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10 Research-Based Tips for Enhancing Literacy Instruction for Students with Intellectual Disability

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Title: 10 Research-Based Tips for Enhancing Literacy Instruction for Students with Intellectual Disability
Language: English
Authors: Lemons, Christopher J., Allor, Jill H., Al Otaiba, Stephanie, LeJeune, Lauren M.
Source: TEACHING Exceptional Children. Sep-Oct 2016 49(1):18-30.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 13
Publication Date: 2016
Sponsoring Agency: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
Office of Special Education Programs (ED/OSERS)
Contract Number: R324A110162
R324A130102
R324A160132
H325D140073
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Education Level: Elementary Education
Descriptors: Literacy, Literacy Education, Intellectual Disability, Children, Adolescents, Reading Achievement, Reading Instruction, Individualized Education Programs, Reading Skills, Outcomes of Education, Functional Reading, Reading Improvement, Emergent Literacy, Elementary School Students
DOI: 10.1177/0040059916662202
ISSN: 0040-0599
Abstract: In the past 2 decades, researchers (often working closely with parents, teachers, and other school staff members) have conducted studies that have substantially increased understanding how to effectively teach children and adolescents with intellectual disability (ID) to read. This research focus has been fueled by increased societal expectations for individuals with ID, advocacy efforts, and legislative priorities (e.g., strengthened accountability standards). Findings from this body of work indicate that children and adolescents with ID can obtain higher levels of reading achievement than previously anticipated (Allor, Mathes, Roberts, Cheatham, & Al Otaiba, 2014). Provided is a Literacy Instruction and Support Planning tool, and 10 tips for enhancing literacy success are outlined. The hope is that IEP teams who consider the 10 tips will be more reflective and will plan more intensive and effective instruction, and will see increasingly positive student outcomes.
Abstractor: ERIC
Number of References: 38
IES Funded: Yes
Entry Date: 2016
Accession Number: EJ1118428
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0118961528;tec01sep.16;2016Oct24.04:03;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0118961528-1">10 Research-Based Tips for Enhancing Literacy Instruction for Students With Intellectual Disability </title> <p>In the past 2 decades, researchers (often working closely with parents, teachers, and other school staff members) have conducted studies that have substantially increased understanding how to effectively teach children and adolescents with intellectual disability (ID) to read. This research focus has been fueled by increased societal expectations for individuals with ID, advocacy efforts, and legislative priorities (e.g., strengthened accountability standards). Findings from this body of work indicate that children and adolescents with ID can obtain higher levels of reading achievement than previously anticipated ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref1">4</reflink>] ). Recent research also suggests that the historic focus on functional reading (e.g., signs, restaurant words) for this population of learners is likely too limited of a focus for many ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref2">11</reflink>] ). Research outcomes suggest that integrating components of traditional reading instruction (e.g., phonics, phonemic awareness) into programs for students with ID will lead to increases in independent reading skills for many ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref3">1</reflink>] ). These increased reading abilities are likely to lead to greater postsecondary outcomes, including employment, independence, and quality of life. Unfortunately, many teachers remain unsure of how to best design and deliver reading intervention for students with ID.</p> <p>Children and adolescents with ID can obtain higher levels of reading achievement than previously anticipated.</p> <p>We offer a set of 10 research-based tips for special education teachers, general education teachers, and other members of IEP teams to consider when planning literacy instruction for students with ID in order to maximize student outcomes. For each tip, we describe our rationale for the recommendation and provide implementation guidance. Our Literacy Instruction and Support Planning Tool can be used by team members to organize information to guide planning. Our aim is to provide educators and IEP team members with a framework for reflecting on current reading practices in order to make research-based adjustments that are likely to improve student outcomes.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-2">The Conceptual Model of Literacy</hd> <p>[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref4">11</reflink>] proposed a conceptual model for early literacy instruction for students with severe developmental disabilities. We believe their framework provides guidance for designing and delivering literacy instruction for all students with ID. We used Browder et al.’s model to develop the Literacy Instruction and Support Planning Tool that IEP teams can use to guide decision making (see Figure 1). We encourage readers to obtain Browder et al.’s original article, however, for additional detail on the conceptual model.</p> <p>Literacy Instruction and Support Planning Tool</p> <p>[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref5">11</reflink>] model includes two primary components. The first component offers guidance on considering instructional priorities, supports, and access opportunities; the second provides direction for considering the instructional emphasis. For the first component, Browder et al. outlined two primary literacy goals: increasing access to literature and increasing students’ independence as readers. Within the initial goal, the emphasis is on ensuring opportunities are provided for students to access literature (e.g., adapted books, time for literacy) and considering features of instruction necessary to increase students’ abilities to access literature (e.g., task analysis for read-alouds, text awareness). Strategies for increasing reading independence include designing explicit reading instruction (e.g., phonemic awareness, phonics, comprehension) and ensuring the student has opportunities to apply and generalize reading skills (e.g., application of skills in novel texts, instruction to generalize reading skills into functional activities).