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Mutually Beneficial Foreign Language Learning: Creating Meaningful Interactions through Video-Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication

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Title: Mutually Beneficial Foreign Language Learning: Creating Meaningful Interactions through Video-Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication
Language: English
Authors: Kato, Fumie, Spring, Ryan, Mori, Chikako
Source: Foreign Language Annals. Sum 2016 49(2):355-366.
Availability: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2016
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Computer Mediated Communication, Synchronous Communication, Second Language Learning, Videoconferencing, Interaction, Native Speakers, Statistical Analysis, Qualitative Research, Japanese, English (Second Language), Pretests Posttests, Listening Skills, Speech Skills, Student Exchange Programs, Student Improvement, Foreign Countries
Geographic Terms: Japan, United States
DOI: 10.1111/flan.12195
ISSN: 0015-718X
Abstract: Providing learners of a foreign language with meaningful opportunities for interactions, specifically with native speakers, is especially challenging for instructors. One way to overcome this obstacle is through video-synchronous computer-mediated communication tools such as Skype software. This study reports quantitative and qualitative data from a Skype partner program that emphasized meaningful communication between American students learning Japanese in the United States and Japanese students learning English in Japan. Analysis of pre- and posttests showed significant improvement in the listening and speaking abilities of the Japanese participants and in the speaking abilities of the American participants.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2016
Accession Number: EJ1104723
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0116293346;fla01jun.16;2018Jul02.13:45;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0116293346-1">Mutually Beneficial Foreign Language Learning: Creating Meaningful Interactions Through Video-Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication. </title> <p>Providing learners of a foreign language with meaningful opportunities for interactions, specifically with native speakers, is especially challenging for instructors. One way to overcome this obstacle is through video‐synchronous computer‐mediated communication tools such as Skype software. This study reports quantitative and qualitative data from a Skype partner program that emphasized meaningful communication between American students learning Japanese in the United States and Japanese students learning English in Japan. Analysis of pre‐ and posttests showed significant improvement in the listening and speaking abilities of the Japanese participants and in the speaking abilities of the American participants.</p> <p>Japanese; English as a foreign/second language; postsecondary/higher education; technologies</p> <p>A wealth of research underscores the contribution to foreign/second language learners' proficiency made by interacting with a native speaker of the target language (e.g., Ellis, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref1">4</reflink>] ; Rubin & Thompson, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref2">8</reflink>] ; Scarcella & Oxford, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref3">9</reflink>] ). However, providing students with opportunities to speak and listen, which help develop oral communication abilities (Blake, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref4">2</reflink>] ; Towndrow & Vallance, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref5">12</reflink>] ), can be especially difficult. Fortunately, recent advances in technology offer a number of promising approaches to helping foreign language learners to develop oral language skills (e.g., Taillefer & Munoz‐Luna, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref6">10</reflink>] ; Tian & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref7">11</reflink>] ). In particular, video‐synchronous computer‐mediated communication software allows learners to interact with native speakers from a distance. While much research has been conducted on the applicability of such software to foreign language learning, there has not been consensus as to how to best implement such opportunities into foreign language teaching or how to study its effectiveness. This study partnered students learning Japanese in the United States with students learning English in Japan and sought to document the extent to which such learning experiences can provide meaningful interactions and thus improve the interpersonal language abilities of students in both countries.</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-2">Review of the Literature</hd> <p>According to the social constructivist theory of learning, individuals construct knowledge through direct interactions with their social and physical environments and through reflection on those experiences (Gergen, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref8">6</reflink>] ). When applying this concept to the field of second language (L2) teaching and learning, instructors seek to create learning environments in which learners can gain knowledge of their target language and culture through direct, personal interactions (Canale & Swain, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref9">3</reflink>] ). Ellis ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref10">4</reflink>] ), for example, argued that uninhibited practice and the performance of a range of speech acts by both native speakers and learners are imperative for rapid development of L2 ability. Scarcella and Oxford ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref11">9</reflink>] ) also indicated that speaking with others who have more linguistic resources than the learners, such as native speakers, is essential for L2 development. However, although there is consensus concerning the importance of interaction with native speakers, providing such opportunities is often difficult.