In India, Pratham's India Reads program trained community volunteers to tutor in schools. While most reports focus on English‐speaking countries, similar projects occur worldwide including China, Jamaica, South Africa, and Tanzania (Banerjee & Duflo, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref11">3</reflink>]).</p> <p>Cross‐age tutoring is an educational model that is widely used around the world, but most examples include adult tutors. However, there is evidence that cross‐age tutoring among older and younger elementary aged students is promising. Cross‐age tutoring is closely related to the concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD is the range of tasks that a learner cannot do without assistance but can do with the help of a more knowledgeable other (Vygotsky & Cole, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref12">21</reflink>]). In cross‐age tutoring, the older, more experienced student serves as the more knowledgeable one and provides guidance and support to the younger, less experienced student within their ZPD. By working within their ZPD, the tutee is able to improve their skills and knowledge with the help of the tutor (Vygotsky & Cole, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref13">21</reflink>]). Further, according to social learning theory, when younger tutees observe and imitate the behaviors of older tutors, a dynamic learning environment is created, leading to enhanced learning outcomes (Bandura & Walters, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref14">2</reflink>]). Through modeling, tutors demonstrate effective academic strategies and attitudes, serving as positive role models for tutees. Moreover, cross‐age tutoring fosters reciprocal interactions between tutors and tutees, which fosters opportunities for collaborative learning and mutual growth.</p> <p>To enhance the effectiveness of cross‐age tutoring, we provide five evidence‐based recommendations for its implementation. By including these recommendations during planning and implementation, cross‐age tutoring programs can foster improved learning outcomes for both tutors and tutees.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-5">Five Recommendations to Implementing Cross‐Age Tutoring in Reading</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179045348-6">Provide Individualized Reading Instruction in a Dyad Consisting of One Older Student and One...</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179045348-7">Preparation Steps</hd> <p>Identify a Partner Class: Teachers may find another class to work with and designate time for the cross‐age tutoring, around two times per week for 30–45 minutes.</p> <p>Identify Tutoring Dyads: Step one in ensuring students are set up for success with cross‐age tutoring is thoughtfully pairing students with their tutor or tutee. When working with the corresponding teacher, this process involves considering the academic, social, and personal strengths of each student. You may also consider certain challenges that could arise due to behavior or student personalities (Van Keer & Verhaeghe, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref15">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>Pairing and Reading Level: It is helpful to pair students who are at similar levels, with respect to their grade level. For example, a student who is right "at grade‐level" in fourth grade may be paired with a student reading "at grade‐level" in first grade (Topping, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref16">18</reflink>]). Continuing this process with all pairings works to create an even differential between each dyad.</p> <p>Access: Cross‐Age tutoring demonstrates benefits for all learners, including students who may be emerging bilingual learners, as well as students with disabilities (Silverman et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref17">14</reflink>]; Wright & Cleary, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref18">23</reflink>]). For students who are emerging bilingual learners, being paired with a tutor/tutee that shares a common home language and similar reading level may create a more comfortable learning environment, while also supporting language acquisition (Suto, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref19">17</reflink>]). Using evidence‐based strategies within a structured setting will support reading growth for all learners.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-8">Implementation Steps</hd> <p>Match Tutors/Tutees: Prior to beginning lessons, provide an opportunity for students to get to know their tutor/tutee and build rapport. Scheduling 15–20 minutes of time for students to get to know each other by playing a short game or activity will work to ensure it is a safe space for students to learn and grow together.