</p> <p>For the second component of the model, Browder et al. highlighted how the instructional emphasis will likely change as students’ grade level increases. The authors suggested that learning “how to read” will be a prominent focus for many elementary-age students and that “functional reading” may gain greater emphasis as students advance to middle and high school. Browder et al. noted that access to age-appropriate literature should remain a focus across all grade levels—indeed, across the life span.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-3">Research-Based Tips</hd> <hd id="AN0118961528-4">Tip 1: Keep Big-Picture Goals in Mind</hd> <p>When thinking about literacy instruction, it may be tempting for many teachers and parents to focus on goals for the next calendar year and subsequently to devote limited time to looking at the bigger picture. We think big-picture visioning is important even in the early elementary school years. It can be helpful to pause and have team members spend a little time thinking about longer-term outcomes and the amount of time in which these outcomes are to be achieved.</p> <p>[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref6">11</reflink>] model can help IEP team members contextualize planning in at least two important ways. First, the model provides a reminder that it is essential that literacy instruction for students with ID focus on increasing students’ independence as readers through reading instruction and opportunities to apply and generalize reading skills. Research has demonstrated that appropriately designed, targeted literacy instruction can lead to greater academic outcomes for children and adolescents with ID than previously thought feasible ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref7">4</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>] ). Further, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref11">35</reflink>] demonstrated that adolescents with ID continue to show gains in reading skill across the high school years, emphasizing the need for an ongoing focus on literacy instruction.</p> <p>It is important to note that Browder et al.’s model also highlights the need to ensure that literacy instruction includes a focus on increasing student access to literature by providing increased access to books and other texts (e.g., via peers, family members, technology) and by providing instruction on how to gain meaning from texts, including those that are read aloud to the student (see [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref12">12</reflink>] ). This aim is important in that it provides a secondary path to access age-appropriate literature that is not reliant on the development of basic reading skills.</p> <p>The model provides a reminder that it is essential that literacy instruction for students with ID focus on increasing students’ independence as readers.</p> <p>Second, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref13">11</reflink>] model highlights how the focus on “how to read” versus “functional reading” will likely change as a student moves into adolescence and as special education services begin to increase focus on transitioning into the postsecondary world. IEP team members will need to talk frankly about how to appropriately balance instructional time spent on increasing reading independence (i.e., reading instruction) with instructional time focused on other important transition outcomes (e.g., communication, functional reading, self-care, social skills, technology, transportation, employment, leisure).</p> <p>We also believe it is worth noting that over time, even small, incremental improvements in independent reading skill can have a drastic effect on a student’s quality of life. In other words, although it may take multiple years of instruction for a student to be able to read at a third-grade or even first-grade level, a student who obtains even this level of basic skill can access many more texts than a nonreader. Thus, the substantial efforts that may be required to enhance reading outcomes for students with ID are very much worth it ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref14">23</reflink>] ). Focusing instruction on texts and words that students are most interested in learning can improve quality of life and also enhance motivation and engagement for older students (e.g., learning to read leisure magazines about sports, how to access a transportation schedule, a basic recipe for a favorite meal, accessing social media).</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-5">Tip 2: Set Meaningful, Measurable Goals</hd> <p>Another important aspect of planning reading instruction is to understand the student’s current strengths and instructional needs in relation to essential reading skills. IEP teams can use [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref15">11</reflink>] model to outline essential skills, and achievement standards from a state’s alternate assessment also may be useful for planning. We believe that the foundational skills for reading outlined in the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) can be particularly useful when thinking about focus areas for reading instruction ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref16">27</reflink>] , [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref17">28</reflink>] ). For example, the CCSS foundational skills at Grade 1 include detailed skills in the areas of print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics and word recognition, and fluency. IEP teams can review the foundational skills and determine which ones represent the next developmental progression for an individual student. In selecting skills on which to focus, teams should prioritize those that are most likely to affect a student’s overall reading abilities. For example, some of the foundational skills (e.g., rhyming) may be less important than others (e.g., phonemic awareness; see [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref18">3</reflink>] for further details). Considering guidance from Browder et al., teams should select skills that are most likely to have a direct benefit—including immediate and longer term—on students’ lives.</p> <p>Multiple sources of data can help IEP teams evaluate a student’s current abilities in relation to essential literacy skills. First, it is likely that standardized reading achievement measures (e.g., Woodcock Reading Mastery Test; [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref19">36</reflink>] ) have been administered to the student as part of the formal evaluation process. Other criterion-referenced assessments may also indicate which reading skills students have mastered. Data from these measures can highlight areas of relative strength and weakness. Second, teams may also administer early-grade measures of curriculum-based measurement (CBM) to evaluate students’ performance in phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and word and passage reading. Several studies ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref20">4</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref21">25</reflink>] ) have demonstrated that early-grade CBM can be used to monitor response to reading instruction for children with ID across grade levels. Third, the IEP team may develop informal (or mastery) assessments based on the CCSS Foundational Skills or other standards to evaluate a student’s current abilities on key skills.