Networks of Encouragement: Who's Encouraging Latina/o Students and White Students to Enroll in Honors and Advanced-Placement (AP) Courses?
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| Title: | Networks of Encouragement: Who's Encouraging Latina/o Students and White Students to Enroll in Honors and Advanced-Placement (AP) Courses? |
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| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Witenko, Vanessa, Mireles-Rios, Rebeca, Rios, Victor M. |
| Source: | Journal of Latinos and Education. 2017 16(3):176-191. |
| Availability: | Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 16 |
| Publication Date: | 2017 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Research |
| Education Level: | High Schools Secondary Education |
| Descriptors: | Advanced Placement Programs, Honors Curriculum, High School Students, White Students, Hispanic American Students, Enrollment Influences, Enrollment Trends, Social Networks, Social Support Groups, Student Motivation, Statistical Analysis, Student Surveys |
| Geographic Terms: | California |
| DOI: | 10.1080/15348431.2016.1229612 |
| ISSN: | 1534-8431 |
| Abstract: | Using affiliation network data collected at a large high school, this study examined differences between who encourages Latina/o and White students to enroll in advanced courses. Previous research has shown a positive association between emotional support and academic achievement, and thus, this study shifts the focus from who informs students to who encourages them. This study revealed that on average, Latina/o and White students have different networks of encouragement. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Number of References: | 96 |
| Entry Date: | 2017 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1149406 |
| Database: | ERIC |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwEMr_nOnMNWG1dRfjJoPFNQAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDClZGoVK_FbdH7H8fgIBEICBmyMcw0XRyYX4yAC0h1XuYM3BBMoXOo5fz7zBaxmVXnBgdkiG-y-sYqZSqDGctbbEadNMsg0COtzroksTD3-wrlm9SRBJysJiW9jjeJJhtuGJy19YEhaCCTngaNLfgGnJhDcP6vWhyHFC9hdcRzcLNbRIWLCm_Rno-_hVCW5vC39wI6PWC69JPfAbMB2yNQzmXcmlkV84kV9fygtI Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0124311718;hd001jul.17;2019Feb27.13:37;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0124311718-1">Networks of Encouragement: Who’s Encouraging Latina/o Students and White Students to Enroll in Honors and Advanced-Placement (AP) Courses? </title> <p>Using affiliation network data collected at a large high school, this study examined differences between who encourages Latina/o and White students to enroll in advanced courses. Previous research has shown a positive association between emotional support and academic achievement, and thus, this study shifts the focus from who informs students to who encourages them. This study revealed that on average, Latina/o and White students have different networks of encouragement.</p> <p>Keywords: Tracking; Latina/os; high school students; social support; honors/AP</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Improving educational outcomes for all students in the United States requires researchers to critically examine how to best support diverse student populations whose needs may vary. In particular, understanding which people in a Latina/o student's life provide emotional support is an area of research that needs more examination. Latina/o students are the largest-growing student population (Pastor, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref1">65</reflink>]); however, educational achievement gaps between White and Latina/o students remain vast. By age 25 years, 34.5% of Whites will have earned a bachelor's degree, whereas only 14.5% of Latina/os will have achieved the same educational attainment (Fry &amp; Lopez, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref2">29</reflink>]). The college educational differences are important because they also correlate with income differences. In 2012, a person's annual median income with a bachelor's degree was $50,360; in comparison, a person's annual median income with only a high school diploma was $29,423 (Zaback, Carlson, &amp; Crellin, [<reflink idref="bib93" id="ref3">93</reflink>]). Given that the U.S. Latina/o population will continue to increase (Passel, Cohn, &amp; Lopez, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref4">64</reflink>]), improving educational outcomes for Latina/os is critical for both social and economic improvements in the United States.</p> <p>Educators, policymakers, teachers, and researchers have addressed the differential educational outcomes between Latina/o students and White students with different approaches, such as focusing on pedagogy, diversifying teachers, implementing leadership programs for school administrators, and developing more equitable funding policies. However, there is one approach that does not require new funding or a major restructuring of U.S. public education: The emotional support that students receive through their social networks has been shown to improve academic achievement, especially for Latina/o students (Boykin &amp; Noguera, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref5">6</reflink>]; Croniger &amp; Lee, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref6">17</reflink>]; DuBois, Felner, Brand, Adan, &amp; Evans, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref7">20</reflink>]; Malecki &amp; Demaray, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref8">49</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref9">72</reflink>]). A student's social network is composed of varying relationships that may provide support to students. Often, researchers focus on teachers, parents, and peers when analyzing student social support networks; however, students may access other sources of support that are not traditionally measured. For example, a student may access social support through the school's secretary when the secretary talks to a student about college and says, "I really believe you would do well at a 4-year college. You have a lot of potential. You should apply." These interactions, which may appear cursory, are examples of extended sources of emotional support that may be highly beneficial for students, especially students who do not have access to typically measured sources of support (e.g., teachers, parents, peers).</p> <p>Although previous research has been conducted to examine the benefits of students' social support networks, these studies were limited because they did not account for the extended sources of support that are embedded in a student's network, such as the school's secretary or librarian (Cauce, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>]; Cherng, Calarco, &amp; Kao, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref11">14</reflink>]; Gibson, Gándara, &amp; Koyama, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref12">33</reflink>]; Ndura, Robinson, &amp; Ochs, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref13">60</reflink>]). Instead, these studies focused on aggregate roles, such as school and peers.</p> <p>As a result, researchers have been unable to identify whether there are other more diverse sources of support for students that extend beyond parents, teachers, and peers. Although some researchers have recognized the importance of looking beyond the aggregate of school (Cauce, Felner, &amp; Primavera, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref14">11</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref15">73</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref16">74</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar &amp; Dornbusch, [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref17">75</reflink>]), they still have not measured the possible benefits of other sources of support in a student's network. This study shifts the way in which researchers examine student social support networks by showing how a new survey instrument that added additional sources of support not traditionally measured uncovered the importance of extended sources of support for Latina/o students.</p> <p>Given that honors/advanced-placement (AP) courses help prepare students to enroll in 4-year colleges (Solórzano &amp; Ornelas, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref18">70</reflink>]) and that these courses can also be used as informal means for segregating students (Conchas, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref19">15</reflink>]; Jones, Vanfossen, &amp; Ensminger, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref20">39</reflink>]; Kelly, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref21">41</reflink>]; Lewis &amp; Diamond, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref22">45</reflink>]; Oakes &amp; Guiton, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref23">62</reflink>]; Staiger, [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref24">71</reflink>]; Useem, [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref25">83</reflink>]; Wells &amp; Serna, [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref26">88</reflink>]), the decision was made to explore whether Latina/o students and White students have different sources of support in their network who provide encouragement, a form of emotional support, to enroll in these advanced courses. The Student Networks of Encouragement (SNE) instrument was created to measure whether students received encouragement to enroll in honors/AP courses from 20 potential sources of encouragement.