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-9">Scenario</hd> <p>Mr. Terezano, a first‐grade teacher, and Mrs. Lind, a fourth grade teacher, decide to pair their classes for cross‐age tutoring. After considering the specific strengths, and areas for growth of their students, they meet to discuss the tutor/tutee pairings, and consider any challenges that may arise. Mr. Terezano and Mrs. Lind both have emerging bilingual students in their classes that speak Pashto. These students are paired for tutoring, as this pairing will create a more comfortable space for them, both academically and socially. Further, both teachers have students in their classes that are neighbors and friends outside of school. These students already have built rapport with one another, and the teachers decide to pair these students, as they have seen that they are compatible from a behavioral and personality standpoint—two factors that can surely impact the success of cross‐age tutoring (Van Keer & Verhaeghe, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-10">Use Highly Structured, Evidence‐Based Instructional Practices with Easy‐to‐Use Materials that...</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179045348-11">Preparation Steps</hd> <p>Determine Appropriate Materials: To maximize tutoring time, teachers may consider using reading materials that are structured and evidence‐based. This ensures that methods of instruction are both accessible and effective for the young tutors, and can support reading growth for all learners (Ehri, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref21">5</reflink>]). Resources like What Works Clearinghouse or Florida Center for Reading Research include a variety of curriculum materials and activities for a wide range of grade levels.</p> <p>Develop Instructions: Instructional materials may need to be modified before they are provided to cross‐age tutors. Considering the grade level of tutors, writing simple instructions will be helpful to make the activities clear and easy for tutors to deliver.</p> <p>Prepare Necessary Materials: To ensure tutoring time is spent primarily on instruction, preparing materials ahead of time will be helpful. Look ahead at the reading activities students will complete at the next tutoring session, and prepare any items that are required. Some possible materials include manipulatives such as foam or magnetic letters, sentence strips, or supplemental decodable texts.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-12">Implementation Steps</hd> <p>Model for Students: Prior to cross‐age tutoring time, consider taking a few minutes to prepare tutors and go over expectations. Explaining any new components and reviewing procedures for reading activities will support tutors to deliver lessons with confidence and fidelity.</p> <p>Create a Tutoring Time Schedule: High structure is key to a successful cross‐age tutoring experience (Leung, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref22">7</reflink>]). When students know what to expect, both tutors and tutees will feel more confident as they work together. The first few sessions may require greater support from classroom teachers as students learn routines with their peers. Building in time for practice will support students as they move forward with tutoring.</p> <p>Provide Students Opportunities for Agency and Choice: Even within a highly structured environment, opportunities for choice can be integrated. Providing students with a few options for activities, or allowing them to determine the order in which they complete reading exercises will both encourage student agency, as well as increase engagement overall (Stenalt & Lassesen, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref23">16</reflink>]). Figure 1 demonstrates an example of lesson choices where students can choose the order in which they complete each activity.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/RET/01sep24/trtr2351-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="trtr2351-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 Reading Activities for Cross‐Age TutoringNote: More decodable text options found at www.heggerty.org" /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179045348-14">Scenario</hd> <p>Terrance is a fifth grade student paired with Clark, a second grade student, for cross‐age tutoring time. Terrance and Clark know the routine and expectations of tutoring sessions and review with their classroom teachers before starting the lesson. They greet each other and look at the three activities they should complete in their lesson. The activities for today include a writing activity, word sort, and decodable text reading, all focused on "silent e" endings. Terrance reads the names of the three activities to his tutee, Clark, and encourages him to choose the order of the activities for the day. Clark chooses to complete the word sort first, then the writing, and finally reads the decodable text aloud (with a little support and prompting from Terrance). The teachers notice that the students are more engaged and excited about learning when they have an opportunity to make choices within tutoring time.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-15">Provide Student Tutors with Structured Training, Supervision, and Feedback from a Knowledgeab...</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179045348-16">Preparation Steps</hd> <p>Curriculum Development: Develop a comprehensive curriculum that outlines the learning objectives, teaching techniques, and assessment methods for student tutors.</p> <p>Identify Educators: Select experienced educators who can provide student tutors with training, supervision, and feedback based on their expertise in the subject matter and teaching methods.</p> <p>Training Material: Prepare training materials, including resources on effective tutoring strategies, communication skills, and classroom management.