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Muslim Students' Cultural and Religious Experiences in City, Suburban and Regional University Campuses in NSW, Australia

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Title: Muslim Students' Cultural and Religious Experiences in City, Suburban and Regional University Campuses in NSW, Australia
Language: English
Authors: Possamai, Adam, Dunn, Kevin, Hopkins, Peter, Worthington, Lisa, Amin, Faroque
Source: Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management. 2016 38(6):637-648.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2016
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Muslims, Foreign Countries, College Students, Student Diversity, Questionnaires, Educational Environment, Religious Cultural Groups, Student Characteristics, Geographic Location, Religious Factors, Student Attitudes, Online Surveys
Geographic Terms: Australia
DOI: 10.1080/1360080X.2016.1211950
ISSN: 1360-080X
Abstract: Although there has been much research about the growing ethnic and religious diversity on university campuses across the world, relatively little is known about the religious and cultural experiences of Muslim students on university campuses in Australia. We draw upon an analysis of a questionnaire that was completed by 323 Muslim students who were studying at universities in the state of New South Wales, Australia. While we argue that these places are post-secular, we discovered that city campuses tend to be more secular than regional and suburban ones.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 28
Entry Date: 2016
Accession Number: EJ1113746
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0118090572;0v101dec.16;2019Feb06.14:51;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0118090572-1">Muslim students’ cultural and religious experiences in city, suburban and regional university campuses in NSW, Australia. </title> <p>Although there has been much research about the growing ethnic and religious diversity on university campuses across the world, relatively little is known about the religious and cultural experiences of Muslim students on university campuses in Australia. We draw upon an analysis of a questionnaire that was completed by 323 Muslim students who were studying at universities in the state of New South Wales, Australia. While we argue that these places are post-secular, we discovered that city campuses tend to be more secular than regional and suburban ones.</p> <p>Keywords: Muslims; religious discrimination; students; university campus</p> <hd id="AN0118090572-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Australia is one of the more religiously diverse countries in the world (Bouma, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref1">5</reflink>]). Like the society that surrounds them, universities as institutions have to adapt themselves continuously to a changing environment, including a religiously diverse one. Rogers ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref2">22</reflink>], p. 148) has argued Australian Universities, despite being largely secular institutions, must ensure that '[the] spiritual and faith-related issues are kept on the administrative agenda for student and staff support on campus'. Universities do have the challenge of providing for an increasingly diverse student body.</p> <p>The dynamics and social effects of growing religious and sociocultural diversity at universities have been researched extensively across the world since the beginning of the new century (Andersson, Sadgrove, & Valentine, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref3">1</reflink>]; Batorowicz, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref4">2</reflink>]; Dutton, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref5">8</reflink>]; Gilliat-Ray, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref6">10</reflink>]; Hopkins, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref7">12</reflink>]; Jacobson & Jacobson, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref8">13</reflink>]; Possamai & Brackenreg, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref9">18</reflink>]; Possamai et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref10">19</reflink>]; Possamai, Sriprakash, Brackenreg, & McGuire, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref11">20</reflink>]; Sharma & Guest, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref12">25</reflink>]). This research continues to point out that there is still much to be known about how universities can better encourage interfaith and intercultural understanding and interaction in light of their diversifying populations. Gilliat-Ray ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref13">10</reflink>]) and Sommerville ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref14">26</reflink>]) argue that now more than ever, public institutions like universities need to address the importance of religion – even if religion might be seen as tangential to the substantive work of such institutions: 'Universities are being forced to consider the needs and implications of the life-world of a new generation of students from a variety of different religious traditions' (Gilliat-Ray, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref15">10</reflink>], p. 144). Given contemporary political concerns about the future of multiculturalism and interfaith cohesion (e.g., Richardson, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref16">21</reflink>]), this article seeks to understand the cultural experiences of Muslim students in New South Wales (NSW).