</p> <p>Fortunately, new technologies, particularly computer‐mediated communication systems, have made applying social constructivist methodology to foreign language learning much more feasible (e.g., Entzinger, Morimura, & Suzuki, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref12">5</reflink>] ; Taillefer & Munoz‐Luna, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref13">10</reflink>] ; Tian & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref14">11</reflink>] ; Yang, Gamble, & Tang, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>] ), and a number of studies have investigated the use of video‐synchronous computer‐mediated communication and/or voice‐over instant messaging tools such as Skype to facilitate foreign language learning using a variety of materials and research methods.</p> <p>However, one significant problem that arises is that providing opportunities for meaningful communication is hindered by the lack of consensus as to what actually constitutes a meaningful interaction. As indicated by Woo and Reeves ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref16">13</reflink>] ), social constructivism relies heavily not just on interactions, but also on meaningful interactions, and the careful consideration of the types of interactions that are being provided is important for increased learning. In other words, if an interaction is not meaningful, it will not benefit learning. Scarcella and Oxford ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref17">9</reflink>] ) also noted that opportunities for “language‐promoting interaction” (p. 153) are required for developing speaking abilities. Ellis ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref18">4</reflink>] ) suggested that both the quantity and quality of input were vital and offered the following criteria: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref19">1</reflink>) a high quantity of input directed at the learner; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref20">2</reflink>) the learner perceiving a need to communicate in the L2; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref21">3</reflink>) independent control of the propositional content by the learner; (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref22">4</reflink>) adherence to “here and now” principle (use of topics that concern the immediate environment and current information for the learner), at least initially; (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref23">5</reflink>) the performance of a range of speech acts by both the native speaker/instructor and the learner; (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref24">6</reflink>) exposure to a high quantity of directives (speech acts that impose some kind of action on the hearer) and extending utterances; and (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref25">7</reflink>) opportunities for uninhibited practice.</p> <p>While most studies of the use of video‐synchronous computer‐mediated communication to support and enhance foreign language learning rely on the principles of social constructivism (e.g., Taillefer & Munoz‐Luna, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref26">10</reflink>] ; Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref27">15</reflink>] ), some previous studies did not address the way in which interactions were being made meaningful (e.g., Entzinger et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref28">5</reflink>] ) while other studies controlled the interactions between learners and their conversation partners by engaging them in role‐playing, thus inhibiting the opportunity for uninhibited practice, independent control of the propositional content, and the amount of exposure to extending utterances (e.g., Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref29">15</reflink>] ). In addition, some studies did not specifically report on the partners with whom the learners were interacting (e.g., Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref30">15</reflink>] ), focusing solely on learners and making it difficult to gauge the quality of input students received.</p> <p>Objective measures of student learning also were not reported in some studies using video‐synchronous computer‐mediated communication technology as a foreign language tool. For example, Taillefer and Munoz‐Luna ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref31">10</reflink>] ) reported on a Skype‐mate program based on social constructivist principles but provided only anecdotal evidence that the program boosted learners' abilities. This was also true in the Entzinger et al. ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref32">5</reflink>] ) study. While Yang and Chang ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref33">14</reflink>] ) did assess student learning, they did not find statistically significant differences in learners' foreign language abilities prior to and after using technology to communicate with a language partner. Yang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref34">15</reflink>] ) found significant increases in both oral abilities and motivation, but only with the facilitation of English teaching assistants.</p> <p>Drawing on previous work, this study sought to engage participants in meaningful communication by allowing them to converse both freely and about assigned topics with a native speaker of their target langauge, thus promoting high‐quality input and allowing learners to be in control of the content as well as participate in a range of speech acts, thus meeting many of the requirements for meaningful interaction suggested by Ellis ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref35">4</reflink>] ), Scarcella and Oxford ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref36">9</reflink>] ), and Woo and Reeves ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref37">13</reflink>] ). In addition, objective data from standardized pre‐ and postmeasures are reported. Specifically, the study addressed the following questions:</p> <p>To what extent does engaging in interactions using video‐synchronous computer‐mediated communication with native speakers allow language learners to improve their interpersonal speaking and interpretive listening abilities?