</p> <p>Training Schedule: Create a training schedule that covers essential topics and allows educators to interact with student tutors regularly.</p> <p>Feedback Mechanism: Design a system for collecting feedback from both tutors and tutees, enabling continuous improvement.</p> <p>Supervision Plan: Establish a plan for educators to observe tutoring sessions and provide real‐time guidance to student tutors.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-17">Implementation Steps</hd> <p>Initial Training: Conduct a training session for student tutors that is clear and sets expectations for working with tutees. This training may include the structure, goals, and format of tutoring time. Additionally, tutors should learn some strategies for maintaining a positive learning environment. Trainings may be concise (around 30 or 40 minutes) to support student engagement (Leung, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref24">7</reflink>]).</p> <p>Support: Provide tutors and tutees with ongoing support as they engage in their tutoring sessions. While students can become highly independent in these tutoring sessions, teachers may support by maintaining expectations and intervening if behavioral challenges arise.</p> <p>Supervision and Feedback: Initiate regular observation and feedback sessions where educators monitor tutoring interactions, provide constructive feedback, and offer guidance on improvement.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-18">Scenario</hd> <p>Sarah is an experienced educator with a strong background in reading. She is assigned the role of supervising student tutors involved in a cross‐age tutoring program. Sarah starts by developing a structured training curriculum that includes modules on teaching strategies, communication skills, and classroom management. She sets up a training schedule, ensuring that student tutors receive comprehensive guidance before beginning their tutoring sessions. Once the tutoring sessions are underway, Sarah regularly observes interactions between tutors and tutees, providing immediate feedback to help tutors refine their approaches. She also collects feedback from both tutors and tutees to identify areas for improvement. This systematic approach ensures that the student tutors receive continuous support and training, leading to an effective and impactful cross‐age tutoring experience for everyone involved (Table 1).</p> <p>1 Table Examples of Constructive Feedback for Student Tutors</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><th align="left">Type of feedback</th><th align="center">Definition</th><th align="center">Example</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">Behavior‐specific praise</td><td align="left">Giving positive feedback that describes the good behavior</td><td align="left">Academic: Your explanation of the reading process was clear and easy to understand, Emily</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Behavior: I noticed how patiently you listened to your tutee's question and then provided thoughtful help, Alex</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Instructive feedback</td><td align="left">Confirming that a student tutor is correct and giving the tutor more information</td><td align="left">Academic: Great job explaining the concept of photosynthesis, and you are right, it is a crucial process for plants to make their own food</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Behavior: You started the session by asking everyone how their day was. This kind of friendly approach helps create a positive atmosphere for learning</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Corrective feedback</td><td align="left">Correcting a mistake a student tutor made in the work or behavior by explaining what went wrong and showing the tutor how to make it right</td><td align="left">Academic: Your essay is well‐structured, but you need to work on varying your vocabulary to avoid repetition. Thesaurus suggestions might help in finding synonyms</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Behavior: I appreciate your enthusiasm, but let us try to keep the noise level down during independent work so everyone can concentrate</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph>. For further examples of constructive feedback, see Whitney and Ackerman ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref25">22</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-19">Provide Tutors and Tutee Students with Appropriate Reinforcers (e.g., Positive Feedback, Stic...</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179045348-20">Preparation Steps</hd> <p>Identify Reinforcers: Determine suitable reinforcers that align with the age and preferences of both tutors and tutees, such as praise, small rewards, or recognition certificates.</p> <p>Resource Allocation: Allocate resources to ensure an adequate supply of chosen reinforcers throughout the tutoring program.</p> <p>Training for Tutors: Train tutors on the effective use of reinforcers to motivate and positively reinforce tutees' efforts and progress.</p> <p>Reinforcement Plan: Develop a clear plan outlining when and how to use reinforcers to encourage desired behaviors and outcomes during tutoring sessions.