</p> <p>International research on religious identity, religiosity, civic participation and academic performance shows mostly a positive association between these variables. Pascarella and Terenzini argue that students are involved in religious activities, particularly when they engage in, 'serious discussions about religious ... [and] political beliefs' (2005, p. 121). These kinds of activities have been associated with increased religious conviction and overall religiousness, social integration and better emotional well-being among students (Pascarella & Terenzini, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>]). Bryant ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref18">6</reflink>]) added that these activities can also result in deeper self-knowledge and in having direction. Along the same wave line, Cole and Ahmadi ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref19">7</reflink>]) argued that helping students to develop and maintain a religious identity could have a positive effect on student outcomes. However, there is often anxiety among Muslim students about the stereotypes that are attached to Muslim identities that may affect a student's academic performance (Nasir & Al-Amin, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref20">15</reflink>]). But this can also result in students distancing themselves socially, resulting in them feeling a disconnection from the university community and the university as a whole. Steele's ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref21">27</reflink>]) research also supports this through his work on stereotype threat. He argued that when a student perceives his or her group to be regarded as inferior, academic performance can suffer. Also, Rogers ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref22">22</reflink>]) noted that many international students are accustomed to spirituality and/or religion being central to their life. As such, religion could be one of a number of ways of creating social networks for international students facing loneliness away from their country of origin (Sawir, Marginson, Deumert, Nyland, & Ramia, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>The higher education sector in the United States is both larger and more diverse than that in Australia and in the United Kingdom. In addition to state-supported universities, there are many privately endowed tertiary institutions, some of which have religious affiliations. In terms of levels of religiosity on campuses in the United States, John Schmalzbauer argues that campus religion is not in decline. He describes campus religion as, 'A mixture of cyclical and linear motifs, it resembles the larger fluctuations in American religion' (2013, p. 116). Rather than diminishing, student participation in campus religion in the United States has remained stable over the last century. He concludes that higher education is not particularly hazardous to religious commitment (Schmalzbauer, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>]). Roger Finke and Rodney Stark concur that fluctuations are not 'a decline in religion, but only a decline in the fortunes of specific religious organizations as they give way to new ones' (Finke & Stark, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref25">9</reflink>], p. 46).</p> <p>Religion on campus will be lived and expressed differently across different social and spatial configurations of a university. Mayrl and Oeur ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref26">14</reflink>]) conducted a literature review of all studies of religion in US universities and colleges and found that treating the university institution as an undifferentiated category is problematic. The role and position of religion varies on different types of campus, such as public or private, large or small, urban or rural, research or teaching driven or of Christian or secularist genesis. In other words, different campus cultures may influence religious activities accordingly. In his research on evangelisation on various universities in the world, Dutton ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref27">8</reflink>]) noticed that piety will be stronger on a secular campus where these Christians might feel that their religious identity is being challenged. Also, the more remote the campus is (as opposed to city or suburban campuses), the stronger the level of piety. These cultural and social factors would be influential in the formation of tightly structured evangelical student groups on campus. This type of research has not been conducted yet among Muslim students in an Australian context.</p> <p>Data from a previous publication (Possamai et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref28">19</reflink>]) revealed Australian Muslim university students as having a strong religiosity. They are at ease with showing external signs of their religion, and attending a university campus does not appear to reduce religious commitment. In our survey, they expressed strong pro-diversity views. We also discovered that among our sample of Muslim students in NSW universities, almost 30% of these had become more religious since their enrolment (40% for women and 33% for men; and 32% for international and 38% for local students). Close to 40% had remained with the same level of religiosity. While our previous research (Possamai et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref29">19</reflink>]) treated these respondents as part of a single group of university campuses, this article pushes the analysis forward by taking into account the literature above. The data have not been analysed specifically with regards to the social–geographical location of the campus, and this is the main aim of this article. We are thus exploring any possible difference in the cultural and religious experience of Muslim students in three different categories of university in NSW: the urban, suburban and regional ones.