</p> <p>Using data collected at a large comprehensive high school in Southern California, this study examined differences between which sources of support provided encouragement to Latina/o students and White students to enroll in advanced courses. While previous social network analysis studies have focused on the transmission of information (Granovetter, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref27">35</reflink>]; Martin, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref28">52</reflink>]), previous research has shown a positive association between emotional support and academic achievement (Boykin &amp; Noguera, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref29">6</reflink>]; Croniger &amp; Lee, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref30">17</reflink>]; DuBois et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref31">20</reflink>]; Malecki &amp; Demaray, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref32">49</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref33">72</reflink>]). As a result, this study shifts the focus from who <emph>informs</emph> students to who <emph>encourages</emph> them, or more specifically, instead of asking who gave students information about honors/AP courses, this study asks who encouraged students to enroll in honors/AP courses. Using literature on school tracking and social support, this study revealed that although on average both Latina/o students and White students have a similar number of sources of support who provided encouragement to enroll in honors/AP courses, the nature of these sources of support differed between Latina/o students and White students.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-3">Literature review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0124311718-4">School tracking</hd> <p>Tracking, the process of assigning students into separate educational tracks based on their purported academic performance has been a longstanding education policy since the early 1900s when it was implemented to separate White Anglo-Saxon Protestant students from the influx of new immigrant children (Oakes, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref34">61</reflink>]). During this time, IQ tests gained prominence in U.S. public schools (González, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref35">34</reflink>]; Kamin, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref36">40</reflink>]; Ravitch, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref37">66</reflink>]; Suzuki &amp; Valencia, [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref38">78</reflink>]) and were used as a meritocratic tool to sort students into different educational tracks based on their IQ scores (Kamin, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref39">40</reflink>]; Ravitch, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref40">66</reflink>]). A large portion of Mexican American students scored less than 70 on the IQ tests, and thus, they were classified as "feeble-minded" and were segregated into vocational and "mentally retarded" classes (González, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref41">34</reflink>]). These tracks prepared students for low-skill jobs such as laundry, shoe shining, domestic servitude, and agriculture (González, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref42">34</reflink>]). Meanwhile, a disproportionate number of White students scored high on IQ tests and were placed into school tracks that prepared them for college.</p> <p>A century later, school tracking continues to disproportionately place White students in "gifted" programs and high-track academic courses, such as honors and AP classes, while Latina/o students are placed in special education, low-track courses, such as remedial courses, and vocational programs. Ford's ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref43">28</reflink>]) analysis of "gifted" education using data from the Office of Civil Rights revealed that in 1992, Latina/os were underrepresented by 42%, while White students were overrepresented by 17%. Valencia and Villareal's (2011) analysis of "gifted" student enrollment from the U.S. Office of Civil Rights revealed that Latina/o students are 1.9 times less likely to be identified as "gifted" compared with their White peers. Teachers are also less likely to recommend Latina/os for "gifted" education (McBee, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref44">54</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-5">Entrance to the advanced track</hd> <p>While admissions into advanced courses can vary among schools, most schools cite meritocratic measures as a means to enter advanced courses, such as grades, standardized test scores, previous placement in advanced courses, and teacher recommendations (Gamaron, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref45">31</reflink>]). However, studies have shown that placement into such tracks is rarely purely meritocratic (Baker &amp; Stevenson, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref46">3</reflink>]; Kelly, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref47">41</reflink>]; Stone, [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref48">76</reflink>]; Useem, [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref49">83</reflink>]; Vanfossen, Jones, &amp; Spade, [<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref50">86</reflink>]). Useem's ([<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref51">83</reflink>]) study with 86 mothers in two suburban Boston communities revealed that middle-class parents had more information about course tracks, and they often demanded that their children be placed in the advanced tracks. While 70% of mothers with children in the lowest math group did not know that their children were in the lowest math group, or even what it meant to be in the lowest math group, only 6% of mothers with children in the advanced math group were unaware of their child's course placement.</p> <p>Vanfossen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref52">86</reflink>]) found in their study using a subsample of 36 students from each of the 1,100 schools from the High School and Beyond data set that while 80% of the highest-performing students from the highest socioeconomic group were placed in the highest academic track, only 53% of the highest-performing students from the lowest socioeconomic group were placed in the highest track.</p> <p>Even when a school declares that it no longer tracks students, hidden forms of tracking perpetuate when guidance counselors, school administrators, and teachers create informal policies that prevent students from enrolling in the advanced track (Yonezawa, Wells, &amp; Serna, [<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref53">92</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-6">Tracking and Latina/o students</hd> <p>Nationwide, Latina/os are underrepresented in AP courses (U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref54">82</reflink>]). Academic tracking has been found to be associated with academic success and future goals for those students placed in the advanced track (Akos, Lambie, Milsom, &amp; Gilbert, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref55">1</reflink>]). Thus, those students who are honors/AP tracked, have higher educational aspirations and expectations (Ohrt, Lambie, &amp; leva, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref56">63</reflink>]; Martinez &amp; Klopott, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref57">53</reflink>]). Latina/o students who are enrolled in classes that are challenging and on the college preparation track have been shown to be more successful in getting to and getting through college (Martinez &amp; Kloppot, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref58">53</reflink>]). However, compared with White students, Latina/os are less likely to start high school in a college preparatory track (Zarate &amp; Burciaga, [<reflink idref="bib95" id="ref59">95</reflink>]). One explanation is that in schools that serve Latina/o students and other students of color, fewer AP classes are offered (Solorzano &amp; Ornelas, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref60">70</reflink>]; Zarate &amp; Pachon, [<reflink idref="bib96" id="ref61">96</reflink>]), so many Latina/o students do not have the opportunity to even enroll in AP classes.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-7">Social support</hd> <p>As evident by the name, social support is support provided to an individual via their connections to other individuals (Barrera, Sandier, &amp; Ramsay, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref62">4</reflink>]). Social support is an overarching concept that is often measured by its four forms of support: emotional support (care, trust, love, empathy), instrumental support (money, time, work), informational support (advice, suggestions, information), and appraisal support (affirmation, feedback); (Cooke, Rossmann, Mccubbin, &amp; Patterson, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref63">16</reflink>]). Students may receive all forms of social support, some, or none, and the support may be acquired from one person, a few people, or many people in a student's social circle or social network.