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Exploring How an Elementary Teacher Plans and Implements Social Studies Inquiry

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Title: Exploring How an Elementary Teacher Plans and Implements Social Studies Inquiry
Language: English
Authors: Thacker, Emma S., Friedman, Adam M., Fitchett, Paul G., Journell, Wayne, Lee, John K.
Source: Social Studies. 2018 109(2):85-100.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2018
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Descriptors: Elementary School Teachers, Social Studies, Case Studies, Inquiry, Pedagogical Content Knowledge, Grade 5, Models, History Instruction, Active Learning, Semi Structured Interviews
DOI: 10.1080/00377996.2018.1451983
ISSN: 0037-7996
Abstract: Social studies continues to be marginalized in elementary grades, yet the "C3 Framework" and its Inquiry Arc offer possibilities for high-quality elementary social studies instruction. However, the "C3 Framework" requires that teachers possess an adequate understanding of how to implement inquiry within the various social studies disciplines, which we argue is an aspect of the pedagogical content knowledge necessary for effective elementary social studies instruction. This single-case study follows an elementary teacher through her use of the "C3 Framework", Inquiry Arc, and a related curriculum approach called the Inquiry Design Model as she conceptualized, planned, and implemented inquiries in her fifth-grade classroom. By incorporating this new knowledge into her existing understanding of social studies pedagogy, as well as her knowledge of her students and specific educational context, the teacher was able to successfully navigate some of the challenges associated with implementing social studies inquiry in elementary classrooms.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 75
Entry Date: 2018
Accession Number: EJ1179920
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0129717299;soc01mar.18;2018May23.08:15;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0129717299-1">Exploring How an Elementary Teacher Plans and Implements Social Studies Inquiry </title> <p>Social studies continues to be marginalized in elementary grades, yet the C3 Framework and its Inquiry Arc offer possibilities for high-quality elementary social studies instruction. However, the C3 Framework requires that teachers possess an adequate understanding of how to implement inquiry within the various social studies disciplines, which we argue is an aspect of the pedagogical content knowledge necessary for effective elementary social studies instruction. This single-case study follows an elementary teacher through her use of the C3 Framework, Inquiry Arc, and a related curriculum approach called the Inquiry Design Model as she conceptualized, planned, and implemented inquiries in her fifth-grade classroom. By incorporating this new knowledge into her existing understanding of social studies pedagogy, as well as her knowledge of her students and specific educational context, the teacher was able to successfully navigate some of the challenges associated with implementing social studies inquiry in elementary classrooms.</p> <p>Elementary social studies; C3 framework; inquiry design model; inquiry</p> <p>Given that one of the core purposes of social studies is to prepare students for civic life (National Council for the Social Studies [NCSS], [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref1">48</reflink>] ; see also Barton & Levstik, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref2">4</reflink>] ; Engle & Ochoa, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref3">13</reflink>] ; Hahn, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref4">23</reflink>] ; Parker, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref5">49</reflink>] ; Ross, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref6">54</reflink>] ), the national trend toward marginalization of social studies, particularly at the elementary level (Fitchett & Heafner, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref7">14</reflink>] ; Winstead, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref8">70</reflink>] ), is concerning. The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards was written, in part, to combat the marginalization of social studies, improve social studies teaching and learning in ways that better motivate and engage K-12 students, and enhance all students' preparation for civic life (Herczog, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref9">30</reflink>] ). The C3 Framework seeks to accomplish these goals by having students engage with compelling questions that they answer by using relevant sources and approaches to disciplinary inquiry or by following the Inquiry, Arc (NCSS, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref10">48</reflink>] ). To successfully implement this approach, social studies teachers must draw upon and further develop their pedagogical content knowledge (PCK, Shulman, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref11">58</reflink>] ) in the various social studies disciplines. In this single-case study we describe the experiences of a fifth-grade teacher through her use of the C3 Framework, specifically how she conceptualized, designed, and implemented social studies inquiries using the Inquiry Design Model in her classroom. The purpose of our study was to explore how the teacher's PCK influenced her experiences and instructional decision making using the C3 Framework. Her experiences may provide guidance for other elementary social studies teachers as they plan and implement inquiries.