</p> <hd id="AN0118090572-3">Method</hd> <p>This article reports on the results of an online survey. It contained a total of 36 questions and was placed on the Qualtrics platform on 29 June 2013. Several steps were taken to circulate the news of the survey and to encourage potential participation from Muslim students in universities across the state of NSW. Around 500 flyers were distributed at the different campuses of Western Sydney University (WSU), the University of Sydney and the University of Newcastle, Australia. An invitation notice containing a shortened and easy url address to the online survey was also placed in notice boards in these campuses. An advertisement with the link to the Qualtrics survey site was posted on a social networking site, (i.e., Facebook) and it continued for more than 1 month, targeting users with the specific demographic features mentioned previously. The same advertisement was posted in web forums of several Australian universities, their official Facebook pages and groups of Muslim student associations of different Australian universities in NSW. Additionally, an invitation email was sent to around 200 Muslim students at WSU and the University of Sydney. Personalised emails were also sent to Muslim academics and organisers of Muslim students' associations of these universities. The survey was closed on 28 August 2014 and a total of 447 participants had accessed it online to that point.</p> <p>The results reported here are based on 323 valid survey responses. The participants in the survey included students from WSU (58.3%), the University of Sydney (9%), the University of NSW (UNSW) (8.6%), the University of Technology Sydney (UTS) (8%), Macquarie University (6.2%), University of Wollongong (3.4%) and the University of Newcastle (1.9%). The other institutions were Charles Stuart University and the Sydney campuses of Southern Cross University, Central Queensland University (CQU), the Australian Catholic University, the University of Notre Dame and the International College of Management. One person from an overseas university filled out the survey. Fifty-two people commenced the process but failed to provide any answers. Seventy respondents were based at a non-NSW institution or did not provide evidence that they were based in NSW (many of the latter only having provided information on gender and age only). These were all removed. For the purposes of this article, we took out one person who did not report on her institution.</p> <p>Table 1 indicates the proportion of our informants per type of university. We included the University of Sydney, UNSW, UTS, the University of Notre Dame and other universities with a satellite campus in the Central Business District (e.g., CQU and CSU (Charles Sturt University)) as part of the 'city' location. For regional, we amalgamated the University of Wollongong, Newcastle University and CSU. For the suburban ones, WSU, Macquarie and the Australian Catholic University. The aim for this article is not to compare and contrast specific universities but the geographical location where they are situated. While the numbers for city (<emph>n</emph> = 89) and suburban (<emph>n</emph> = 215) students are robust, the case is not as strong for the regional ones (<emph>n</emph> = 19). We do acknowledge this limitation.</p> <p>Table 1. Campus location, NSW, 2013–2014.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Location</td><td><italic>N</italic></td><td>%</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>City</td><td>89</td><td>27</td></tr><tr><td>Regional</td><td>19</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Suburb</td><td>215</td><td>67</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>323</td><td>100</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>10 Source: Muslims on Campus Survey: University Life for Muslim Students in NSW, Australia.</p> <p>Stevenson, Dunn, Possamai and Piracha ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref30">28</reflink>]) discovered that while the whole of Australia was becoming less Christian, the decline is higher in the metropolitan area where city campuses are, and in the western suburbs which have been the foci of immigrant settlement since the 1980s. In these suburbs, we find a large percentage of the suburban campuses that are part of this study. The decline of Christianity tends to be reduced as one move away from central western Sydney. Metropolitan statistical local government areas are also witnessing an increase in numbers of people claiming to be from a non-religious background. While city campuses are clearly located in a more non-religious geographical zone, suburban campuses are scattered around the western and northern parts of Sydney with different religious and class composition. The regional campuses include the south, north and west of NSW and their diversity has also not been captured in this article. This is unfortunately another limitation to this study.</p> <hd id="AN0118090572-4">The socio-demographics of Muslims on university campuses</hd> <p>Among the participating students, most students studied in Education (18%), Health (15%), Management and Commerce (14%), Engineering (13%) and in Society and Culture (11%). All other study areas occupy less than 10%, such as Information Technology (6%), Architecture and Building (3%) and so on.</p> <p>Eighty-one per cent of the participants identified themselves as local and 19% of them were international. Among the international students, female students represented only 36% of this subgroup. That proportion is higher among local students (55%). This sample, therefore, has an over-representation of men among international students. This may reflect the gender mix of Muslim international students in Australian universities, but there are no population level data with which to test that hypothesis. With regards to gender, Table 2 indicates an overproportion of female students in suburban universities (59% compared to 52% for the total) and an overproportion of male students in city and regional campuses. With regards to international students, we find in the same table a strong overproportion in regional universities (63% compared to 19% for the total). The suburban population in this sample thus tends to be local and female Muslims. The regional population is oriented more towards a male international sample and the city one, a slightly more male and international one.