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-8">Importance of emotional support for Latina/o students</hd> <p>Emotional support is especially beneficial for Latina/o students (Hudley &amp; Daoud, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref64">38</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref65">73</reflink>]; Valenzuela, [<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref66">85</reflink>]). Stanton-Salazar ([<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref67">72</reflink>]) found that Latina/o adolescents who had "caring and nurturing relationships with school personnel" (p. 167) were better able to persevere through school despite difficult life challenges. Hudley and Daoud's ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref68">38</reflink>]) study of White and Latina/o students at a suburban high school in California revealed that teacher warmth was more important for school engagement among Latina/o students compared with White students. Given the importance of emotional support, how to best measure social support networks will be examined next.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-9">Measuring social support networks</hd> <p>In previous studies, researchers have examined the benefits of social support networks; however, the data collected are related to networks largely defined as family, school, and peers, and the studies fail to disaggregate the unique roles embedded within each network (Cauce, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref69">10</reflink>]; Cherng et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref70">14</reflink>]; Gibson et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref71">33</reflink>]; Ndura et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref72">60</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref73">73</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref74">74</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar &amp; Dornbusch, [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref75">75</reflink>]). Although Stanton-Salazar ([<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref76">72</reflink>]) argued for the importance of "school agents," in a student's network, the unique roles encompassing "school agents" are limited to teachers, sports coaches, guidance counselors, and the Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) Program teacher. Ndura et al. ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref77">60</reflink>]) surveyed about 58,000 students from eight schools and asked them to identify the person who encouraged them to enroll in AP classes; however, students completing the survey could only select "parent," "teacher," "counselor," "friend," or "other." While analyzing peer networks, Cherng et al. ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref78">14</reflink>]) relied on the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health data set and thus were restricted to analyzing only "best friends," within a student's network, which restricted the peer network to strong ties.</p> <p>The design of these studies prevented researchers from discovering if other adults in a student's life provide social support; however, previous research suggests that in fact other adults in a student's life can be especially beneficial in their educational success.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-10">Diverse sources of social support</hd> <p>A large social support network in which students have multiple opportunities to access beneficial social support is important for students. The expansiveness of a student's network corresponds with expanded opportunities for social support (Bourdieu, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref79">5</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-11">Traditionally measured sources of support</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0124311718-12">Family</hd> <p>The role of the family and, in particular, parental support is often examined. While the benefits of parental support for educational success have been well established (Catsambis, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref80">9</reflink>]; Galand &amp; Hospel, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref81">30</reflink>]; Richman, Rosenfeld, &amp; Bowen, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref82">67</reflink>]; Rosenfeld, Richman, &amp; Bowen, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref83">68</reflink>]; Sanders, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref84">69</reflink>]; Tenenbaum, Porche, Snow, Tabors, &amp; Ross, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref85">79</reflink>]; Wentzel, [<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref86">89</reflink>]), fewer studies have looked at the benefits of sibling support (Ceja, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref87">12</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref88">72</reflink>]) and support received from other relatives (Cheng &amp; Starks, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref89">13</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref90">72</reflink>]); however, these roles are beneficial for students.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-13">Teachers</hd> <p>The benefits of teacher support have been well established (Eccles, Barber, Stone, &amp; Hunt, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref91">21</reflink>]; Green, Rhodes, Hirsch, Suárez-Orozco, &amp; Camic, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref92">36</reflink>]; Sanders, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref93">69</reflink>]; Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, &amp; Todorova, [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref94">77</reflink>]). Teacher support reduces student absenteeism (Elias &amp; Haynes, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref95">22</reflink>]), increases student engagement (Brewster &amp; Bowen, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref96">7</reflink>]), helps reduce dropout rates (Croniger &amp; Lee, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref97">17</reflink>]), and increases students' satisfaction with school (Danielsen, Samdal, Hetland, &amp; Wold, 2009).</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-14">Guidance counselors</hd> <p>Guidance counselors also have great influence on students' course placement (Gamoran, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref98">31</reflink>]). High school counselors also advise students on their postsecondary plans (Trusty &amp; Niles, 2003), and whether students enroll in honors and AP courses can affect their probability of being admitted to college (Solórzano &amp; Ornelas, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref99">70</reflink>]). School administrators, such as the school's principal or assistant principal, can also perpetuate tracking inequalities by succumbing to the belief that tracking is a sound meritocratic process (Gamoran, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref100">31</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-15">Peers</hd> <p>A student's peer network can influence their academic trajectory, (Demaray &amp; Malecki, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref101">19</reflink>]; Gibson et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref102">33</reflink>]; McDill &amp; Coleman, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref103">55</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref104">72</reflink>]; Wentzel &amp; Caldwell, [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref105">90</reflink>]). Students who begin with a low grade point average (GPA) but who have friends with high GPAs overtime improve their GPAs (Mounts &amp; Steinberg, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref106">59</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-16">Extended social support networks</hd> <p>Though not currently found in the literature, there is the possibility that other school personnel provide students with social support. The relationships that are forged between students and staff at school are often unexamined. However, it is important to examine these relationships as previous literature has shown that diverse networks of social support are critical for student achievement (Wang &amp; Eccles, [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref107">87</reflink>]). For example, a student who is often tardy will interact with the attendance officer, and they may begin to establish a personal relationship; the attendance officer then becomes an important source of support in the student's network.</p> <p>Some other examples of extended social support networks may come from specialized programs, such as the AVID Program, which provides students with an AVID elective course taught by a trained AVID teacher to support underrepresented students (Fashola &amp; Slavin, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref108">25</reflink>]). The goal of AVID is to help students succeed in applying and attending college, and previous research has shown that AVID explicitly teaches students the covert lessons associated with educational success, such as how to contact a professional at a college, fill out a college application, and dress for an interview; thus, the AVID Program provides students with access to knowledge that is often secured in middle-class social networks (Mehan, Villanueva, Hubbard, &amp; Lintz, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref109">57</reflink>]). Students who participate in a teen-parent center receive intimate social support, not only with respect to information about parenting their children, but they are also encouraged to reach their own educational goals (Williams &amp; Sadler, [<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref110">91</reflink>]).