</p> <p>For example, at Grade 1, students are expected to “decode two-syllable words following basic patterns by breaking words into syllables” (RF.1.3.4). A teacher could generate a list of 10 two-syllable words and observe the student reading these words to evaluate whether the student was able to perform the skill. Alternatively, teachers could create similar informal assessments using content they are teaching in their daily lessons. For example, teachers might conduct a brief assessment to determine whether a student is able to correctly produce taught letter sounds and words. This data can guide decisions on whether the student is ready to move forward in the scope and sequence. It is also useful to conduct frequent assessments of previously learned material to determine if the student has retained prior learning and to reteach when needed.</p> <p>Once the team has a solid understanding of the student’s current abilities, it should generate a set of IEP goals that are focused on essential reading skills. IEP goals can be generated based on [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref22">11</reflink>] model, performance on early-grade CBM, the CCSS Foundational Skills in reading, and informal assessment. Following guidance provided by [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref23">37</reflink>] , an example of an IEP goal based on oral reading fluency CBM would be “By the end of the school year, when presented with a second-grade oral reading fluency probe, Je’Sean will correctly read aloud 90 words per minute with at least 95% accuracy.” Teachers can learn more about using CBM to monitor progress through resources provided in [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref24">1</reflink>] .</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-6"> Resources to Enhance Literacy Instruction</hd> <ct id="AN0118961528-7"> ..CHT.-</ct> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><tr><td>CBM resources</td><td>● IRIS module http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/gpm/cresource/q1/p02/#content ● The ABCs of CBM: A Practical Guide to Curriculum-Based Measurement, 2nd ed. (Hosp, Hosp, & Howell, 2016) ● Potential measures: http://www.intensiveintervention.org/chart/progress-monitoring</td></tr><tr><td>Promising intervention programs</td><td>● Early Interventions in Reading https://www.mheonline.com/program/view/4/1/2542/SRAEIRLV11/ ● Early Literacy Skill Builder http://www.attainmentcompany.com/elsb ● Mondo Bookshop Phonics http://www.mondopub.com ● Road to Reading http://products.brookespublishing.com/</td></tr><tr><td>Reading-related web resources</td><td>● Project Intensity (A federally funded research project) http://www.projectintensity.com/ ● Reading Rockets (resource for teaching reading) http://www.readingrockets.org/ ● Reading A-Z (resource for findings texts) https://www.readinga-z.com/ ● TextProject (resource for vocabulary instruction) http://textproject.org/</td></tr><tr><td>Reading-related text resources</td><td>● Direct Instruction Reading, 5th ed. (Carnine, Silbert, Kame'enui, & Tarver, 2009) ● Fundamentals of Literacy Instruction & Assessment, Pre-K–6 (Hougen & Smart, 2012) and Fundamentals of Literacy Instruction & Assessment, 6–12 (Hougen, 2014) ● More Language Arts, Math, and Science for Students with Severe Disabilities (Browder & Spooner, 2014) ● Teaching Students with Moderate and Severe Disabilities (Browder & Spooner, 2011)</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>-1 Note. CBM = curriculum-based measurement.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-8">Tip 3: Provide Explicit, Systematic Reading Instruction</hd> <p>In our experiences working in schools, too often we find that reading instruction provided to students with ID is disconnected and disorganized. This is often because teachers are not provided with an appropriate instructional program but are instead pulling resources from various sources, including the Internet. We believe that using one reading program as a base will help teachers deliver instruction in a more systematic way. Additional resources can then be aligned to this program. We strongly recommend that teachers select an evidence-based program that provides explicit models, corrective feedback, scaffolding, reinforcement, and cumulative review as well as a focus on systematic instruction in phonological awareness and phonics skills ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref25">8</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref26">10</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref27">11</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref28">14</reflink>] ). See [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref29">1</reflink>] for recommendations of appropriate programs that have been demonstrated to be effective in research studies involving students with ID. It is likely that the base program will need some adaptations as teachers work to individualize instruction and that supplemental content may be necessary to meet the instructional and access needs of the student. However, using the base program as a foundation will increase the connectedness and organization of instruction. This is because a structured scope and sequence is key to keeping instruction organized and unified.</p> <p>Another element of systematic teaching is providing instruction that enables students to apply skills across contexts and make connections among related skills ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref30">12</reflink>] ). Students with ID benefit from routine language that is repeated across lessons and contexts (e.g., reading and writing; general education classroom, resource room) so instructions are quickly understood. A student with ID may not make the necessary connection if one teacher refers to sight words as “outlaw words” while another refers to them as “look-and-say words.” Teachers should also explicitly teach connections among related skills (e.g., phonological awareness to decoding to spelling, decoding to meaning to writing). For example, when students are decoding a word, they first say the sounds of individual letters and then blend those sounds to say the word. These two subskills can be practiced separately (i.e., in separate letter-sound practice and oral phonemic awareness blending practice) and then explicitly applied to decoding and spelling. Systematic review, ongoing cumulative practice, and integration of skills in this manner will increase the likelihood that students will maintain and generalize skills.