</p> <p>Table 2. Gender and Domestic/International Students, NSW, 2013–2014.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Gender</td><td>Domestic/International Students</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Female</td><td>Male</td><td>Total</td><td>Domestic</td><td>International</td><td>Total</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>City</td><td>32 (36%)</td><td>57 (64%)</td><td>89 (100%)</td><td>71 (81%)</td><td>17 (19%)</td><td>88 (100%)</td></tr><tr><td>Suburb</td><td>128 (59%)</td><td>87 (41%)</td><td>215 (100%)</td><td>181 (85%)</td><td>33 (15%)</td><td>214 (100%)</td></tr><tr><td>Regional</td><td>7 (37%)</td><td>12 (63%)</td><td>19 (100%)</td><td>7 (37%)</td><td>12 (63%)</td><td>19 (100%)</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>167 (52%)</td><td>156 (48%)</td><td>323 (100%)</td><td>259 (81%)</td><td>62 (19%)</td><td>321 (100%)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>11 Source: Muslims on Campus Survey: University Life for Muslim Students in NSW, Australia.</p> <p>Most participants were aged, as expected, between 17 and 30 years (89%). Most informants were within their first 3 years of university study (70%). However, 13% of the total participants in this survey had completed their university study before filling out the survey and belonged to an older age group.</p> <p>The most common place of birth of this survey's participants was Australia (52%) (Table 3). In our sample, Pakistan and Bangladesh were the next two highest countries of birth (7% both). Turkey was not found in the top 10 countries of birth from our sample; only 3 participants were from that background. Major countries of birth of Muslims in Australia include Lebanon and Turkey, yet only Lebanon was in the top 10 birthplaces of Muslim university students from this survey. However, our research (Possamai et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref31">19</reflink>]) reveals that a quarter of the participants of the sample had a mother and/or father who was born in Turkey and Lebanon. The most common place of birth for participants' mothers and fathers was Lebanon (20% and 21%, respectively), this was followed by Pakistan (7% of mothers and 9% of fathers) and Bangladesh (7% and 9%). Close to half of the sample was second-generation immigrants. Ten of the respondents had both parents born in Australia. Our analysis of these birthplace connections reveals that around 51% are first-generation immigrants and 41% second-generation Australians. The sample is, without a doubt, a very multicultural one.</p> <p>Table 3. Country of birth (top 10), Muslim university students, NSW, 2013–2014, N = 287.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td><italic>N</italic></td><td>%</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Australia</td><td>148</td><td>52</td></tr><tr><td>Pakistan</td><td>21</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Bangladesh</td><td>21</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Lebanon</td><td>14</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Iraq</td><td>13</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Saudi Arabia</td><td>8</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Afghanistan</td><td>8</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Indonesia</td><td>9</td><td>3</td></tr><tr><td>Malaysia</td><td>6</td><td>2</td></tr><tr><td>Egypt</td><td>5</td><td>2</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>12 Source: Muslims on Campus Survey: University Life for Muslim Students in NSW, Australia.</p> <p>Table 4 indicates a slight overproportion of Muslim students born in Australia at suburban (55%) and, then, city campus (53%). In regional campuses, on the other hand, we find that a very large majority of the students (83%) were born overseas. This is explained in part by the larger proportion of international students at regional universities from our sample (63%; see Table 2).</p> <p>Table 4. Country of birth per type of university, NSW, 2013–2014.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Australia</td><td>Other</td></tr><tr><td /><td><italic>N</italic></td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic></td><td>%</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>City</td><td>42</td><td>53</td><td>38</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td>Suburban</td><td>103</td><td>55</td><td>85</td><td>45</td></tr><tr><td>Regional</td><td>3</td><td>17</td><td>15</td><td>83</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>148</td><td>52</td><td>139</td><td>48</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>13 Source: Muslims on Campus Survey: University Life for Muslim Students in NSW, Australia.</p> <hd id="AN0118090572-5">Religious beliefs and practices on campus</hd> <p>The survey reveals that 66% of the sample performs their prayers five time a day and 87% at least once a week (Possamai et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref32">19</reflink>]). We are thus assuming that our sample is highly religious (see Table 6). The extent of religious performance on campus is more modest, as not all students live on campus. In this higher education setting, 23% of the sample prayed five times a day, and a total of 62% at least once a week (see Table 5). Almost one-fifth (19%) of the international population pray five times per day on campus compared to 23% for the local population (Possamai et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref33">19</reflink>]). We could assume that international students are more likely to live on campus than local ones and local students are more likely to have a home base or local place of worship they can use. The data, however, indicate that local students are slightly more likely to use prayer facilities on campus. We also noticed another difference; only 17% of the female students reported praying five times a day on campus compared to 28% of men (Possamai et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref34">19</reflink>]). This indicates that universities in NSW are providing religious facilities that are frequently used by a section of Muslim students. When asked to provide any comments to the survey, 39 participants expressed their concern about needing bigger prayer facilities or a cleaner Musallah ('place of gathering') or a cleaner bathroom attached to their prayer room. So while usage is high there were concerns about overcrowding and cleanliness.