</p> <p>Previous studies have noted the benefits of school clubs and extracurricular activities (Gardner, Roth, &amp; Brooks-Gunn, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref111">32</reflink>]; Lee, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref112">44</reflink>]; Lindsay, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref113">46</reflink>]; Mahoney &amp; Cairns, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref114">47</reflink>]; Marsh &amp; Kleitman, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref115">51</reflink>]). Mahoney, Schweder, and Stattin ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref116">48</reflink>]) studied 703 adolescents and found that adolescents who participated in structured afterschool activities were less depressed than those who did not; however, this finding was mostly true when the adolescents perceived their activity leader as providing high levels of support.</p> <p>Students who participate in school sports are more likely to receive social support from school personnel than are students who do not participate in sports (Broh, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref117">8</reflink>]; Eccles et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref118">21</reflink>]). Because sport coaches are expected to ensure that their student-athletes are making academic progress and are healthy, coaches act as a special advocate and take on the role of communicating with parents and school personnel (Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref119">72</reflink>]).</p> <p>While much attention has been focused on school, family, and peer network roles, other roles in a student's network, such as a tutor or a counselor at a YMCA, could provide students with encouragement. High- and middle-income students often use their economic advantages to pay for private tutors to prepare for the SAT, or to receive emotional support and guidance through the college application process (McDonough, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref120">56</reflink>]). Some tutoring services cost up to $400 per hour with tutors mixing academic support and emotional support, so much so that students refer to their tutors as being like an "uncle" (Ellin, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref121">23</reflink>]). Students involved in their church receive encouragement from their church members, which translates into higher academic self-concept and increased school success (Sanders, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref122">69</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-17">The current study</hd> <p>Bringing together the ideas of tracking, the importance of emotional support, and the understanding of the diverse sources of support embedded within large aggregate networks (family, school, peers), this study explored how networks of encouragement may emerge differently on average for Latina/o students and White students. Specifically, this study examined 20 different sources of support in a student's network and whether the student received encouragement to enroll in honors/AP courses, the advanced track in this study. The aim of this study was to understand Latina/o students' and White students' networks of encouragement for enrolling in honors/AP classes. We hypothesized that because this study disaggregates large networks into more nuanced sources of social support, new and different networks will emerge for Latina/o students and White students.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-18">Method</hd> <p>The survey data used in this study came from a study of a large high school in Southern California with the aim of understanding the educational achievement gap between Latina/o students and White students. This school is referred to by the pseudonym Riverland High School. Forty-two percent of Riverland's students are identified by the school district as socioeconomic-disadvantaged. Because the far majority of the racial composition of the school is Latina/o or White, this study will be comparing only those two racial groups. During the spring 2013 semester, 79.2% of Latina/os and 37.2% of White students were enrolled in the basic math track, while 14.7% of Latina/os and 57.6% of White students were enrolled in the honors/AP math track. Similar disproportionate numbers represented the English course tracks: 68.5% of Latina/o students and 19.6% of White students were enrolled in the basic English track, while 31.5% of Latina/o students and 80.5% of White students were enrolled in the honors/AP English track (see Table 1). The official policy for enrolling in honors and AP courses at Riverland High School is that any student who requests to be placed into an honors or AP course may enroll in the course.</p> <p>Table 1. Academic track enrollment by race and course</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Track placement&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Latino&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;White&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;italic&gt;&amp;#967;2&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;italic&gt;p&lt;/italic&gt; value&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Math&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Basic&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;84.3%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;521&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;33.5%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;262&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;233.75***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Honors&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14.1%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;87&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;42.2%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;261&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;121.10***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Advanced placement&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.6%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15.4%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;95&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;75.14***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;English&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Basic&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;68.5%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;451&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19.6%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;130&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;323.70***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Honors&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;23.4%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;154&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;54.1%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;359&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;132.58***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Advanced placement&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8.1%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;53&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;26.4%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;175&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;74.00***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>3 ***<emph>p</emph> &lt; .001.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-19">Sample</hd> <p>A research team of more than 100 undergraduate students, 7 graduate students, 1 postdoctoral, and 1 professor canvassed the entire school during second period to administer the survey. During the first 20 min of second period, 1 or 2 people from the research team entered an assigned classroom and read a common protocol that discussed confidentiality, the value of their participation, and the fact that there are no right or wrong answers. The surveys were then handed to students, who completed the survey in approximately 15 minutes.</p> <p>In total, students in 69 classrooms, the library, the gym, the detention rooms, the counseling offices, and the teen-parent center were surveyed. Once students completed their surveys, the research team collected them and handed them to a graduate student leader. Students who did not self-identify as either Latina/o or White were deleted from the sample. Additionally, only students enrolled in a math or English classes during the spring of 2013 were included. Further, students enrolled in English-language development courses and students enrolled in remedial English and/or math courses were deleted from the sample. Thus, the sample size for the following analyses was <emph>N</emph> = 1,324, including 658 Latina/o and 664 White students. Students in Grades 9 through 12 were equally represented in the sample, with ages ranging from 13 to 19 years old (<emph>M</emph><subs>age</subs><emph> = </emph>16 years); 49.3% self-identified as male and 50.4% self-identified as female.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-20">Instrument development</hd> <p>Based on a review of the literature, no survey instrument exists that captures the multiple and diverse sources of social support available to students. Based on the Literature section, the Students Networks of Encouragement (SNE) instrument was developed. Creating a survey instrument that could capture 20 different sources of support in a student's network clearly and concisely required multiple revisions, pilot testing, and cognitive interviews.