</p> <p>We realize that some students’ initial response to instruction focused on phonological awareness and phonics skills may be minimal. For these students, teachers should consider devoting a period of instruction to increasing sight word reading ability ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref31">13</reflink>] ). Teachers could do this as we did in a recent study ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref32">22</reflink>] ) by teaching important, highly imageable, decodable words (e.g., mom, dad, dog) paired with pictures. Alternatively, teachers could use a more traditional sight word program (e.g., Edmark [[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref33">31</reflink>] ], PCI [[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref34">17</reflink>] ]). We believe it is important to integrate phonological awareness and letter-sound instruction into these sight word programs as early as possible to ensure students have the ability to decode words that are not directly taught to them.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-9">Tip 4: Provide Instruction With Sufficient Intensity to Accomplish Goals</hd> <p>Inclusion and the amount of time spent with same-age peers without disabilities in general education settings are important to consider when planning for children and adolescents with ID. However, IEP teams should consider whether receiving all instruction in the general education classroom will allow for a sufficient level of intensive intervention to support the student in meeting reading goals ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref35">38</reflink>] ). There are at least two important points regarding intensity. First, in informal discussions with teachers who have participated in our recent studies, many have reported that a substantial number of their students with ID spend a majority of time in the general education classroom receiving one-on-one support from a paraprofessional to participate in instructional routines; however, this most often does not involve direct instruction of academic skills. In many cases, teachers reported that pullout instruction would have allowed an instructor to provide more intensive reading instruction that better targeted students’ academic needs.</p> <p>Second, even when intensive instruction is provided, many students with ID will need multiple years of intervention to achieve reading goals. For example, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref36">4</reflink>] provided daily phonics-based reading instruction to children with below-average IQ, including many with ID. Instruction was provided for 40 to 50 minutes per day in groups of one to three students. Although students receiving the researcher-delivered reading intervention made statistically significantly better gains on average that students in the business-as-usual control classrooms, many students made only 1 year’s worth of progress in the curriculum after participating in the study for between 2 and 4 years. However, given the stable, relatively flat growth demonstrated by the students in the control condition, it is unlikely that students in the treatment condition would have made the progress they did with less intensive instruction.</p> <p>To meet learning goals, the IEP team should ensure that the student receives a sufficient amount of time participating in direct instruction in reading provided by a highly qualified, trained interventionist ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref37">16</reflink>] ). This instruction should be closely aligned to the student’s academic needs. In other words, instruction should target the student’s zone of proximal development, or as we like to say, it should be in the student’s “instructional sweet spot.” Beyond this, instruction should be engaging, and a plan should be in place to closely monitor the student’s response to instruction. In our collective experience as teachers and researchers, it is challenging to provide this level of intensity within the general education classroom.</p> <p>Instruction should be engaging, and a plan should be in place to closely monitor the student’s response to instruction.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-10">Tip 5: Seek Out Professional Development Opportunities</hd> <p>Many special educators who teach students with ID have received limited preservice training on how children learn to read. In-service professional development to increase knowledge in this area can help teachers individualize and intensify reading instruction for their students. We believe that there are at least two important aspects of this on which professional development could focus.</p> <p>First, teachers should understand what skilled readers do and understand how this skill develops. A fully developed reader recognizes letters and words quickly, uses the meanings of individual words, and makes immediate connections to the meaning of what they are reading. Skilled readers also use and apply general knowledge of the world to help them understand what they are reading. “Skilled reading happens too fast and is too automatic to detect its underlying processes through simple introspection. We read, but we cannot watch how our minds make sense out of print” ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref38">26</reflink>] , p. 12). Skilled reading involves many different processes happening simultaneously so that students can recognize words effortlessly and focus deeply on comprehension.</p> <p>Second, teachers should understand theoretical models of reading development. [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref39">32</reflink>] woven-strand model demonstrates how initial skills in language comprehension (i.e., knowledge of background, vocabulary, language structures, literacy, and verbal reasoning) and word recognition skills (i.e., phonological awareness, decoding, spelling, and sight recognition) gradually become integrated. With instruction and practice, readers increase both automaticity and strategy to eventually demonstrate fluent coordination of word reading and comprehension processes. (For additional information on how learning to read occurs, see [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref40">29</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref41">30</reflink>] .)