</p> <p>To what extent can such a program provide meaningful interactions for learners?</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-3">Method</hd> <p>This study was designed to obtain data on two parameters: the extent of meaningful interactions and the impact on learners' interpersonal and interpretive abilities in their target language.</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-4">Participants</hd> <p>This collaborative study consisted of four groups of students: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref38">1</reflink>) an experimental group and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref39">2</reflink>) a control group at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, a state research university in the United States, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref40">3</reflink>) an experimental group and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref41">4</reflink>) a control group at Tohoku University, a national research university in Japan.</p> <p>The American experimental group included 26 American learners of Japanese in two oral communication classes. As part of their out‐of‐class homework, these students were required to participate in the Skype activity discussed in “Procedures” below. The American control group included 12 American learners of Japanese from other Japanese classes who were paid to complete the pre‐ and posttests. All 38 American participants were 20 to 23 years old and were English native speakers, with the exception of three students who had learned Chinese as a first language at the same time as English.</p> <p>All of the Japanese students in the experimental and control groups were enrolled in two English classes. The 26 students in the Japanese experimental group volunteered to participate in the Skype activity in addition to their regular classes. The 11 students in the Japanese control group participated only in their designated English classes. All 37 participants were 19 or 20 years old, were native speakers of Japanese, and were paid to participate in the program.</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-5">Procedures</hd> <p>At the beginning of the semester, learners in all four groups completed a preassessment. The assessment of interpretive listening for the American learners of Japanese consisted of 20 questions taken from Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT)<sups>1</sups> listening sections. Five of these questions were selected from the JLPT Level 3 tests, 10 questions from the Level 2 tests, and another 5 from the Level 1 tests. The listening assessment for the Japanese learners of English comprised 30 questions taken from practice exercises for the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).<sups>2</sups></p> <p>Because the JLPT does not offer a test of speaking proficiency, the speaking section of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS)<sups>3</sups> was used for all participants in both languages. This approach provided a simple and comparable means of obtaining spoken data. Participants were given three questions, one at a time, taken from previous IELTS tests, and were asked to speak for up to 2 minutes in their target language. The Japanese participants had been learning English for more than 6 years, and thus both questions and responses were given in English. Since the American participants had been learning Japanese for a much shorter period and may not have understood the questions when posed in Japanese, they were given the same questions in English and asked to speak in Japanese. Participants' responses were recorded.</p> <p>Students were given a short survey before the program began that asked about their hobbies, available times to use Skype, and area of study at school. The program leaders then collaborated to match students in Japan and the United States who had the most in common and schedules that would allow them several opportunities to talk together. Upon completion of the preassessments by all participants, the American and Japanese learners in the experimental groups participated in oral activities with their partner for at least two 30‐minute sessions each week for 15 weeks. Participants were asked to speak in English for at least 15 minutes and in Japanese for at least 15 minutes per session, but they were encouraged to converse with their partners as long as they liked. They were assigned topics to discuss during one of the two weekly sessions, e.g., their hometown, university life, study abroad, a trip they took, American/Japanese culture, and movies. However, so as to provide a minimally restrictive conversational opportunity, students were instructed to begin the conversation about the assigned topic and then expand on it in any way they liked. During the second weekly session, participants engaged in free conversation.</p> <p>As part of their coursework, American students in the experimental group were required to keep a Skype log, noting the date, length of the conversations in Japanese and English, and a brief synopsis of the content. Course instructors monitored students' logs every week. American learners of Japanese in the experimental group were also required to write a one‐page reflection paper in English on their Skype experiences at the end of the semester. Twenty‐four of the 26 participants in the American experimental group submitted reflection papers. A conceptually clustered matrix was employed to cluster their comments so that student perspectives and motivation toward participation in the Skype partner program could be analyzed qualitatively. While the Japanese students completed the same survey as the American students, they did not complete a reflection paper due to their status as volunteer participants.