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref123">1</reflink>] The cognitive interviews revealed that certain terms needed greater clarification, and the pilot tests revealed that students would skip questions depending on the layout of the SNE instrument. After a year of revisions and multiple pilot tests, the SNE had a high response rate where all items were answered; cognitive interviews revealed that students understood the questions in the manner the researcher had intended.</p> <p>The following question on the SNE instrument was analyzed: "<emph>Have you been encouraged by the following people to enroll in honors or AP courses?"</emph> Students selected among 20 sources of support that provided encouragement.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-21">Selection of sources of support for the SNE instrument</hd> <p>The SNE instrument builds on previous social network analysis scales that focused on traditional networks of school, family, and peers (Gibson et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref124">33</reflink>]; Ndura et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref125">60</reflink>]). The SNE, however, provides a more in-depth understanding of the underlying sources of support within these networks to expand beyond the traditional sources of support, family, school, and peers. The following roles were added to the survey: "<emph>college and career counselor</emph>," two counselors staffed by a special center on campus who provide information on internships, community service, and college and career counseling; "<emph>program counselors</emph>," which included adults managing the teen-parent center, mentors from a nearby university, and specialized programs located on the Riverland High School campus; "<emph>Riverland HS Club advisor</emph>," which included any adult who advised a school club at Riverland High School; "<emph>other Riverland HS adults</emph>," which was aimed at encompassing any other adult on campus who was not listed in the aforementioned categories, such as librarians, security guards, secretaries, etc. Additionally, to test whether out-of-school tutors provided additional encouragement to enroll in advanced courses, "<emph>private-fee teacher</emph>" and the role of "<emph>advisor/teacher at a free program</emph>" were added.</p> <p>Given the debates among social network analysis scholars as to whether strong or weak ties are more important (Cherng et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref126">14</reflink>]; Enriquez, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref127">24</reflink>]; Granovetter, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref128">35</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref129">73</reflink>]; Thomas, [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref130">80</reflink>]), including both strong and weak ties on the SNE instrument was critical to determine if a student's close friends (strong tie) or student's acquaintances (weak tie) were providing encouragement to enroll in honors/AP courses. The statement "<emph>Friends who have been in or are enrolled in honors or AP courses</emph>" was included as a strong tie, whereas "<emph>People you've met (not a close friend) who have been or are enrolled in honors or AP courses</emph>" was included as a weak tie. Other peer connections included in the SNE instrument were: "<emph>friends who are enrolled or have graduated from college</emph>" and "<emph>people you've met (not a close friend) who are enrolled or have graduated from college</emph>." The final peer group was "<emph>other friends</emph>," which determined a general peer influence not measured by the aforementioned four peer groups.</p> <p>Including the aforementioned sources of support as well as preestablished, traditional sources of support (e.g., parent, teacher, peers, etc.) resulted in the following 20 network roles that were included in the SNE: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref131">1</reflink>) parent/guardian, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref132">2</reflink>) brother/sister, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref133">3</reflink>) other relatives, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref134">4</reflink>) college recruiter, (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref135">5</reflink>) principal or assistant principal, (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref136">6</reflink>) Riverland guidance counselor, (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref137">7</reflink>) Riverland College &amp; Career counselor, (<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref138">8</reflink>) program counselors, (<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref139">9</reflink>) Riverland AVID teacher, (<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref140">10</reflink>) Riverland club advisor, (<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref141">11</reflink>) Riverland sports coach, (<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref142">12</reflink>) other Riverland teacher(s), (<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref143">13</reflink>) other Riverland adults, (<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref144">14</reflink>) private fee teacher, (<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref145">15</reflink>) advisor/teacher at a free program, (<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref146">16</reflink>) friends who have been in or are enrolled in honors or AP courses, (<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref147">17</reflink>) people you have met (not a close friend) who have been or are enrolled in honors or AP courses, (<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref148">18</reflink>) friends who are enrolled or have graduated from college, (<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref149">19</reflink>) people you have met (not a close friend) who are enrolled or have graduated from college, and (<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref150">20</reflink>) other friends.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-22">Statistical analysis procedures</hd> <p>Chi-square tests were conducted using the <emph>Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Version 20.0</emph>. Students who did not select any response for a particular role of encouragement (e.g., "<emph>Have you been encouraged by the following people to enroll in honors or AP courses?"</emph>) were coded as "no connection" (i.e., "999").</p> <p>After reviewing the study surveys, it was determined that students who did not respond to a particular role of encouragement wrote comments, such as "doesn't apply," "N/A," and "don't have this class," and thus, it was concluded that students who did not respond to a particular role were doing so because that role did not exist in the student's network. Therefore, values of "999" and "0" were collectively labeled as 0 (i.e., not receiving encouragement). Furthermore, never being encouraged and not acknowledging any form of encouragement are theoretically equivalent. For example, a student who does not have a sibling cannot receive encouragement from the sibling, and a student who has a sibling but does not receive encouragement is logically equivalent: In both cases, neither student receives encouragement.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-23">Results</hd> <p>Chi-square tests were run to determine if there were statistical differences in the proportion of Latina/o students and White students who were encouraged to enroll in honors/AP courses by the 20 potential sources of encouragement included in the SNE. Chi-square tests were conducted because categorical data were being compared to one independent variable: race. Additionally, the analysis met the criteria for using a chi-square in that the analysis was not for a repeated measure, and each cell was larger than 5 (Field, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref151">26</reflink>]). Results indicated statistically significant differences for 14 sources of support. While on average both Latina/o students and White students have a similar number of sources of support who provided encouragement to enroll in honors and AP courses (Latina/o = 7, White = 7), those sources of support differed. On average, Latina/o students received encouragement from sources of nontraditional social support at a differential rate compared with White students: the school's college and career counselors, a program counselor, a club advisor, and other adults in the school, such as school security guards, librarians, and school secretaries; additionally, on average, Latina/o students received encouragement from individuals in specialized programs that focus on college, such as AVID, and an advisor at a free out-of-school program, such as the YMCA or their church, at higher rates than White students. In contrast, on average, a greater proportion of White students received encouragement from traditionally measured sources of social support: their parents, teachers, and peers. The SNE was also able to determine that White students on average received encouragement from private tutors at a differential rate than Latina/o students (Table 2).