</p> <p>Feedback Mechanism: Establish a system to gather feedback from both tutors and tutees on the effectiveness of the chosen reinforcers.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-21">Implementation Steps</hd> <p>Introduction of Reinforcers: Tutors introduce the concept of reinforcers to tutees at the beginning of the program, explaining how positive behaviors and achievements will be rewarded.</p> <p>Consistent Application: Tutors consistently provide reinforcers for desired behaviors, accomplishments, and improvements demonstrated by tutees.</p> <p>Personalization: Tailor the selection of reinforcers to individual tutees' preferences and interests, enhancing their motivation.</p> <p>Encouragement: Teach tutors to use positive feedback and reinforcement to encourage tutees to overcome challenges and persist in their learning efforts.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-22">Scenario</hd> <p>Mr. Lee and Ms. Hanson set up a cross‐age tutoring program to help students improve their reading. In this program, Ben, a fourth‐grade student, is helping Lily, a first‐grade student, with her reading skills. Before their first session, the teachers provide Ben with reinforcers that are appropriate for Lily. They tell Ben to use a sticker chart system where Lily earns a sticker for each book she completes. Every time Lily accumulates a certain number of stickers, she receives a small reward, such as a colorful bookmark or a special pencil.</p> <p>During their tutoring sessions, Ben introduces the sticker chart to Lily, explaining how her efforts will be rewarded. The teachers provide Ben training in giving feedback to Lily. As Lily completes books and makes progress, Ben enthusiastically praises her and adds stickers to the chart. The teachers also praise Ben for his successful use of feedback. In acknowledgment of Ben's exemplary implementation of the feedback and reinforcer program, Mr. Lee and Ms. Hanson offer him a gift card to his favorite store.</p> <p>Lily becomes excited about earning stickers and proudly shows off her chart to her classmates. As a result, Lily's motivation to read and improve her skills increases, leading to a positive and productive tutoring experience. The consistent use of reinforcers helps maintain Lily's enthusiasm and commitment to her learning journey (Table 2).</p> <p>2 Table Examples of Positive Reinforcement</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><th align="left">Type of reinforcers</th><th align="center">Definition</th><th align="center">Example</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">Natural and direct reinforcers</td><td align="left">A natural consequence of the behavior itself and motivate individuals to continue that behavior</td><td align="left">Providing the attention, help, and opportunity to participate</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Social reinforcers</td><td align="left">Giving rewards that involve interactions, approvals, and praises from others</td><td align="left">Comments like "Great job," "You're putting in a lot of effort," and nonverbal signs of approval (nodding, smiling)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Activity reinforcers</td><td align="left">Allowing individuals to engage in preferred activities or tasks as a reward for completing desired behaviors</td><td align="left">Allowing students to engage in activities they enjoy (like games or break time)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Tangible reinforcers</td><td align="left">Giving physical items or rewards provided as a consequence of desired behaviors</td><td align="left">Items like snacks, toys, balloons, stickers, and awards</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Token reinforcement</td><td align="left">Providing a symbolic system (such as points, tokens, or stickers) to reward and track desired behaviors</td><td align="left">Giving points or tokens for desired behaviors as a way to track progress or enable students to earn larger rewards after accumulating a certain number of tokens</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 <emph>Note</emph>. For more information about positive reinforcement systems, see Smith ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref26">15</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-23">Monitor Student Progress and Adjust Tutoring Materials as Needed</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179045348-24">Preparation Steps</hd> <p>Data Collection Tools: Prepare tools for tracking and recording the progress of both tutors and tutees, such as assessment rubrics, progress charts, and feedback forms.</p> <p>Access to Resources: Compile a range of tutoring materials that can be adapted based on the varying needs and progress of tutees.</p> <p>Progress Tracking Plan: Develop a clear plan for how teachers will regularly monitor and document the progress of both tutees and tutors.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-25">Implementation Steps</hd> <p>Initial Assessment: Teachers conduct initial assessments to gauge tutees' baseline knowledge and skills, identifying areas that require improvement.</p> <p>Ongoing Assessment: Teachers consistently evaluate students' progress through observations, quizzes, and interactive activities, updating records as necessary.