</p> <p>We understand that resources are often stretched in schools and that funds to provide for additional professional development (PD) opportunities are frequently limited. We have three recommendations that may help teachers access additional PD. First, local universities often offer courses on reading development and reading instruction. Although these are available to teachers through tuition or scholarship opportunities, there may be additional ways to access the content. For example, university instructors will often allow a teacher to audit a course in exchange for involving the teacher’s class in practicum or research activities. Second, as researchers, we often offer school districts complimentary PD for supporting our research efforts. Teachers can reach out to researchers at local universities to see if these types of opportunities are available. Our third recommendation is for teachers with common interests to form professional learning communities (PLCs; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref42">18</reflink>] ) in which they can work together to deepen knowledge and improve practice. The PLC could devote time to learning about reading instruction from several high-quality, free websites (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref43">1</reflink>] ) and sharing brief videos of instruction or assessment to assist one another in planning and problem solving. Alternatively, the PLC could dedicate time to reading books and peer-reviewed journal articles, discussing the content, and then applying instructional techniques. Suggestions of books to consider are included in [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref44">1</reflink>] . Finally, members of the PLC could opt to purchase a new curriculum and agree to support one another in initial implementation and problem solving.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-11">Tip 6: Remember That Language Abilities Are the Underlying Foundation for Reading Skills</hd> <p>The theory of reading development known as the “simple view of reading” ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref45">19</reflink>] ) stresses that the act of reading combines word recognition and language comprehension. In other words, reading is simply the process of translating print into language. Planning for reading instruction should take into consideration a student’s language abilities. Learning to read does not occur decontextualized from language development. Good readers make immediate links between print and meaning; therefore, instruction should support students with ID in making these connections as much as possible. For example, isolated skills should be combined as soon as possible to create words and sentences in contexts that are familiar to students and likely to be understood.</p> <p>With their expertise in language development, speech language pathologists (SLPs) are in the unique position of being able to identify and intervene upon language roots of reading problems ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref46">15</reflink>] ). For example, SLPs may provide key information about how speech perception, speech sound production, and vocabulary are interfering with reading progress ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref47">34</reflink>] ). Many SLPs are trained to take a diagnostic-prescriptive approach to intervention ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref48">15</reflink>] ). In this approach, a student’s current abilities and areas of instructional need are evaluated, and an intervention is designed to target areas of need. IEP team members can find additional guidance on enhancing the role of the SLP in literacy instruction through the [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref49">5</reflink>] . It is also important to remember that expert guidance from teachers of English as a second language or bilingual education programs will be necessary for students whose first language is not English.</p> <p>With their expertise in language development, speech language pathologists are in the unique position of being able to identify and intervene upon language roots of reading problems.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-12">Tip 7: Scaffold Working Memory</hd> <p>Many students with ID have deficits in working memory that can limit response to reading instruction. Consider, for example, the cognitive demands that are required for a student to sound out the word sat. The student says the sound for each letter, /s/ /a/ /t/, and then must blend those sounds together to say the whole word. Students who are not skilled at blending spoken sounds into words and who experience deficits in working memory often will forget the first sound by the time they begin to blend the sounds together and respond with the word at instead of sat. They simply forgot the /s/ sound. Other tasks—such as identifying the middle sound in a spoken word or manipulating phonemes—are even more difficult.</p> <p>Teachers can provide various forms of scaffolding to assist students in manipulating phonemes even if a student’s working memory limitations make the task difficult. For example, in a recent study focused on improving reading outcomes for children with Down syndrome ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref50">22</reflink>] ), we provided two levels of scaffolding for early reading activities. First, we taught a limited number of highly imageable, decodable words (e.g., dog) by having students match the words to pictures. When students were able to identify the words automatically, we were then able to use the printed word or picture to support early phonological awareness and alphabetic principle activities. For example, if we asked a student to provide the first sound in the word dog and the student needed additional scaffolding, we showed the student the picture or printed word. Second, we quickly integrated letters into phonological awareness activities to provide additional support. Often, phonemic awareness is taught without letters, which is appropriate for very young students who are typically developing; however, in our experience, students with working memory limitations find that the addition of letters makes the task much easier. This is especially true for students who know many letter sounds but are still unable to blend sounds into words. For example, if a student was unable to segment the word dog using Elkonin boxes (i.e., a figure where small connected squares represent a series of phonemes) with three plastic chips, we replaced the chips with plastic letters (e.g., d, o, g). Conversely, if a student was unable to blend the sounds /d/ /o/ /g/ into the word dog, simply adding the letters to the task serves as a mnemonic clue so the student can hold the sounds in memory long enough to blend them into the word. This type of flexible scaffolding ensures that students are able to be successful with early reading activities.