</p> <p>Table 2. Differences in sources of encouragement</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Source of support&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Latina/o&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;White&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;italic&gt;&amp;#967;2&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;italic&gt;p&lt;/italic&gt; value&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Parent/guardian&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;83.0%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;95.3%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;52.54***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Brother/sisters&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;59.1%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;55.4%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.65&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.172&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Other relatives&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;62.8%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;62.0%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.08&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.777&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;College recruiter&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;49.7%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;43.5%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5.04*&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.025&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Principal/AP&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;48.6%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;48.5%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.961&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Guidance counselor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;76.1%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;75.2%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.698&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;College &amp; Career counselor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;52.1%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;45.2%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;6.37*&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.012&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Program counselor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;46.5%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;27.0%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;54.05***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;AVID&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;44.2%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;9.6%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;202.10***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Club advisor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;29.3%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14.6%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;42.19***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Sport coach&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;35.3%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;35.3%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.005&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.946&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Teacher&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;71.3%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;78.5%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;9.27**&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Other school adults&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;37.5%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;25.5%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;22.14***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Private-fee tutor&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17.8%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;22.2%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.08*&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.043&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Advisor/teacher free&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;23.6%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12.5%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;27.63***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Friends in honors/AP&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;69.3%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;83.2%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;35.26***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Acquaintance in honors/AP&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;52.1%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;61.6%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12.01***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Friends in college&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;53.6%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;60.8%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;6.94**&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.008&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Acquaintance college&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;45.7%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;45.0%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.07&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.798&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Other friends&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;54.3%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;64.6%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14.59***&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>4 <emph>Note</emph>. AVID = Advancement Via Individual Determination Program; AP = advanced placement. *<emph>p</emph> &lt; .05. **<emph>p</emph> &lt; .01. ***<emph>p</emph> &lt; .001.</p> <p>While we found differences in sources of encouragement to enroll in honors/AP classes, we wanted to know if qualified Latina/o students were being placed in honors/AP courses at the same rate as their White peers. In an odds ratio analysis, we found that Latina/o students with a GPA of 3.0 or higher were 4.59 times more likely to be placed in the basic English track (not honors/AP track) compared with White students with a GPA of 3.0 or higher. Similar findings were found for math course placement, in which Latina/o students with a GPA of 3.0 or higher were 3.16 times more likely to be placed into the regular math class compared with White students with a GPA of 3.0 or higher.</p> <p>It should be noted that the chi-square analyses are based on all Riverland High School students, and so while 44.2% of Latina/o students said they received encouragement from the AVID teacher, this number is representing all Latina/o students at Riverland High School and not just those students enrolled in the AVID program.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-24">Discussion</hd> <p>The main goals of this study were to determine whether on average Latina/o students and White students have different sources of support for receiving encouragement to enroll in honors/AP courses. Additionally, this study tested whether expanding traditionally measured social support networks to include more nuanced and diverse sources of support would lead to different social support networks for Latina/o and White students.</p> <p>It is important to note that the sources of support identified by a majority of Latina/o students were sources that are not traditionally included in measures of social support. Thus, these results provide evidence for looking beyond traditional sources of support (family, school, peers) and for investigating the extended sources of support (e.g., program counselors, school secretaries, YMCA tutors) who are associated with diverse student populations. For example, 52.10% of Latina/os received encouragement from Riverland's college and career counselor, and 29.3% received encouragement from their school's club advisor; however, if "school" was never disaggregated into more nuanced sources of support, researchers would not be able to uncover the importance of club advisors and college and career counselors for Latina/o students. By extending large network clusters into more nuanced sources of support, this study revealed that Latina/o students do have social support networks that provide encouragement; however, they will not be identified in traditional social support instruments that rely on the traditional sources of family, school, and peers. Thus, we propose that researchers consider the extended social support networks (ESSNs) when analyzing social support networks. ESSNs are defined as those connections of support beyond traditional sources—teachers, parents, peers—who students encounter like staff, secretaries, and program counselors, as ESSNs. These ESSNs provide students with systems of support that have been overlooked in the literature and are typically not recognized.