</p> <p>Adaptation of Materials: Based on assessment results, teachers modify tutoring materials to target specific learning gaps and challenges faced by students.</p> <p>Regular Reporting: Teachers provide regular, informal conferencing with student tutors to support any challenges related to academic or behavioral needs.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-26">Scenario</hd> <p>In a one‐on‐one cross‐age tutoring program, Mrs. Gomez and Ms. Smith pair their students, Michael, a fifth grader, and Alex, a second grader, as tutoring buddies. Mrs. Gomez and Ms. Smith both administered a short assessment to their students for a gauge of their reading comprehension.</p> <p>After the first few sessions, the teachers notice that Alex, like many other tutees, are having difficulty comprehending nonfiction texts. The teachers and Michael select challenging nonfiction books aligned with Alex's interests. Michael guides Alex through passages, encouraging him to discuss themes of the passages. Michael also introduces various activities to enhance Alex's comprehension skills, like summarizing the key points and making connections with his own experiences.</p> <p>As sessions progress, Alex's engagement and comprehension noticeably improve. The teachers maintain records of their work and regularly communicate progress to Michael and Alex's parents, fostering a supportive learning environment that highlighted the power of cross‐age tutoring in helping students excel in their reading journey.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-27">Potential Challenges</hd> <p>While cross‐age tutoring provides an approach that is student‐centered, interactive, and supportive for a wide range of student needs, teachers may take care to plan in a way that anticipates some potential barriers. Below are two possible challenges, along with strategies to avoid them. The goal of this approach is to create a learning experience that is engaging and supportive for learners and positive and helpful for teachers.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-28">Limits of Curriculum</hd> <p>Teachers have reported curriculum that is increasingly scripted and controlled. These constraints can pose a challenge to modify or include a different approach. Even amidst an environment where literacy learning has greater regulation, teachers can still include cross‐age tutoring. Some ideas are below:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Build in cross‐age tutoring within typically scheduled components of a reading block.</item> <p></p> <item> Integrate cross‐age tutoring across subject areas like social studies or science. As other subjects include lots of reading, having a peer tutor can be a helpful way to support differentiation and access to the text.</item> <p></p> <item> Build in cross‐age tutoring with writing time. Tutors and tutees can bridge their decoding and encoding knowledge to support reading and writing growth in powerful ways!</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0179045348-29">Navigating Behavioral Challenges</hd> <p>As students (both tutors and tutees) are growing and learning, some challenges related to behavior or academic learning are to be expected. While these are common and relevant in any grade level, this is no barrier to implementing cross‐age tutoring.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> The social component of cross‐age tutoring is powerful for students. Implementing motivation supports or incentives for tutees and tutors will help students to stay engaged and focused.</item> <p></p> <item> Building in time from the beginning for the tutor and tutee to build rapport will support a positive relationship and contribute to a tutoring dyad that is set up for success.</item> <p></p> <item> Set clear expectations and provide ongoing feedback. Intervene when needed to ensure dyads are supported and adhering to the expected behaviors. Praise dyads that are working hard and demonstrating strong teamwork.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0179045348-30">Conclusion</hd> <p>Cross‐Age tutoring presents a model that is simple and effective for schools to implement. This approach provides greater individualization for students, and is accessible to a wide range of learners, across all content areas. With demonstrated benefits for both tutors and tutees, this approach fosters growth, academically and socially. The five recommendations provide a guide for all educators and building leaders to support implementation of a cross‐age tutoring program that is both straightforward and sustainable in classrooms.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-31">TAKE ACTION!</hd> <p>Try these recommendations with your school community:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Provide individualized reading instruction in a dyad consisting of one older student and one younger student.</item> <p></p> <item> Use highly structured, evidence‐based instructional practices with easy‐to‐use materials that are designed for student tutors.</item> <p></p> <item> Provide student tutors with structured training, supervision, and feedback from an educator.</item> <p></p> <item> Provide tutors and tutee students with appropriate reinforcers (e.g., positive feedback, stickers, or other supports) as a means of motivation.</item> <p></p> <item> Monitor student progress and adjust tutoring materials as needed.