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-13">Tip 8: Target Specific Parts of a Scope and Sequence to Focus Instruction</hd> <p>When planning reading instruction for students with ID, teachers need to consider not only what content to teach but also how to proceed through that content. Using a systematic approach to moving through a curriculum’s scope and sequence can assist a teacher in ensuring that instruction is focused and consistent so that students master the content. Further, planning instruction so that an appropriate amount of content is targeted at a time will allow teachers to focus planning efforts. When the amount of content from the scope and sequence to be included in a lesson is matched to a student’s instructional level, this can enhance student learning.</p> <p>Teachers must decide when to repeat individual lessons or groups of lessons. Sometimes students may master some skills within a lesson (e.g., letter sounds) but still have difficulty with other skills in the same lesson or groups of lessons (e.g., blending letter sounds into words). In one research study, we found that some students were able to learn sight words and individual letter sounds at a faster pace than decoding regular words (see [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref51">2</reflink>] ). In this case, a teacher may introduce additional sight words and letter sounds while providing extra practice in blending and spelling. It is also helpful for teachers to group students with similar skills into homogenous small groups for teacher or paraprofessional instruction or to pair a student who lacks a skill with a student who has mastered it for peer-pair practice.</p> <p>One way that we have targeted specific parts of a scope and sequence in our work is to select a limited number of new words or sounds to be taught at a time. For example, in [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref52">24</reflink>] , we used the scope and sequence of an evidence-based reading program (i.e., Road to Reading; [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref53">7</reflink>] ) to generate a preassessment of letter sounds, decodable words, and high-frequency words. We used data from this assessment to determine, individually, where students would be placed in the program. For each student, we selected five target letter sounds, decodable words, and high-frequency words to target in upcoming lessons. Intervention was delivered and learning of this content was assessed daily. When students provided the correct letter sound or word for 3 consecutive days, we deemed that item “mastered” and replaced it with the next letter or word on the scope and sequence. We also did frequent assessments of mastered items to check for maintenance and incorporated missed items back into instruction. This systematic approach to moving through a scope and sequence allowed us to match the intervention to each student’s instructional level. For some students, we likely could have targeted a larger number of items. Teachers should use data they are collecting to determine an appropriate pacing for their students.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-14">Tip 9: Use Data to Guide Instruction and Adaptation</hd> <p>One of the most important things teachers can do to increase the likelihood that students with ID obtain reading goals is to use data to monitor progress and guide ongoing adaptations. In multiple studies ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref54">4</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref55">24</reflink>] ), we have used early-grade CBM to track students’ response to reading instruction, to pace their progress through a curriculum, and to inform us when instructional changes or even modifications were necessary. We encourage teachers to learn more about CBM and to consider whether this form of progress monitoring may be useful for their students. The data collected from CBM can also be used to guide ongoing adaptation of reading instruction. Teachers can use a process called data-based individualization (DBI) to determine when and how to make instructional changes ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref56">16</reflink>] ). Teachers can learn more about DBI through the National Center on Intensive Intervention (<ulink href="http://www.intensiveintervention.org">http://www.intensiveintervention.org</ulink>). Although most of the materials on the site are focused on students without ID, the guidance provided on using data to evaluate student progress and modify instruction when students are not responding sufficiently remains relevant. The approach provides teachers a framework to serve as a clinical expert who provides targeted, individualized instruction.</p> <p>One of the most important things teachers can do to increase the likelihood that students with ID obtain reading goals is to use data to monitor progress and guide ongoing adaptations.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-15">Tip 10: Involve Service Providers and Family Members</hd> <p>Although we acknowledge that less research support is available for this tip, the [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref57">21</reflink>] does emphasize that IEP meetings should involve service providers and family members. During the IEP team meeting, members should discuss how they can coordinate and provide support for reading instruction. We briefly highlighted the important role that SLPs may play ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref58">15</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref59">34</reflink>] ), but other support staff, including assistive technology specialists, behavior specialists, and school psychologists, may offer expertise that can support reading instruction ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref60">6</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref61">33</reflink>] ). It is important that team members consider how they can provide support for the agreed-upon reading goals and to ensure that there is consistency across support. For example, if a student receives instruction from a general education teacher, a special education teacher, and an SLP, the three professionals should plan to use common instructional language, to target similar skills, and to review data frequently.</p> <p></p> <p>Involving family members is also crucial. However, too often the role of family members is poorly defined. Some families may be unaware of research showing that students with ID can learn to read. We believe there are at least two important points to consider here. First, family members should prioritize features of literacy that are included as aspects of increased access to literature in [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref62">11</reflink>] model. Family members should be encouraged to provide children with multiple opportunities to access literature through read-alouds, adapted text, and repeated reading when appropriate. Families can provide definitions of new vocabulary words and can encourage discussions of stories—both those read aloud and ones a student may read independently. It is vital that school personnel encourage parental participation and important that necessary supports are provided for families of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and for those of lower socioeconomic status.