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-25">Traditionally measured sources of support</hd> <p>While a majority of social support network studies have considered family, school, and peer networks (Cherng et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref152">14</reflink>]; Gibson et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref153">33</reflink>]; Malecki &amp; Demaray, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref154">49</reflink>]; Ndura et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref155">60</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref156">73</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref157">74</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar &amp; Dornbusch, [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref158">75</reflink>]), few studies have examined the unique sources of support embedded within these networks. This is significant because for White students, traditional sources of support (parents, teachers and peers) emerged significant however for Latina/o students it was the extended sources of support that mattered most.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-26">Parents/guardians</hd> <p>Although there were significant differences between the proportion of Latina/o students (83%) and the proportion of White students (95.3%) who received encouragement from their parents/guardians, it should be noted that both groups still received the majority of encouragement from their parents/guardians. One caveat of the study that may be affecting the statistically significant differences is that the survey question focuses on a unique element of high school (placement into advanced courses); parents with low educational attainment often lack information about latent aspects of educational institutions, such as specialized honors/AP courses (Lareau, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref159">42</reflink>]; Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref160">72</reflink>]). Because the majority of Latina/o parents in this study have low levels of educational attainment, they may be unaware of honors/AP courses and the benefits they afford. Thus, it is not the parents' unwillingness to provide encouragement to their children to enroll in these courses, but rather the difference between Latina/o and White parents may be that a greater proportion of White parents are aware of these advanced courses and thus are able to encourage their children to enroll in them.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-27">Teachers</hd> <p>A greater proportion of White students, 78.5%, received encouragement from their teachers compared with Latina/o students (71.3%). In previous studies, researchers have found that teachers have lower expectations for Black and Latina/o students than for White and Asian students (Finely, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref161">27</reflink>]; Oakes, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref162">61</reflink>]; Wells &amp; Serna, [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref163">88</reflink>]). As a result, even when Latina/o students are excelling academically, teachers may be influenced by racial biases and thus are not encouraging their Latina/o students to enroll in advanced courses. Researchers have found that stereotypes are used to help rationalize people's understanding of unknown groups of people (Lawrence, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref164">43</reflink>]; Zamudio, Russell, Rios, &amp; Bridgeman, [<reflink idref="bib94" id="ref165">94</reflink>]). Because the majority of Latina/o students are enrolled in basic courses and the majority of White students are enrolled in honors/AP courses, on a subconscious level, teachers may be assuming that Latina/o students should be in regular courses and White students should be in honors/AP courses, and thus, the discrepancy of encouragement is a result of racial stereotypes. In addition, the examination of informal sources of support for Latina/o students builds on Valenzuela's ([<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref166">85</reflink>]) concept that authentic caring is a bi-directional teacher-student relationship where teachers, students and other school personnel validate, accept and value the students' culture. Through this genuine interaction, a sense of safety, connectedness, and warmth exists to foster a healthy learning environment for students.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-28">Peers</hd> <p>A larger proportion of White students received encouragement to enroll in honors/AP courses from their peers compared with Latina/o students. One reason for the significant difference may be that because there are fewer Latina/o students enrolled in honors/AP courses and because students at this school are more likely to develop friendships within their own racial group, fewer Latina/o students have access to this network of peers. Another reason may be that Latina/o students who have enrolled in honors/AP courses do not recommend these courses to their friends because of negative experiences. Further, the mean GPA for Latina/o students on average is lower than that for White students, and because this school is racially segregated, Latina/o students may be less likely to turn to their peer network for support, because their peer network has not been able to access the advanced courses.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-29">Extended social support networks</hd> <p>The findings that a greater proportion of Latina/o students received encouragement from extended sources of support, including college and career counselors (Latina/o = 52.1%, White = 45.2%), program counselors (Latina/o = 46.5%, White = 27.0%), club advisors (Latina/o = 29.3%, White = 14.6%), other adults (Latina/o = 37.5%, White = 25.5%), advisors/teachers in a free program such as the YMCA or the student's church (Latina/o = 23.6%, White = 12.5%), AVID teachers (Latina/o = 44.2%, White = 9.6%), and college recruiters (Latina/o = 49.7%, White = 43.5%), compared with White students provide evidence for researchers to disaggregate their social support networks in order to understand how diverse student groups are accessing social support to succeed academically. It is also important to examine how these extended sources of support may be playing a role in encouraging Latina/o students to enroll in honors/AP classes.</p> <p>The role of the guidance counselor has the potential to play a critical role in planning the college and career trajectory for students. It is possible that Latina/o students may be entering the College and Career Center for advice on careers out of high school; however, after the counselors have spoken with the students and have reviewed their academic records, the counselors may encourage them to attend a 4-year college and attempt honors/AP courses to strengthen their academics.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-30">Another extended source of support</hd> <p>Club advisors typically provide time at lunch and/or afterschool for students when relationships and trust can build on these informal networks. It is possible that Latina/o students may have strong connections to their church and the local no-fee community centers and thus are able to receive emotional support from these connections. Likewise, if White students are already receiving support from other network roles, such as their parents, teachers, and peers, they may have no incentive to seek out other roles of support. In support of Stanton-Salazar's work on social support networks, students will seek out diverse network roles to receive different forms of support (Stanton-Salazar, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref167">72</reflink>]).</p> <p>Bridging the extended support networks with the traditional support networks, specialized programs may act as the conduit to connect emotional support with informational and instructional support to move students through the academic pipeline. The AVID Program is an elective course taught by a trained AVID teacher to support underrepresented students (Fashola &amp; Slavin, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref168">25</reflink>]). The goal of AVID is to help students succeed in applying and attending college, and previous research has shown that AVID explicitly teaches students the covert lessons associated with educational success, such as how to contact a professional at a college, fill out a college application, and dress for an interview; thus, AVID provides students with access to knowledge that is often secured in middle-class social networks (Mehan et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref169">57</reflink>]). The AVID findings, in which 44.2% of Latina/o students received encouragement in comparison with 9.6% of White students, are less surprising given that the aim of the AVID Program is to support underrepresented students, which at Riverland High School are a majority Latina/o. The findings are still positive in that almost half of Riverland High School students receive encouragement to enroll in advanced courses from their AVID teacher, and therefore, AVID is providing emotional support to students and is an important resource for students. This finding adds to the already-established benefits of the AVID Program by highlighting how the program encourages students to enroll in advanced courses. Programs similar to AVID provide Latina/o students with the benefits of the informal sources of support through a more formalized system.