</p> <p>Both the American and Japanese participants in the experimental groups were also required to complete a seven‐item questionnaire that included questions about students' interest in and enjoyment of the program, length of the average Skype session, percentage of the session conducted in their target language, intention to continue communicating with their partner, and frequency and duration of the project. Forty‐three students (26 American and 17 Japanese participants; 82%) responded to the questionnaire.</p> <p>Finally, all participants in the American and Japanese control and experimental groups completed a postassessment. The formats of both the pre‐ and postassessment tests were exactly the same, but with slightly different questions on the pre‐ and posttests. Speech rate and mean length of utterance were used, and these scores were calculated for each speech sample because they have been shown to be two of the best predictors of speaking fluency (Kormos & Dénes, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref42">7</reflink>] ). Though not the same as speaking proficiency, as indicated by Baker‐Smemoe, Dewey, Bown, and Martinsen ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref43">1</reflink>] ), such fluencies often do correlate with speaking proficiency at intermediate and higher levels. Speech rate was calculated by dividing the total number of words spoken by the number of minutes spoken. Participants were allowed to speak for up to 2 minutes for each of three questions, for a maximum time of 6 minutes. However, if participants did not have more to say about the question, they were allowed to stop their recording after giving a response. No minimum speaking time was set, but nonanswers were not allowed. Mean length of utterance was calculated by first counting the number of words in each utterance given by a participant (not counting filler words such as uhhh or ummm) and then calculating the average number of words used in utterances per participant. Differences in participants' pre‐ and posttest scores (speech rate and mean length of utterance) were compared between and among the target language experimental and control groups. Both pre‐ and postassessment data were available for 19 of the 26 students in the American experimental group, 8 of the 12 students in the American control group, 17 of the 26 students in the Japanese experimental group and all 11 students in the Japanese control group.</p> <p>Comparisons within the same group's pre‐ and posttest scores were analyzed using one‐way repeated‐measures ANOVA tests. Comparisons between the experimental and control groups were conducted using a two‐way repeated‐measures ANOVA test to look for significant interactions between participation in the program and change in pre‐ and posttest scores.</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-6">Results</hd> <hd id="AN0116293346-7">Frequency and Length of Skype Sessions</hd> <p>Self‐reported data taken from the experimental groups revealed that 6 of the 43 participants who completed the questionnaire conversed with their partner for fewer than 30 minutes per session (2 Americans and 4 Japanese), 21 conversed for 30–45 minutes per session (16 Americans and 5 Japanese), 12 conversed for 46–60 minutes (8 Americans and 4 Japanese), and 4 Japanese participants reported conversing for more than an hour. On average, only 5 students reported speaking their target language less than 40% of the time (3 Americans and 2 Japanese), 28 participants reported speaking each language about half of the time (18 Americans and 10 Japanese), and 10 participants reported speaking their target language more than 60% of the time (5 Americans and 5 Japanese). Taken together, 86% of the participants met or exceeded the 30‐minute minimum expectation for conversation length, and most (88%) reported sharing time with their partner in an equitable manner. In addition, 67% of the participants (18 Americans and 11 Japanese) stated that the number of sessions (two sessions per week) provided a reasonable level of input for each conversational partner, and 79% of the participants (24 Americans and 10 Japanese) indicated that the duration of the program (15 weeks) afforded a suitable quantity of input for each partner.</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-8">Interpretive Listening</hd> <p>Figure [NaN] shows the listening scores of participants on the pre‐ and posttests. As shown in Figure [NaN] , there were no significant differences between the pre‐ and postassessment scores for interpretive listening for either group of American learners (i.e., the experimental or the control group) or for the learners of English in the Japanese control group. On the other hand, Japanese learners of English who participated in the Skype partner program showed a noticeable and statistically significant improvement with a large effect size in listening from the pretest (M = 36.47%, SD = 0.1051) to the posttest (M = 50.78%, SD = 0.118; F [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref44">1</reflink>, 33] = 7.25, p = 0.012, d = 1.28).</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-9">Speech Rate</hd> <p>Figure [NaN] shows the participants' speech rates. As shown in Figure [NaN] , American learners of Japanese in the control group exhibited a slightly lower increase, but not a statistically significant change, in speech rate on the postassessment. In contrast, the speech rate of American learners of Japanese who participated in the Skype (experimental) partner program showed a statistically significant increase from the pretest (M = 54.08, SD = 12.51) to the posttest (M = 62.75, SD = 17.93) with a moderate effect size; ANOVA (F [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref45">1</reflink>, 37] = 9.9, p = 0.005, d = 0.56). Furthermore, a significant interaction with a large effect size was found between participation in the Skype partner program and an increase in speech rate for American learners of Japanese (F [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref46">1</reflink>, 53] = 6.57, p = 0.017, d = 1.11).