</p> <p>Table 5. Daily prayer habits by type of campus, Muslim university students, NSW, 2013–2014, N = 281.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td><italic>N</italic> total</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> city</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> suburban</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> regional</td><td>%</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>All five prayers on time</td><td>36</td><td>13</td><td>9</td><td>12</td><td>24</td><td>13</td><td>3</td><td>17</td></tr><tr><td>All prayers but sometimes not on time</td><td>27</td><td>10</td><td>13</td><td>17</td><td>13</td><td>7</td><td>1</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Less than five times</td><td>91</td><td>32</td><td>23</td><td>30</td><td>63</td><td>33</td><td>5</td><td>29</td></tr><tr><td>Friday prayer only</td><td>19</td><td>7</td><td>13</td><td>17</td><td>5</td><td>3</td><td>1</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Less than once per week</td><td>28</td><td>10</td><td>5</td><td>7</td><td>20</td><td>11</td><td>3</td><td>18</td></tr><tr><td>Never</td><td>80</td><td>28</td><td>13</td><td>17</td><td>63</td><td>33</td><td>4</td><td>23</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>281</td><td>100</td><td>76</td><td>100</td><td>188</td><td>100</td><td>17</td><td>100</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>14 Source: Muslims on Campus Survey: University Life for Muslim Students in NSW, Australia.</p> <p>Table 6. Importance of religion in daily life, Muslim university students, NSW, 2013–2014, N = 281.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td><italic>N</italic> total</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> city</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> suburbs</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> regional</td><td>%</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Very important</td><td>189</td><td>67</td><td>50</td><td>66</td><td>125</td><td>67</td><td>14</td><td>82</td></tr><tr><td>Important</td><td>65</td><td>23</td><td>14</td><td>19</td><td>49</td><td>26</td><td>1</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Somewhat important</td><td>22</td><td>8</td><td>11</td><td>15</td><td>10</td><td>5</td><td>1</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Not important at all</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>4</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>281</td><td>100</td><td>76</td><td>100</td><td>188</td><td>100</td><td>17</td><td>100</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>15 Source: Muslims on Campus Survey: University Life for Muslim Students in NSW, Australia.</p> <p>When praying five times a day on time on campus, Table 5 informs us of a slight overproportion of regional students (17%) compared to the total (13%), city (12%) and suburban (13%) ones. With regards to having all prayers but sometimes not on time, we discover that city campuses have a higher proportion (17%) compared to the total (10%) and the suburban (7%) and regional ones (6%). The reason might be that these city campuses tend to be bigger than the suburban and regional ones, and with only one multifaith room on campus, accessing it on time between classes might be a problem. Of interest is the answer to attending the Friday prayers only. Only 3% of the suburban sample attends Friday prayers only, compared to the city (17%), the regional (6%) and the overall (7%) one. In other research on the practice of religion and spirituality on the suburban campuses of WSU, Possamai and Brackenreg ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref35">18</reflink>]) discovered that due to the availability of mosques surrounding these campuses, students tended to commute for this most important prayer of the week, instead of staying on campus.</p> <p>Table 6 reveals that for 90% of the sample, religion in the everyday life of these students is important and very important. The proportion for city (85%) and regional (88%) is slightly lower than the suburban (93%) ones. For the whole sample, two-thirds (67%) claim this to be very important. In the regional context, this goes higher (82%). The suburban and city setting are at the same level (67% and 66%). In this sample, we have an indication that religious life is more 'very important' for regional students.</p> <p>With regards to Muslims being more visible with their religion in their appearance, Table 7 only indicates a slight difference from the city (43% most of the time) with the regional (47%) and the suburban (49%) groupings (the overall proportion being 47%).</p> <p>Table 7. Identifiable Muslim, Muslim university students, NSW, 2013–2014, N = 277.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td><italic>N</italic></td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> city</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> suburbs</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> regional</td><td>%</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Most of the time</td><td>131</td><td>47</td><td>32</td><td>43</td><td>91</td><td>49</td><td>8</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td>Yes, sometimes</td><td>62</td><td>23</td><td>18</td><td>24</td><td>41</td><td>22</td><td>3</td><td>18</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>84</td><td>30</td><td>24</td><td>33</td><td>54</td><td>29</td><td>6</td><td>35</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>277</td><td>100</td><td>74</td><td>100</td><td>186</td><td>100</td><td>17</td><td>100</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>16 Source: Muslims on Campus Survey: University Life for Muslim Students in NSW, Australia.