</p> <p>To understand why ESSNs were so significant for Latina/o students, it is important to understand the literature around Latina/os and the concept of <emph>familismo</emph>, in which the family is central to Latina/o culture and in which family obligations, perceived support, role models within the family, and expectations that the family will be a source of emotional support play a central role in Latina/o culture (Halgunseth, Ispa, &amp; Rudy, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref170">37</reflink>]; Miranda, Bilot, Peluso, Berman, &amp; Van Meek, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref171">58</reflink>]). This concept can be extended to include school-based support in the ESSN, such that the school attendance officer begins to act like extended family in the form of an "aunt" or <emph>"tía."</emph> Researchers should consider the various ways in which adolescents conceptualize "family," beyond the traditional roles of parents, grandparents, aunts/uncles, and siblings. If adolescents are incorporating other nontraditional family roles into their "family" networks, then the positive educational outcomes associated with family networks may be expanded to other network roles, such as the sources found in their ESSNs.</p> <p>Lastly, our finding that Latina/o students with a GPA of 3.0 or greater in comparison with White students with a GPA of 3.0 or greater were more likely to be placed in basic tracked classes as opposed to honors or AP classes demystifies the argument that Latina/o students just may not be qualified to engage in more challenging classes. Future studies should examine why high-achieving Latina/o youth are not enrolling in honors/AP courses and therefore not being given the opportunity to benefit from honors/AP courses.</p> <hd id="AN0124311718-31">Limitations</hd> <p>This study compared on average whether Latina/o students and White students receive encouragement from 20 individual sources of support, and it did not compare the overarching networks. This study also only evaluated one form of social support: emotional support. While different networks emerged for Latina/o students and White students, this finding only related to students' networks of encouragement.</p> <p>Two main recommendations for bridging the achievement gap between Latina/o and White students emerged from the data. First, teachers must be trained to recognize their own biases and that although they may think they are recommending their top students for honors/AP courses, in fact, there are racial biases affecting who they encourage to enroll in the advanced tracks at their school. In addition, teachers may not understand how to encourage students from a culture different from their own. Given that the majority of U.S. public school teachers are White (Aud et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref172">2</reflink>]), providing professional development for teachers on how to self-assess for implicit bias and how to improve their cultural competence will help ensure that not only White students but also Latina/o students receive the necessary encouragement from their teachers.</p> <p>Because this study included a survey instrument that enabled students to select nontraditional sources of social support, new ESSNs were able to emerge for Latina/o students. Previous studies have not been able to identify these social support networks because they failed to add diverse sources of support to their survey instruments or relied on national data sets that by default restricted sources of support to preestablished sources of social support. The use of the SNE in future studies would allow for a more inclusive and nuanced look at social support networks for diverse groups of students in a given school.</p> <p>In addition, these findings highlight the potential of diverse school personnel to help ameliorate the racial achievement gap and the social support gap that is found between disparate student groups. School personnel, such as the school secretary or a club advisor, are often not acknowledged by educational policymakers for the ways in which they support students beyond their explicit job description. Researchers and policymakers should consider the benefits of ESSNs in supporting Latina/o students. Additionally, large preestablished networks of school, family, and peers should be disaggregated to uncover the unique sources of support within these networks that are able to provide the necessary support that Latina/o students need to be academically successful. These interactions can become more frequent, and increased interactions between two individuals strengthen the connection between them (Marsden &amp; Campbell, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref173">50</reflink>]). Students may then begin to see these adults as positive role models who may act in a manner that is similar to the concept of <emph>familismo</emph>.</p> <ref id="AN0124311718-32"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref55" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Akos, P., Lambie, G., Milsom, A., &amp; Gilbert, K. (2007). Early adolescents' aspirations and academic tracking: An exploratory investigation. 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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Networks of Encouragement: Who's Encouraging Latina/o Students and White Students to Enroll in Honors and Advanced-Placement (AP) Courses? – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Witenko%2C+Vanessa%22">Witenko, Vanessa</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Mireles-Rios%2C+Rebeca%22">Mireles-Rios, Rebeca</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rios%2C+Victor+M%2E%22">Rios, Victor M.</searchLink> – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Latinos+and+Education%22"><i>Journal of Latinos and Education</i></searchLink>. 2017 16(3):176-191. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 16 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2017 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research – Name: Audience Label: Education Level Group: Audnce Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Advanced+Placement+Programs%22">Advanced Placement Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Honors+Curriculum%22">Honors Curriculum</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+School+Students%22">High School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22White+Students%22">White Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Hispanic+American+Students%22">Hispanic American Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Enrollment+Influences%22">Enrollment Influences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Enrollment+Trends%22">Enrollment Trends</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Networks%22">Social Networks</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Support+Groups%22">Social Support Groups</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Motivation%22">Student Motivation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Statistical+Analysis%22">Statistical Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Surveys%22">Student Surveys</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Geographic Terms Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22California%22">California</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1080/15348431.2016.1229612 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 1534-8431 – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: Using affiliation network data collected at a large high school, this study examined differences between who encourages Latina/o and White students to enroll in advanced courses. Previous research has shown a positive association between emotional support and academic achievement, and thus, this study shifts the focus from who informs students to who encourages them. This study revealed that on average, Latina/o and White students have different networks of encouragement. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: Ref Label: Number of References Group: RefInfo Data: 96 – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2017 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1149406 |
| PLink | https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1149406 |
| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1080/15348431.2016.1229612 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 16 StartPage: 176 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Advanced Placement Programs Type: general – SubjectFull: Honors Curriculum Type: general – SubjectFull: High School Students Type: general – SubjectFull: White Students Type: general – SubjectFull: Hispanic American Students Type: general – SubjectFull: Enrollment Influences Type: general – SubjectFull: Enrollment Trends Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Networks Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Support Groups Type: general – SubjectFull: Student Motivation Type: general – SubjectFull: Statistical Analysis Type: general – SubjectFull: Student Surveys Type: general – SubjectFull: California Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Networks of Encouragement: Who's Encouraging Latina/o Students and White Students to Enroll in Honors and Advanced-Placement (AP) Courses? Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Witenko, Vanessa – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Mireles-Rios, Rebeca – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Rios, Victor M. IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 01 Type: published Y: 2017 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 1534-8431 Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 16 – Type: issue Value: 3 Titles: – TitleFull: Journal of Latinos and Education Type: main |
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