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0179045348-32">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>This research was supported by the U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Science, through Grant R305R220024. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the U.S. Department of Education.</p> <hd id="AN0179045348-33">MORE TO EXPLORE</hd> <p>Check out these resources to support cross‐age tutoring in your school!</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> For further information about pairing students for cross‐age tutoring, see https://meadowscenter.org/resource/five‐evidence‐based‐keys‐to‐implementing‐cross‐age‐tutoring/ (Chang, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref27">4</reflink>])</item> <p></p> <item> The Florida Center for Reading Research provides several options for reading activities that are evidence‐based. See more here: https://fcrr.org/student‐center‐activities/kindergarten‐and‐first‐grade</item> <p></p> <item> To train student tutors to provide constructive and positive feedback to tutees, see ReadWriteThink for strategies and suggestions: https://www.readwritethink.org/professional‐development/strategy‐guides/peer‐review</item> <p></p> <item> For more information on positive reinforcement, see https://positivepsychology.com/positive‐reinforcement‐psychology/</item> <p></p> <item> One helpful resource that would promote greater accessibility for all tutees includes decodable texts. See: https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/curriculum‐and‐instruction/articles/what‐are‐decodable‐books‐and‐why‐are‐they‐important.</item> </ulist> <ref id="AN0179045348-34"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref3" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Amplify Education. (2023). With end‐of‐year data showing continued academic recovery in early literacy, worries remain for third grade students. Amplify Education, Inc. https://amplify.com/pdf/uploads/2023/07/mCLASS_EOY_Report_2023_071923.pdf</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref14" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1977). Social learning theory (Vol. 1). Prentice Hall.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref11" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Banerjee, A. V., & Duflo, E. (2011). Poor economics: A radical rethinking of the way to fight global poverty. Public Affairs.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref27" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Chang, A. (2023). Five evidence‐based keys to implement cross age tutoring. The Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk. https://meadowscenter.org/resource/five‐evidence‐based‐keys‐to‐implementing‐cross‐age‐tutoring/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref21" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Ehri, L. C. (2020). The science of learning to read words: A case for systematic phonics instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 55, S45 – S60.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref1" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Irwin, V., De La Rosa, J., Wang, K., Hein, S., Zhang, J., Burr, R., Roberts, A., Barmer, A., Bullock Mann, F., Dilig, R., & Parker, S. (2022). Report on the condition of education 2022. NCES 2022‐144. National Center for Education Statistics.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref4" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Leung, K. C. (2019). An updated meta‐analysis on the effect of peer tutoring on tutors' achievement. School Psychology International, 40 (2), 200 – 214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034318808832</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref8" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Margolis, H. (2005). Increasing struggling learners' self‐efficacy: What tutors can do and say. Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 13 (2), 221 – 238. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611260500105675</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref9" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Meier, J. D., & Invernizzi, M. (2001). Book buddies in the Bronx: Testing a model for America Reads. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 6 (4), 319 – 333.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Merrill, D. C., Reiser, B. J., Merrill, S. K., & Landes, S. (1995). Tutoring: Guided learning by doing. Cognition and Instruction, 13 (3), 315 – 372. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci1303_1</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Petersen, D. B., Gragg, S. L., & Spencer, T. D. (2018). Predicting reading problems 6 years into the future: Dynamic assessment reduces bias and increases classification accuracy. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 49 (4), 875 – 888.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Pridmore, P., & Stephens, D. (2000). Children as partners for health: A critical review of the child‐to‐child approach. BMJ, 322, 370.