</p> <p>In Table 8, 37% of the whole sample claimed to have become more religious since their enrolment at university (40% for women and 33% for men; and 32% for international and 38% for local students; see Possamai et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref36">19</reflink>]) whereas 49% of them had remained at the same level of religiosity. Only the regional respondents (47%) showed a stronger rate of response than the city (39%) and the suburban (35%) respondents with regards to becoming more religious. This is in line with Dutton's ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref37">8</reflink>]) research on evangelisation on various universities in the world, as already underlined in the introduction. He found that the more remote the campus is (as opposed to city or suburban campuses), the stronger the level of piety. When looking at the proportion of students remaining the same, we again find a difference between the suburban (52%), compared to the city (41%), regional (47%) and overall ones (49%). In this sample, suburban campuses tend to generate fewer changes with regards to religiosity. Although the numbers are small (<emph>n</emph> = 17), it appears that city campuses tend to very slightly make Muslim students less religious (8%) compared to suburban (6%), regional (6%) and overall (6%) ones.</p> <p>Table 8. Religious perspectives changed since attending the university, Muslim university students, NSW, 2013–2014, N = 258.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td><italic>N</italic> total</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> city</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> suburbs</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> regional</td><td>%</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Became more religious</td><td>95</td><td>37</td><td>28</td><td>39</td><td>60</td><td>35</td><td>7</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td>Became less religious</td><td>17</td><td>6</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>6</td><td>1</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>Remained same</td><td>126</td><td>49</td><td>29</td><td>41</td><td>90</td><td>52</td><td>7</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td>Not sure</td><td>20</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>12</td><td>12</td><td>7</td><td>0</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>323</td><td>100</td><td>71</td><td>100</td><td>172</td><td /><td>15</td><td>100</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>17 Source: Muslims on Campus Survey: University Life for Muslim Students in NSW, Australia.</p> <p>According to this whole sample, it can be concluded that Australia's higher education institutions are not places where students lose faith. For many, their faith remains the same, or is even enhanced. Overall, most students are confident enough to perform the rituals of their religion and be identified as a Muslim which demonstrates a robustness to religious diversity on NSW university campuses. However, we do find as well that regional campuses are more likely to make a Muslim student more religious.</p> <p>In an earlier article, we (Possamai et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref38">19</reflink>]) detailed the overall opinions of the Muslim students from this sample on their practice of religion on campus and their experiences of discrimination. We found that the more religious Muslim students are, the more they have concerns about cross-gender mixing in higher education and the need for more Muslim, rather than non-Muslim, friends. However, most Muslims do not express a desire for mono-gender campuses and/or same sex instructors. We also reported that the majority of Australian Muslim university students do report experiencing discrimination on the basis of their religious identity in educational settings; however, only one-in-ten claim that it happens often, and for a quarter, it happens sometimes. This does not suggest that university campuses protect students from anti-Islamic racism. However, the positive attitudes towards diversity, by university students, suggest resilience to the negative encounters to which they are exposed.</p> <p>For the purposes of this article, we did not want to cover all the same opinions as we had done elsewhere (Possamai et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref39">19</reflink>]). Instead, we generated some coefficient of correlations between the locality of their campus (city, suburban or regional) and all the opinion questions listed in the survey. We found that the correlations were the most significant when answering these questions:</p> <p>'There is a drinking culture among university students' (Pearson Correlation: −0.314, correlation is significant at the 0.01 level [2-tailed]).</p> <p>'Do you disagree or agree that...</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> 'there is racial prejudice in the on-line discussions that you are doing for your university subjects' (Pearson Correlation: −0.138, correlation is significant at the 0.05 level [2-tailed]).</item> <p></p> <item> 'there is conflict between religious groups on your campus'(Pearson Correlation: −.120.</item> <p></p> <item> 'there is conflict between atheist and religious groups on your campus' (Pearson Correlation: −.151, correlation is significant at the 0.05 level [2-tailed]).</item> <p></p> <item> 'there is conflict between Muslim groups on campus' (Pearson Correlation: −0.144, correlation is significant at the 0.05 level [2-tailed]).