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-2">Literature review</hd> <hd id="AN0129717299-3">Marginalization of the social studies</hd> <p>It is well documented that social studies remains an undervalued subject in elementary schools, superseded by English/language arts (ELA), mathematics, and science in the classroom. On average, research suggests that teachers spend less than 30 minutes a day on social studies instruction (Brophy, Alleman, & Knighton, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref12">8</reflink>] ; Fitchett & Heafner, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref13">14</reflink>] ; Heafner & Fitchett, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref14">26</reflink>] , [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref15">27</reflink>] ; VanFossen, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref16">63</reflink>] ). Education policy, notably accountability mandates, influence elementary teachers' instructional decision making for social studies (Fitchett, Heafner, & Lambert, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref17">15</reflink>] ). Teachers working in states dictating mandatory social studies testing spend more time on the subject. Conversely, teachers working under accountability pressures that exclude social studies spend less average time.</p> <p>Few states, however, mandate testing in elementary social studies.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref18">1</reflink>] Teachers, under intensified bureaucratic pressures to meet accountability benchmarks in other subjects, forsake social studies in favor of tested material (Fitchett & Heafner, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref19">14</reflink>] ). Compounding the social studies instructional dilemma, research suggests that early career elementary teachers are often less efficacious in their social studies instruction, brought about by an underexposure to social studies in methods coursework and student-teaching experiences (Bolick, Adams, & Willox, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref20">5</reflink>] ; Hawkman, Castro, Bennett, & Barrow, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref21">25</reflink>] ; Passe, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref22">50</reflink>] ). Lacking pedagogical knowledge and experience, many elementary practitioners enter classrooms with a social studies instructional deficit, contributing to uninspiring teaching and limiting students' access to social studies content. Social studies frequently manifests into a patchwork of practices designed to fit content between and within test-mandated subject matter (Heafner & Fitchett, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref23">26</reflink>] ; Wills & Sandholdz, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref24">67</reflink>] ). Teachers under these conditions compromise social studies pedagogically through hit-or-miss integration approaches or improvised cram sessions.</p> <p>1 According to the most recent Quality Counts (Hightower, 2013) report on student assessment policies, the following states include an elementary assessment in social studies: DE, GA, IN, KY, LA, NC, OK, SC, TN, VA, WV, and WI.</p> <p>The push from the Common Core State Standards for ELA to integrate social studies within literacy has the potential to further marginalize elementary social studies if teachers are not prepared to meaningfully integrate the two. If “the approaches to integration begin with questions or topics from social studies…and employ mathematics, reading, and writing as tools in an inquiry” (Levstik, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref25">37</reflink>] , p. 53), such integration can help bring social studies back from the margins of the elementary curriculum. However, often such claims of integration “disguise the elimination of any substantive content apart from reading…and significantly reduce or eliminate instructional time for social studies” (Levstik, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref26">37</reflink>] , p. 55). A literacy lesson in which the text deals with social studies content or emphasizes a national myth, such as George Washington's virtuous honesty when confronted by his father for cutting a cherry tree, does little to advance social studies teaching and learning.</p> <p>Yet all is not dire in elementary social studies classrooms. Though top-down policies seemingly deemphasize the subject's value, exemplary teachers, fighting against the current of marginalization, exist. Grant ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref27">19</reflink>] ) and others (Gradwell, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref28">18</reflink>] ; van Hover, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref29">64</reflink>] ) refer to these teachers as ambitious practitioners—educators who promote social studies content and pedagogy in the face of restrictive accountability pressures. These educators personify an emancipatory gatekeeping ethos (e.g., Thornton, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref30">62</reflink>] ), perceiving themselves as autonomous pedagogues who have control over how the mandated standards are enacted in their classrooms. Previous research suggests that these teachers circumvent accountability pressures and provide students opportunities to engage social studies in meaningful ways (Levstik, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref31">37</reflink>] ; VanSledright, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref32">65</reflink>] ). However, the move toward ambitious teaching requires both content and disciplinary understanding, an area of considerable need in elementary social studies instruction (Meuwissen, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref33">42</reflink>] ). A method of potentially addressing this instructional need is the C3 Framework.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-4">Social studies inquiry</hd> <p>In their push toward more ambitious teaching, researchers and other stakeholders advocate for the use of inquiry as a pedagogical method for more effective social studies instruction (e.g., Levstik & Barton, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref34">38</reflink>] ; NCSS, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref35">47</reflink>] ; Swan, Lee, & Grant, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref36">61</reflink>] ; Saye & Brush, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref37">55</reflink>] ). To design and implement inquiry-based instruction, teachers must have command of social studies content as well as inquiry pedagogies. The C3 Framework, particularly the Inquiry Arc, can serve as a pedagogical tool for teachers trying to use social studies inquiry in their classrooms.