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shenderovich, Y., Thurston, A., & Miller, S. (2016). Cross‐age tutoring in kindergarten and elementary school settings: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. International Journal of Educational Research, 76, 190 – 210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2015.03.007</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Silverman, R. D., Martin‐Beltran, M., Peercy, M. M., Hartranft, A. M., McNeish, D. M., Artzi, L., & Nunn, S. (2017). Effects of a cross‐age peer learning program on the vocabulary and comprehension of English learners and non‐English learners in elementary school. Elementary School Journal, 117 (3), 485 – 512. https://doi.org/10.1086/690210</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Smith, K. (2017). Positive reinforcement...a proactive intervention for the classroom. The University of Minnesota. https://ceed.umn.edu/wp‐content/uploads/2017/05/Positive‐Reinforcement.pdf</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stenalt, M. H., & Lassesen, B. (2022). Does student agency benefit student learning? A systematic review of higher education research. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 47 (5), 653 – 669. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2021.1967874</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Suto, J. (2020). Cultivating language‐inclusive classrooms through peer mentoring for emergent multilinguals. Voices from the Middle, 28 (1), 41 – 45.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Topping, K. J. (2005). Trends in peer learning. Educational Psychology, 25 (6), 631 – 645. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410500345172</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Topping, K. J., & Hill, S. (1995). University and college students as tutors for schoolchildren: A typology and review of evaluation research. In S. Goodlad (Ed.), Students as tutors and mentors. Kogan Page.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Van Keer, H., & Verhaeghe, J. P. (2005). Effects of explicit reading strategies instruction and peer tutoring on second and fifth graders' reading comprehension and self‐efficacy perceptions. The Journal of Experimental Education, 73 (4), 291 – 329. https://doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.73.4.291‐329</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Vygotsky, L. S., & Cole, M. (1978). Mind in society: Development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Whitney, T., & Ackerman, K. B. (2020). Acknowledging student behavior: A review of methods promoting positive and constructive feedback. Beyond Behavior, 29 (2), 86 – 94. https://doi.org/10.1177/1074295620902474</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wright, J., & Cleary, K. 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  Data: Five Recommendations to Implementing Cross-Age Tutoring in Reading
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Andrew+Chang%22">Andrew Chang</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0003-1441-1310">0009-0003-1441-1310</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Emily+Mauer%22">Emily Mauer</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3408-6987">0000-0002-3408-6987</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Grantee+Submission%22"><i>Grantee Submission</i></searchLink>. 2024 78(2):113-120.
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cross+Age+Teaching%22">Cross Age Teaching</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Tutoring%22">Tutoring</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Instruction%22">Reading Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Teachers%22">Elementary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Instructional+Effectiveness%22">Instructional Effectiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Evidence+Based+Practice%22">Evidence Based Practice</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Relationship%22">Peer Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Individualized+Reading%22">Individualized Reading</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Leadership%22">Student Leadership</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Socialization%22">Socialization</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Positive+Reinforcement%22">Positive Reinforcement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Progress+Monitoring%22">Progress Monitoring</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Behavior+Modification%22">Behavior Modification</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Behavior%22">Student Behavior</searchLink>
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  Data: Teaching elementary students how to read is undeniably crucial, yet a substantial number of children encounter difficulties despite early interventions (NCES, 2022). Cross-age tutoring, a pedagogical approach that pairs older students with younger peers, emerges as a cost-effective solution that brings academic and social benefits to both the tutor and the tutee (Romero et al., 2022). Consequently, cross-age tutoring programs are widely adopted globally. To maximize the effectiveness of cross-age tutoring, we offer five evidence-based recommendations tailored for its implementation. When integrated into the preparation and implementation steps, these recommendations hold the potential to significantly improve learning outcomes for both tutors and tutees.
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