</item> </ulist> <p>Table 9 reveals the results of the cross-tabulations of these variables. The differences between locality are much stronger, of course, for the highest correlation (−0.314). There is a strong difference in the perception of drinking culture among university students between suburban (52% agree and strongly agree) than city (83%) and regional (80%) ones. Based on previous research conducted by Possamai and Brackenreg ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref40">18</reflink>]) specifically on WSU, we can interpret that suburban universities are universities to which people commute regularly between work and family responsibility and do not tend to stay on campus for more than what is needed (e.g., classes). For the city and regional ones, we expect a stronger residential culture and stronger student nightlife events. We assume that this is why we have a strong difference for this question.</p> <p>Table 9. Muslim students' attitudes on community relations and culture across types of university, NSW, 2013–2014.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td><italic>N</italic> total</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> city</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> suburbs</td><td>%</td><td><italic>N</italic> regional</td><td>%</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Do you agree that there is a drinking culture among university students (agree and strongly agree), <italic>N</italic> = 258</td><td>161</td><td>62</td><td>59</td><td>83</td><td>90</td><td>52</td><td>12</td><td>80</td></tr><tr><td>Do you disagree or agree that (agree and strongly agree)...</td></tr><tr><td>there is racial prejudice in the on-line discussions that you are doing for your university subjects, <italic>N</italic> = 254</td><td>19</td><td>7</td><td>7</td><td>10</td><td>11</td><td>7</td><td>1</td><td>6</td></tr><tr><td>there is conflict between religious groups on your campus, <italic>N</italic> = 254</td><td>21</td><td>8</td><td>5</td><td>7</td><td>14</td><td>8</td><td>2</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>there is conflict between atheist and religious groups on your campus, <italic>N</italic> = 254</td><td>34</td><td>13</td><td>9</td><td>13</td><td>22</td><td>13</td><td>3</td><td>19</td></tr><tr><td>there is conflict between Muslim groups on campus, <italic>N</italic> = 254</td><td>40</td><td>16</td><td>13</td><td>19</td><td>26</td><td>10</td><td>1</td><td>6</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>18 Source: Muslims on Campus Survey: University Life for Muslim Students in NSW, Australia.</p> <p>For the three other questions, the difference is not as great (which is explained by a much lower coefficient of correlation) but we do find that there is a perceived strong conflict between atheist and religious groups in regional campuses (19%) compared to the overall (13%) and suburban (13%) rates. With regards to perceived conflict between religious groups, city (7%) and suburban (8%) are on part with the overall rate (8%), whereas the regional one (13%) is higher. This confirms the assumption that city campuses are more secular in nature than regional campuses (bearing in mind the small sample size of this category), while promoting piety at a higher level (see above) is witnessing a perceived higher level of inter-religious and atheist–religious tensions.</p> <p>However, this comment has to be put in the context of sub-Muslim group tensions. There is conflict for only 6% of the regional sample, compared to an overall of 16%, a city one of 19% and a suburban one of 10%. While city campuses are more secular and do not have much inter-religious conflict, there seems to be a higher rate of reported conflict between Muslim groups. On the other hand, in regional campus, hardly any conflict between Muslim groups is noted and the likeliness of a student becoming more religious is also stronger.</p> <p>When dealing with the question about on-line prejudice, the proportion among city students (10%) is not significantly higher than the suburban (7%), the regional (6%) or the overall rate (7%).</p> <hd id="AN0118090572-6">Discussion</hd> <p>In Possamai et al. ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref41">19</reflink>]), we argued that in light of this sample, university campuses in NSW are post-secular rather than secular (Beaumont, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref42">3</reflink>]; Beaumont & Dias, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref43">4</reflink>]; Olson, Hopkins, Pain, & Vincett, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref44">16</reflink>]). By post-secular, we make reference to the process of the deprivatisation of religion, referring to the public emergence and affirmation of religion rather than an assumption that faith should remain a private and publicly hidden commitment. Post-secularism is being seen as conceptual position that better facilitates the understanding of the current dialogue about the management of the presence and influence of religious religion groups in the public sphere within a secular framework (Habermas & Ratzinger, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref45">11</reflink>]). This led us to argue that in keeping with post-secular realities, and the reality of racism and Islamophobia, university campuses ought to tolerate faith and to support religious diversity.</p> <p>Stevenson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref46">28</reflink>]) argued that in the context of Sydney as a global city, the issue of post-secularism was not as straight forward. While some specific clusters of suburbs were staying Christian, others were becoming more secular or more religious but non-Christian. This led these authors to argue that Sydney is experiencing various patterns of secularisation and de-secularisation and that the move from a secular society to a more or less religious one is not unilinear.