</p> <p>Second, family members should not be responsible for initial instruction of skills. Instead, family members’ roles are to provide supported opportunities for practice that are fun and engaging. Teachers can provide family members with simple, gamelike activities that focus on reviewing skills the student can do independently or with minimal support. For example, if a student is able to appropriately segment three phoneme words about 80% of the time, a teacher could create a sheet that includes pictures and Elkonin boxes for four three-phoneme words. Family members could hang the sheet on the refrigerator and encourage the student to segment one or two words multiple times throughout the day when the child is in the kitchen. This provides additional opportunities for practice, requires little time or effort on the family members’ part, and could be integrated into a family’s schedule in a quick and fun way. Students can practice reading a set of words and sentences to family members; as students advance, they can read books recommended or provided by the teacher. See Figure 2 for a set of tips that families may find useful as they prepare for an IEP meeting.</p> <p>Tips for Families</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-16">Literacy Instruction and Support Planning Tool</hd> <p>We designed the planning tool (Figure 1) based on [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref63">11</reflink>] model of literacy instruction for students with ID. IEP team members can use the tool as a guide for discussing the literacy needs of individual students and when planning related instruction and supports. Various school professionals and parents could use this tool in multiple ways. It may be used as part of the IEP process or in other planning discussions. We suggest the following guidance as one way to use the tool.</p> <p>Individual team members (including parents) can independently review the 10 tips presented in this article. While reading, team members may pause after each tip and review the related discussion points presented on the tool (Sections A and B). Individuals are encouraged to take notes that may be useful during team discussions.</p> <p>Team members can then meet and review instructional priorities. The discussion points for Tips 1 and 2 (Figure 1 Section A, Focus on Instructional Planning) may be used to facilitate this discussion.</p> <p>The team can discuss the appropriate instructional emphasis for the student (Section C). Team members may consider the student’s current skills, goals for the student, and number of years remaining before the transition to postsecondary opportunities. Team members then select a level of focus (e.g., 1 = primary instructional emphasis on teaching the student how to read, minimal instructional focus on functional reading). Recall [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref64">11</reflink>] priority of ensuring access to age-appropriate literature across all levels.</p> <p>Section D can be completed as team members discuss interests the student has that are relevant to planning literacy instruction. This may assist with selecting high-interest texts, and it may help ensure that the student’s personal goals for improving reading skills are considered.</p> <p>Team members then reflect on instructional priorities, supports, and access opportunities (Section E). This section of the tool has been designed to align closely with [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref65">11</reflink>] model. For each item, the team discusses the current priority level. For example, under Instructional Priorities for Reading Instruction, the team may evaluate whether there is a need to provide instruction related to phonemic awareness by rating the item on the Likert-type scale (e.g., 1 = not a priority at this time, 2 = low priority).</p> <p>Section F provides a space for team members to list goals that appear to be the most important to consider in the upcoming academic year.</p> <p>The team then reviews the discussion points for Tips 3 through 10 (Section B, Focus on Instructional Delivery) to plan the specially designed instruction and supports to increase the student’s reading abilities and access to literature.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-17">Conclusion</hd> <p>One of the most important roles an educator plays is teaching students to read. Enhancing reading and other literacy-related outcomes for students with ID will likely increase the success these students will experience in postsecondary employment, education, and independence ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref66">20</reflink>] ). Ensuring that IEP goals and services are aligned with guidance from current research holds promise for increasing the effectiveness of educators in teaching a greater number of students to read. Our hope is that IEP teams who consider the 10 tips we have highlighted will be more reflective, will plan more intensive and effective instruction, and will see increasingly positive student outcomes.</p> <hd id="AN0118961528-18">Footnotes</hd> <p>Christopher J. Lemons, Assistant Professor, Department of Special Education Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. Jill H. Allor, Professor, Department of Teaching and Learning, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas. Stephanie Al Otaiba, Professor and Patsy and Ray Caldwell Centennial Chair in Teaching and Learning, Department of Teaching and Learning Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas. Lauren M. LeJeune, Doctoral student, Department of Special Education, Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.</p> <ref id="AN0118961528-19"> <title>References</title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref3" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext>Allor J. H., Al Otaiba S., Ortiz M., Folsom J. (2014). Comprehensive beginning reading. In Browder D. M., Spooner F. (Eds.), More language arts, math, and science for students with severe disabilities (pp. 109–126). Baltimore, MD: Brookes. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref51" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext>Allor J. H., Gifford D. B., Al Otaiba S., Miller S. J., Cheatham J. P. (2013). Teaching students with intellectual disability to integrate reading skills: Effects of text and text-based lessons. Remedial and Special Education, 34, 346–356. doi:10.1177/0741932513494020 </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref18" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext>Allor J. H., Mathes P. G., Champlin T., Cheatham J. P. (2009). Research-based techniques for teaching early reading skills to students with intellectual disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 44, 356–366. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref1" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext>Allor J. H., Mathes P. G., Roberts J. K., Cheatham J. P., Al Otaiba S. (2014). Is scientifically based reading instruction effective for students with below-average IQs?Exceptional Children, 80, 287–306. doi:10.1177/0014402914522208 </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref49" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext>American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2001). Roles and responsibilities of speech-language pathologists with respect to reading and writing in children and adolescents. 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Using curriculum-based measures with postsecondary students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 35, 247–257. doi:10.1177/0741932514530572 </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib21" idref="ref57" type="bt">21</bibl> <bibtext>Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C.§ 1400 et seq. (2006). </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib22" idref="ref32" type="bt">22</bibl> <bibtext>Lemons C. J., King S. A., Davidson K. A., Puranik C. S., Al Otaiba S., Fulmer D., … Fidler D. J. (in press). Developing an early reading intervention aligned with the Down syndrome behavioral phenotype. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib23" idref="ref14" type="bt">23</bibl> <bibtext>Lemons C. J., King S. A., Davidson K. A., Puranik C. S., Fulmer D., Mrachko A. A., … Fidler D. J. (2015). 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Exceptional Children, 79, 408–426. doi:10.1177/001440291307900402 </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib26" idref="ref38" type="bt">26</bibl> <bibtext>Moats L. C. (1999). Teaching reading is rocket science. Washington, DC: Federation of Teachers. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib27" idref="ref16" type="bt">27</bibl> <bibtext>National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Chief Council of State School Officers. (2010a). Common Core State Standards. Washington, DC: Author. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib28" idref="ref17" type="bt">28</bibl> <bibtext>National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Chief Council of State School Officers. (2010b). English language arts standards: Reading. Foundational skills: Introduction for K–5. Washington, DC: Author. 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Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities. In Neuman S., Dickinson D. (Eds.), Handbook of research in early literacy (pp. 97–110). New York, NY: Guilford. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib33" idref="ref61" type="bt">33</bibl> <bibtext>Smith D. D., DeMarco J. F., Worley M. (2009). Literacy beyond picture books: Teaching secondary students with moderate to severe disabilities. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib34" idref="ref47" type="bt">34</bibl> <bibtext>Squires K. E., Gillam S. L., Reutzel D. R. (2013). Characteristics of children who struggle with reading: Teachers and speech-language pathologists collaborate to suppor young learners. Early Childhood Education Journal, 41, 401–411. doi:10.1007/s10643-013-0577-6 </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib35" idref="ref11" type="bt">35</bibl> <bibtext>Wei X., Blackorby J., Schiller E. (2011). 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Allor; Stephanie Al Otaiba and Lauren M. LeJeune</p> </aug>
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  Data: 10 Research-Based Tips for Enhancing Literacy Instruction for Students with Intellectual Disability
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  Data: In the past 2 decades, researchers (often working closely with parents, teachers, and other school staff members) have conducted studies that have substantially increased understanding how to effectively teach children and adolescents with intellectual disability (ID) to read. This research focus has been fueled by increased societal expectations for individuals with ID, advocacy efforts, and legislative priorities (e.g., strengthened accountability standards). Findings from this body of work indicate that children and adolescents with ID can obtain higher levels of reading achievement than previously anticipated (Allor, Mathes, Roberts, Cheatham, & Al Otaiba, 2014). Provided is a Literacy Instruction and Support Planning tool, and 10 tips for enhancing literacy success are outlined. The hope is that IEP teams who consider the 10 tips will be more reflective and will plan more intensive and effective instruction, and will see increasingly positive student outcomes.
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  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1118428
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1118428
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/0040059916662202
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 13
        StartPage: 18
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Literacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Literacy Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intellectual Disability
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading Instruction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Individualized Education Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Outcomes of Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Functional Reading
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading Improvement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Emergent Literacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Students
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: 10 Research-Based Tips for Enhancing Literacy Instruction for Students with Intellectual Disability
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lemons, Christopher J.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Allor, Jill H.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Al Otaiba, Stephanie
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: LeJeune, Lauren M.
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2016
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0040-0599
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 49
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: TEACHING Exceptional Children
              Type: main
ResultId 1