</p> <p>Similarly, the speech rate decreased slightly for Japanese learners of English who did not participate in the program, although this change was not statistically significant. However, the speech rate of Japanese learners of English who participated in the Skype partner program increased significantly from the pretest (M = 51.18, SD = 14.24) to the posttest (M = 59.11, SD = 11.6) and showed a moderate effect size; ANOVA (F [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref47">1</reflink>, 33] = 13.507, p = 0.001, d = 0.61). Furthermore, a significant interaction with a large effect size was found between participation in the Skype partner program and an increase in speech rate for Japanese learners of English (F [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref48">1</reflink>, 55] = 12.58, p = 0.002, d = 1.42).</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-10">Mean Utterance Length</hd> <p>The mean utterance length for each of the four groups is shown in Figure [NaN] . As shown in Figure [NaN] , data revealed a statistically significant increase in mean utterance length for American learners of Japanese who participated in the Skype partner program pretest (M = 4.09, SD = 1.14); the posttest (M = 6.97, SD = 2.58) had a large effect size; ANOVA (F [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref49">1</reflink>, 37] = 35.69, p < 0.001, d = 1.44). Although a significant difference was also found in the pretest (M = 4.44, SD = 1.17) and posttest (M = 5.05, SD = 1.29) scores of mean utterance for American learners of Japanese who did not participate in the program (F [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref50">1</reflink>, 15] = 5.95, p = 0.04, d = 0.50), as might be expected as a result of in‐class instruction, a much larger increase was seen in the experimental group of participants, which led to a much higher effect size and also a significant interaction being found between participation in the Skype partner program and an increase in mean utterance length for American learners of Japanese (F [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref51">1</reflink>, 53] = 8.72, p = 0.007, d = 1.28).</p> <p>Japanese learners of English who participated in the Skype partner program also showed a statistically significant increase with a large effect size in mean utterance length, as indicated by their pretest (M = 5.65, SD = 1.02) and posttest (M = 9.18, SD = 2.31) scores; ANOVA (F [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref52">1</reflink>, 33] = 60.11, p < 0.001, d = 1.97). Meanwhile, learners who did not participate in the program showed only a very minor decrease in mean utterance length that was not statistically significant. Finally, a significant interaction between participation in the Skype partner program and an increase in mean utterance length with a large effect size for Japanese learners of English was also found (F [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref53">1</reflink>, 55] = 19.31, p < 0.001, d = 1.77).</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-11">Students' Opinions of the Skype Experience</hd> <p>Overall, 72% of the students who completed the questionnaire (26 Americans and 17 Japanese) reported enjoying the Skype experience (M = 4.0), and 70% (18 Americans and 12 Japanese) indicated that they intended to continue speaking with their partner even after completing the program.</p> <p>Data from the end‐of‐experience reflection papers submitted by American students in the experimental group (n = 24) were grouped, and positive and negative themes that were mentioned by five or more participants are reported here. In total, 22 of these participants (92%) reported that they enjoyed conversing with their partners, a finding that echoed students' questionnaire responses—for example, “[I] thoroughly enjoyed the Skype project”—and many described the activity, in the words of one participant, as “an amazing/the most important experience.” Nine students specifically noted that they enjoyed “the opportunity to talk to a native Japanese speaker on a regular basis.” Also as mentioned above, questionnaire data revealed that 70% of the students noted in their reflections that they intended to stay in contact with their Skype partner. One of the six students commenting on the continuation of the Skype activity wrote, “I want to continue to Skype after this program and maintain our friendship.” Another student stated an intention to continue “to Skype over the summer.”</p> <p>Students noted a number of more specific benefits. Twelve students noted that participating in the Skype project was an excellent way to learn; for example, this project was “a perfect way to practice Japanese,” because they were “forced to speak and [they were] glad [they] did,” while 11 stated that they improved their skills: “I feel that [the] fluidity of my speech and my readiness to speak in Japanese … both improved dramatically”; “it has significantly increased my listening and speaking skills in the Japanese language.”</p> <p>A number of students reported changes in their confidence and their skills as the sessions continued; for example, “at first, it was a little weird,” but “after our first Skype meeting I felt much better.” Another student summarized these feelings well in his response:</p> <p>At first I was terrified to speak with a native speaker whom I had never met …. We realized both of us were anxious about talking to the other …. The first few times we talked to each other were awkward, and we both avoided eye contact …. After a few weeks we started to branch off into new conversations … [and] began to look forward to every week.