</p> <p>We have also underlined similar processes in this article. While we analysed all the universities as post-secular in our previous research, we have discovered that post-secularism will be affected by the type of university in which a Muslim student is located. Indeed, and bearing in mind the limitations of this study (see above), regional campuses are more likely to make a Muslim student more religious and a city one more secularised. There is also more tension between Muslim groups in a city campus than in a regional one. Prayer times are more regularly observed by students on city campuses than on the other types of campus. The perception of a drinking culture on campus is also perceived to be stronger for Muslim students from city and regional campuses, than for suburban ones. These findings highlight the various processes of secularisation and de-secularisation found on different types of university campuses.</p> <hd id="AN0118090572-7">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.</p> <ref id="AN0118090572-8"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref3" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Andersson, J., Sadgrove, J., & Valentine, G. (2012). Consuming campus: Geographies of encounter at a British university. Social and Cultural Geography, 13(5), 501–515. doi:10.1080/14649365.2012.700725</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref4" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Batorowicz, K. (2007). Dealing with religious diversity within universities. 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  Data: Muslim Students' Cultural and Religious Experiences in City, Suburban and Regional University Campuses in NSW, Australia
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  Label: Language
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  Data: English
– Name: Author
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Possamai%2C+Adam%22">Possamai, Adam</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Dunn%2C+Kevin%22">Dunn, Kevin</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hopkins%2C+Peter%22">Hopkins, Peter</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Worthington%2C+Lisa%22">Worthington, Lisa</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Amin%2C+Faroque%22">Amin, Faroque</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Higher+Education+Policy+and+Management%22"><i>Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management</i></searchLink>. 2016 38(6):637-648.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
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  Data: 12
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2016
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Muslims%22">Muslims</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Diversity%22">Student Diversity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Questionnaires%22">Questionnaires</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Environment%22">Educational Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Religious+Cultural+Groups%22">Religious Cultural Groups</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Characteristics%22">Student Characteristics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Geographic+Location%22">Geographic Location</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Religious+Factors%22">Religious Factors</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Online+Surveys%22">Online Surveys</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Australia%22">Australia</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/1360080X.2016.1211950
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1360-080X
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Although there has been much research about the growing ethnic and religious diversity on university campuses across the world, relatively little is known about the religious and cultural experiences of Muslim students on university campuses in Australia. We draw upon an analysis of a questionnaire that was completed by 323 Muslim students who were studying at universities in the state of New South Wales, Australia. While we argue that these places are post-secular, we discovered that city campuses tend to be more secular than regional and suburban ones.
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  Data: 2016
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  Data: EJ1113746
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        Value: 10.1080/1360080X.2016.1211950
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 637
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Muslims
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Diversity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Questionnaires
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Environment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Religious Cultural Groups
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Characteristics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Geographic Location
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Religious Factors
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Online Surveys
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Australia
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Muslim Students' Cultural and Religious Experiences in City, Suburban and Regional University Campuses in NSW, Australia
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Possamai, Adam
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Dunn, Kevin
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Hopkins, Peter
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Worthington, Lisa
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Amin, Faroque
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2016
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1360-080X
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 38
            – Type: issue
              Value: 6
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management
              Type: main
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