</p> <p>The research literature also outlines constraints and challenges to using inquiry in the social studies classroom. Some teachers' philosophies and purposes are not aligned with the purposes of teaching inquiry (Barton & Levstik, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref38">4</reflink>] ); instructional time, testing pressures, and other contextual factors limit teachers' use of inquiry (Cornbleth, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref39">10</reflink>] ); and teachers may need better access to examples and support to use inquiry (Saye & the SSIRC, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref40">56</reflink>] ). Even as challenges persist, research into the use of ambitious teaching methods in the elementary classroom points to successes and possibilities.</p> <p>The classrooms described in elementary methods textbooks (e.g., Brophy, Alleman, & Halvorsen, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref41">7</reflink>] ; Grant & VanSledright, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref42">20</reflink>] ; Lee, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref43">34</reflink>] ; Levstik & Barton, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref44">39</reflink>] ) often feature engaging social studies instruction in which students are investigating authentic social issues in a curriculum designed around big ideas. VanSledright's ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref45">65</reflink>] ) study in which he used investigative methods to teach U.S. history to fifth graders, for example, showed that despite popular assumptions to the contrary, young children can engage in the intellectual work of historical inquiry. Halvorsen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref46">24</reflink>] ) showed that the use of a project-based approach with low-SES student populations has the potential to decrease the achievement gap. In their study the researchers designed a project-based curriculum for second-grade teachers and students in civics and in economics. The projects were different from traditional instruction in that they were built around the study of a real-world problem or issue of interest to students and used content area texts and literacy skills for the purpose of gathering and interpreting information.</p> <p>While these success stories remain the exception rather than the norm, a renewed emphasis on inquiry-based instruction has accompanied the publication and early implementation of the C3 Framework. At the heart of the C3 Framework is the Inquiry Arc. The Inquiry Design Model (IDM) is a structured approach to help teachers and students follow the Inquiry Arc. It is built around questions, tasks, and sources that provide students with opportunities to actively engage content through using disciplinary methods toward the construction of arguments responding to compelling questions. Each inquiry created using the IDM includes a compelling question, related supporting questions, and tasks that allow students to work with connected disciplinary sources. Students answer each supporting question in turn, forming an argument to answer the compelling question using evidence from sources, and finally take informed action related to the content of the inquiry. The IDM template is illustrated in Figure 1.</p> <p>The IDM blueprint shown above summarizes the components of the inquiry, providing an instructional framework for teachers and students. As an instructional tool, the IDM attempts to find “the sweet spot between too much direction and too little…posting the key components any instructional plan is likely to have, but leaving many important instructional decisions in the hands of individual teachers” (Grant, Lee, & Swan, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref47">21</reflink>] , p. 8). As applied in the present study, teachers used the IDM to design inquiries that could be readily adapted by other teachers within the district.</p> <p>Existing studies on inquiry within elementary social studies have relied heavily on the support of researchers taking on the role of designing and/or implementing specific projects, so this study revisits the ways in which elementary social studies teachers can design and facilitate classroom inquiries with more teacher ownership. For teachers to be successful in creating and implementing their own social studies inquiries, however, they need a solid understanding of disciplinary inquiry and how to teach the processes of such inquiry to their students. In other words, they need strong PCK.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-5">Theoretical framework</hd> <p>It has been more than three decades since Shulman ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref48">58</reflink>] ) first argued that content and pedagogy should not be viewed as separate entities when assessing the skill sets of teachers. He posited that effective teachers possess a blend of content and pedagogical knowledge that is uniquely suited for the task of teaching others, a form of knowledge that separates teachers from content experts and education generalists. Shulman coined the term PCK to describe this merging of knowledge bases, a visual representation of which can be found in Figure 2.