</p> <p>One student also felt “better [by] knowing that they struggle with English almost as much as we do with Japanese. This made me more comfortable making mistakes.” Others noticed their improved confidence and skills: “I did gain much more confidence in my Japanese speaking”; “I became more confident in my language ability … in making mistakes … I was afraid of speaking Japanese out of embarrassment”; “I became more and more confident in asking questions and saying when I did not fully understand a phrase.” Two more pointed out being “a little less shy about speaking Japanese” and that the experience helped one “overcome my shyness and allow me to become comfortable with making mistakes.” Another noted that “this program has been very beneficial … [for my] general social skills,” while one student stated, “Not only did I learn more Japanese but also figured out ways in which I learn Japanese.”</p> <p>In addition to improving their confidence and language skills, eight students recognized the value of participating in the Skype partner program as an integrated part of their required coursework, and six students specifically mentioned that the in‐class preparation for the Skype activities was helpful. In the words of one student, integrating classwork with Skype experiences was “definitely one of the best memories in my life.” Another added, “Before I took this class, I was falling out of love with Japanese … I really do love the Japanese language and … I'm going to work harder to become better at it,” while another student recommended that all students “should participate [in the class/Skype experience] before graduation.” One student wrote, “I almost did not take this class because of the Skype requirement … I surprisingly grew to be very comfortable with Skype … I can speak more casually than before.” Two students also commented that they would like to take “a similar class” again.</p> <p>Finally, although cultural learning was not a core focus of the study, 10 students commented positively on what they had learned and the way it helped them “expand [their] knowledge of Japanese culture.” Other students noted that “[this activity] has given me another way to view Japan and has overall just been great,” and that “experiencing Japanese language in cultural context creates more meaningful and memorable conversations.”</p> <p>A number of opposing opinions were shared concerning students' interactions with native speakers. Five students commented less favorably, noting that native speakers “spoke pretty fast … [and it was] difficult to understand what she was saying,” and “half of the time when my Skype partner [spoke,] I did not understand what she was saying.” In addition, six students pointed out that they were frustrated because their Japanese partner had participated in the activity as a volunteer and the fact that “this was not a mandatory assignment for her [which] also made the conversations awkward,” and “[I had] few difficulties with the program … since my partner had volunteered for the project and didn't have to do it.” Finally, like all synchronous exchanges, the 13‐hour time difference between the United States and Japan caused five students to have difficulty finding appropriate and available times when they could talk with their partner: “The most difficult thing was scheduling times to talk to my partner,” and “the only times we could really sit down and have a full half hour to talk was 4:00 a.m. my time.”</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-12">Discussion</hd> <p>This study reported on a video‐synchronous computer‐mediated communication language partner program that was designed to provide a mutually beneficial collaborative foreign language learning activity between American and Japanese students. While some studies (Yang & Chang, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref54">14</reflink>] ; Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref55">15</reflink>] ) suggested that including such tools alone did not have a significant impact on learners' language abilities, this study showed that, when the language partner program is structured so as to provide engaging, meaningful, and consistent native speaker input and support negotiation of meaning, it can be a mutually beneficial learning experience.</p> <p>Data from participants' pre‐ and postspeaking and listening assessments indicated that participation in an integrated classroom plus a Skype experience can significantly impact learners' language abilities. Statistically significant pre‐/postdifferences were found for the listening abilities of Japanese learners of English as well as for their speech rate and a higher mean utterance length after participation in the program when compared with learners who did not participate in the program. The American learners of Japanese also exhibited large and statistically significant gains in speech rates and mean utterance lengths after participation in the program, although their counterparts in the American control group also made gains. Neither the control nor the experimental group of American learners demonstrated significant gains in their listening abilities, although it is possible that the listening test used in this study was simply too difficult for the students at both the pre‐ and posttests. Future research should take this into consideration.</p> <p>Furthermore, note that although Kormos and Dénes ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref56">7</reflink>] ) suggested that speech rate and mean length of utterance were two of the best indicators of speaking fluency, Baker‐Smemoe et al. ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref57">1</reflink>] ) showed that such measures of temporal and utterance fluency in an L2, while proxies for developing communicative proficiency, are not in and of themselves measures of L2 proficiency. Baker‐Smemoe et al. looked at L2 utterance fluency and compared it with Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) proficiency ratings, concluding that automatic measures of L2 utterance fluency can provide broad measures for L2 proficiency at intermediate and advanced levels, but that they were not accurate for refined analysis of L2 abilities, especially at lower levels of proficiency. However, it should also be mentioned that Baker‐Smemoe et al. did note that “improvements in fluency were more apparent for those who made gains on the OPI than for those who did not” (p. 726). Thus, while the results of this experiment are not definitive for overall L2 proficiency, they do suggest gains in speaking proficiency.