</p> <p>PCK is composed of two elements: (a) content knowledge and (b) pedagogical knowledge; it can be defined as “the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction” (Shulman, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref49">58</reflink>] , p. 8). While the visual representation offered in Figure 2 is useful for conceptualizing the overall concept of PCK, to really understand how teacher knowledge affects what occurs in classrooms, it is useful to unpack the two knowledge bases that comprise PCK. Pedagogical knowledge (PK) encompasses the practices of teaching, ranging from scientific aspects about how people learn; sociocultural approaches to teaching; intellectual dispositions (Stooksberry, Schussler, & Bercaw, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref50">60</reflink>] ) involving decisions about learning expectations that teachers establish for students; and practical aspects of navigating classroom spaces and managing student behavior (Mishra & Koehler, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref51">44</reflink>] ; Shulman, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref52">58</reflink>] ). In general, while specific pedagogical strategies will naturally vary on the basis of the age and developmental levels of students, aspects of good PK will be consistent across most educational contexts regardless of the particular discipline or subject matter being taught.</p> <p>Of particular interest to this study is content knowledge (CK), which can be defined as the subject matter being taught, which includes epistemological beliefs about knowledge within a particular discipline; awareness of concepts, theories, and organizational frameworks used in a particular discipline; and disciplinary approaches to developing knowledge and engaging in inquiry (Ball, Thames, & Phelps, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref53">3</reflink>] ; Shulman, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref54">58</reflink>] ). In an attempt to unpack the wide range of content that students may encounter at school, Ball et al. ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref55">3</reflink>] ) drew a distinction between what they termed common content knowledge and specialized content knowledge. Common content knowledge consists of basic knowledge of a given topic. Common content knowledge in history, for example, could include factual information about important historical figures and events. It is essential that teachers possess common content knowledge for the simple fact that one cannot teach what one does not know. In addition, if teachers lack common content knowledge, they will have difficulty making appropriate instructional decisions about content and may be forced to rely on textbooks and other instructional aids for content delivery (Bain & Mirel, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref56">1</reflink>] ; Ball, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref57">2</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Common content knowledge, however, is not sufficient for preparing students to engage in the type of inquiry-based instruction required by the C3 Framework. Such instruction requires specialized content knowledge, which Ball et al. ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref58">3</reflink>] ) defined as knowledge that is unique to teaching and requires an understanding of how content relates to students' conceptions and misconceptions of about content as well as how content relates to the instructional practices of teaching. Again, using history as an example, specialized historical content knowledge would involve helping students learn how to think historically (e.g., Wineburg, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref59">69</reflink>] ), as well as anticipating challenges that students might face in doing so, such as difficulty conceptualizing historical time or analyzing primary sources.</p> <p>One element that has been found to affect teachers' specialized content knowledge is one's disciplinary background. When teachers lack a solid foundation in disciplinary understanding of their content area or are asked to teach courses outside of their areas of disciplinary expertise, their PCK is negatively affected (Gudmundsdottir & Shulman, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref60">17</reflink>] ; Monte-Sano, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref61">45</reflink>] ; Wilson & Wineburg, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref62">68</reflink>] ). These findings are especially pertinent for elementary social studies education, given that teachers are often tasked with training students to think historically (Wineburg, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref63">69</reflink>] ), civically/politically (Journell, Beeson, & Ayers, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref64">32</reflink>] ; Levine, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref65">36</reflink>] ), economically (Schug & Wood, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref66">57</reflink>] ), and geographically (Nagel, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref67">46</reflink>] ) within the context of the relatively little time allocated for social studies instruction. This issue is compounded by the fact that elementary teachers are charged with teaching all facets of social studies alongside other content areas, and it is unlikely that they received in-depth training in any of those fields during their teacher education programs. To meet the challenge of providing high-quality social studies instruction during limited instructional time, elementary teachers' social studies PCK must be strong, but their social studies-focused content and pedagogical preparation may not adequately prepare them for that challenge.</p> <p>Unfortunately, most of the research on teachers' PCK in social studies has occurred at the secondary level or with preservice teachers. Few studies have attempted to look at elementary teachers' PCK in social studies, particularly for how they implement inquiry in the classroom. In this study we seek to better understand an elementary teacher's PCK as she planned and implemented an IDM in her classroom. The research question that guided this study was How did this teacher's PCK influence her use of social studies inquiry, specifically the Inquiry Design Model, in her fifth-grade classroom?