</p> <p>Data from the questionnaire and reflections suggested that the video‐synchronous computer‐mediated language partner program described in this article did, in fact, offer a meaningful learning experience that students enjoyed and from which they also reported improving their language skills, thus corroborating the quantitative data; increasing their confidence speaking and understanding the language; and enhancing their cultural knowledge. It is posited that these benefits were due to the quality of the interactions. When these results are framed using Ellis's ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref58">4</reflink>] ) criteria for judging the meaningfulness of interactions, one sees that most learners provided and received input for at least 30 minutes, twice a week; students perceived a need to speak in their target language, i.e., they were “forced to speak and [they were] glad [they] did”; they had independent (uninhibited) control over at least half of the conversation topics, including cultural topics that were not part of the syllabus; learners were initially anxious about the Skype partner program but gained confidence and overcame discomfort in initial conversations; students participated in a wide variety of speech acts; they overcame communication problems together with their partner, negotiating meaning when and as appropriate to continue the conversation; and they generally enjoyed the activity, were excited to participate in the program, and had their expectations fulfilled.</p> <p>As mentioned by Ellis ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref59">4</reflink>] ), uninhibited practice is a crucial part of developing language abilities. However, providing truly open (uninhibited) communication experiences also presented some problems and challenges during this research, namely, (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref60">1</reflink>) differences in time zones, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref61">2</reflink>) an imbalance in responsibility for participation in the program, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref62">3</reflink>) a lack of consideration for speaking speed when participants conversed in their respective native language. While most students were able to find a time to communicate, instructors must emphasize with their students the importance of compromise so as not to consistently disadvantage one member of the partnership. Ensuring balanced motivation by offering credit or making the Skype experience a course requirement may also improve the experience for all participants. Finally, reminding participants to adjust their speech rate and offering direct instruction about ways to negotiate meaning and check their partner's comprehension will also enable participants at different levels of proficiency to benefit from the experience.</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-13">Conclusion</hd> <p>Overall, the data presented in this study suggest that using a video‐synchronous computer‐mediated language partner program pairing native speakers learning each other's languages offers a beneficial tool, particularly when integrated into an ongoing course and when structured to support meaningful communication. Although this study reported on a program between Japanese and American students who were studying each other's native languages, the program could easily be adapted to other language partnerships.</p> <hd id="AN0116293346-14">Notes</hd> <p>The JLPT is well known worldwide and is a standardized criterion‐referenced test to evaluate and certify Japanese language proficiency for nonnative speakers. It tests language knowledge, e.g., grammar, kanji characters and vocabulary, reading ability, and listening ability.</p> <p>The TOEFL is a standardized test of English language proficiency for nonnative English language speakers wishing to enroll in U.S. universities.</p> <p>The IELTS is an international standardized test of English language proficiency for nonnative English language speakers.</p> <ref id="AN0116293346-15"> <title>Footnotes</title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref19" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext>Fumie Kato (PhD, University of Sydney) is Associate Professor of Languages and Culture Studies, University of North Carolina at Charlotte. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref4" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext>Ryan Spring (PhD, Tohoku University) is Senior Assistant Professor at the Institute of Excellence in Higher Education, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref9" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext>Chikako Mori (MEd, Ohio University) is Senior Lecturer of Languages and Culture Studies, University of North Carolina at Charlotte. </bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0116293346-16"> <title>References</title> <blist> <bibtext>Baker‐Smemoe, W., Dewey, D. P., Bown, J., & Martinsen, R. A. ( 2014 ). Does measuring L2 utterance fluency equal measuring overall L2 proficiency? Evidence from five languages. Foreign Language Annals, 47, 707 – 728. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Blake, R. ( 2008 ). Brave new digital classroom: Technology and foreign language learning. Washington, DC : Georgetown University Press. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Canale, M., & Swain, M. ( 1980 ). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1 – 47. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref1" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext>Ellis, R. ( 1985 ). Understanding second language acquisition. New York : Oxford University Press. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref12" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext>Entzinger, J. O., Morimura, K., & Suzuki, S. ( 2013 ). Virtual and real exchange with overseas universities to enhance language and learning. JSEE Annual Conference International Session Proceedings, pp. 16 – 21. Retrieved March 30, 2016, from <ulink href="http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110009674699/en">http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110009674699/en</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref8" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext>Gergen, K. J. ( 1999 ). An invitation to social construction. Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref25" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext>Kormos, J., & Dénes, M. ( 2004 ). Exploring measures and perceptions of fluency in the speech of second language learners. System, 32, 145 – 164. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref2" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext>Rubin, J., & Thompson, I. ( 1994 ). How to be a more successful language learner. Boston : Heinle & Heinle. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref3" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext>Scarcella, R. C., & Oxford, R. L. ( 1992 ). The tapestry of language learning: The individual in the communicative classroom. Boston : Heinle & Heinle. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib10" idref="ref6" type="bt">10</bibl> <bibtext>Taillefer, L., & Munoz‐Luna, R. ( 2014 ). Developing oral skills through Skype: A language project analysis. Procedia–Social and Behavioral Science, 141, 260 – 264. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib11" idref="ref7" type="bt">11</bibl> <bibtext>Tian, J., & Wang, Y. ( 2010 ). Taking language learning outside the classroom: Learners' perspectives of E tandem learning via Skype. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 4, 181 – 197. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib12" idref="ref5" type="bt">12</bibl> <bibtext>Towndrow, P., & Vallance, M. ( 2004 ). Using IT in the language classroom. Singapore : Longman. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib13" idref="ref16" type="bt">13</bibl> <bibtext>Woo, Y., & Reeves, T. C. ( 2006 ). Meaningful interaction in web‐based learning: A social constructivist interpretation. The Internet and Higher Education, 10, 15 – 25. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib14" idref="ref33" type="bt">14</bibl> <bibtext>Yang, Y. C., & Chang, L. ( 2008 ). No improvement—Reflections and suggestions on the use of Skype to enhance college students' oral English proficiency. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39, 721 – 725. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib15" idref="ref15" type="bt">15</bibl> <bibtext>Yang, Y. C., Gamble, J., & Tang, S. S. ( 2012 ). Voice‐over instant messaging as a tool for enhancing the oral proficiency and motivation of English‐as‐a‐foreign‐language learners. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43, 448 – 464. </bibtext> </blist> </ref> <p>Graph: Pre‐ and Posttest Scores of Aural Ability</p> <p>Graph: Speech Rates on the Pre‐ and Posttests Note: The y‐axis is words per minute.</p> <p>Graph: Mean Length of Utterance on the Pre‐ and Posttests Note: The y‐axis is average number of words per utterance.</p> <aug> <p>By Fumie Kato; Ryan Spring and Chikako Mori</p> </aug>
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  Data: Mutually Beneficial Foreign Language Learning: Creating Meaningful Interactions through Video-Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication
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  Data: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Mediated+Communication%22">Computer Mediated Communication</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Synchronous+Communication%22">Synchronous Communication</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Second+Language+Learning%22">Second Language Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Videoconferencing%22">Videoconferencing</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interaction%22">Interaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Native+Speakers%22">Native Speakers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Statistical+Analysis%22">Statistical Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Qualitative+Research%22">Qualitative Research</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Japanese%22">Japanese</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22English+%28Second+Language%29%22">English (Second Language)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pretests+Posttests%22">Pretests Posttests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Listening+Skills%22">Listening Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Speech+Skills%22">Speech Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Exchange+Programs%22">Student Exchange Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Improvement%22">Student Improvement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1111/flan.12195
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  Data: Providing learners of a foreign language with meaningful opportunities for interactions, specifically with native speakers, is especially challenging for instructors. One way to overcome this obstacle is through video-synchronous computer-mediated communication tools such as Skype software. This study reports quantitative and qualitative data from a Skype partner program that emphasized meaningful communication between American students learning Japanese in the United States and Japanese students learning English in Japan. Analysis of pre- and posttests showed significant improvement in the listening and speaking abilities of the Japanese participants and in the speaking abilities of the American participants.
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