</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-6">Research design</hd> <p>This single-case study explores the ways in which one certified elementary teacher, Ms. Williams (a pseudonym), conceptualized the C3 Framework and the Inquiry Arc, planned inquiry-based instruction, and implemented inquiries in her fifth-grade classroom. Because we were interested in her understanding and applications of inquiry in her specific classroom, case study methodology was particularly useful. Following the recommendation of Stake ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref68">59</reflink>] ), this case was bounded by time and activities as we followed the teacher during one academic year in which she was involved in district-wide, inquiry-related professional development activities. These boundaries served to focus our data collection and analysis. This research emerged as an instrumental case (Stake, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref69">59</reflink>] ) in that we focused not just on the teacher but her activities to use inquiry in her classroom to help us answer how the teacher's PCK influenced her design and use of social studies inquiries. We did not focus on all aspects of her teaching and planning; rather, we focused on those dealing with inquiry.</p> <p>Data for this case study included three semistructured interviews with Ms. Williams, four classroom observations of her inquiry-based instruction, and relevant artifacts, such as her completed inquiry plans and student work. We coded data as we collected it, transcribing and coding interviews soon after conducting them, and coded observation notes immediately. After coding the data, we identified themes using a constant comparison method (McMillan & Schumacher, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref70">40</reflink>] ). Because multiple researchers participated in the data collection and analysis, each interpreted the data individually and then compared codes and themes on a regular basis to ensure reliability (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref71">16</reflink>] ). Ms. Williams participated in an inquiry project similar to the one in this study in the 2014-15 school year, which is when our professional relationship began. Two of the researchers led a professional learning seminar on the C3 Framework to begin the 2014-15 inquiry project, and Ms. Williams later invited one of the researchers to observe in her classroom in spring 2015. When Ms. Williams joined the inquiry project (described in more detail below) for 2015-16, we were pleased to continue working with and learning from her.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-7">Context</hd> <p>This study took place in an elementary school in the southern United States, in a state that has experienced a loss of instructional time in elementary social studies. Counter to state trends, the district in which this study took place began a district-wide effort to help teachers learn about the C3 Framework and, specifically, the IDM. Research suggests that professional learning opportunities can be integral in developing social studies teachers' PCK (e.g., De La Paz, Malkus, Monte-Sano, & Montanaro, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref72">11</reflink>] ; Reisman, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref73">51</reflink>] ; Reisman & Fogo, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref74">52</reflink>] ), provided there are no structural or curricular constraints that prevent teachers from enacting what they have learned (Meuwissen, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref75">43</reflink>] ).</p> <p>In October 2015, 20 social studies teachers (five elementary, six middle, and eight secondary) were selected to take part in a district-sponsored initiative to help teachers learn about IDM. The district's support for the social studies inquiry initiative is thanks to the program manager's advocacy for inquiry as a way to enhance social studies instruction in the district. Though the district has not been immune to the national trends of social studies marginalization, the social studies program manager's active and consistent support for teacher professional learning was effective. Almost immediately after being appointed in his position, this individual reached out to one of the researchers in the hopes of cultivating a professional working relationship and soon after collaborated with other researchers on this project on grant initiatives as well as professional development opportunities. The researchers and this individual continue to meet frequently to discuss the state of social studies and how best to support teachers and students.</p> <p>Beginning with a three-day workshop in October 2015, participants learned about the C3 Framework and IDM. Connections were also made to a previous workshop held the prior year on the C3 Framework. Teachers were provided with release-time to work on their inquiries and were given feedback from one of the researchers, the district social studies program manager, and each other. It was expected that subsequent to the training, each district participant would design three inquiries and implement at least one of them during the school year. The inquiries were to emphasize content that aligned with the general literacy-based goals for the district.</p> <p>At the time of this research Ms. Williams was teaching fifth grade and was in her third year of teaching at Washington Elementary School (a pseudonym). Washington had a student population of over 75% White, 15% African American, and small percentages of students who identify as biracial or Asian. Ms. Williams implemented her inquiry in her fifth-grade reading classes, identified as Academically Gifted (AG) in reading. As a result, Ms. Williams was able to make at least a tacit assumption that all of her students met a certain threshold for reading ability.</p> <p>Ms. Williams came into this professional learning opportunity with experience using the C3 Framework. She had also participated in an initial district initiative in the 2014-15 school year during which time she learned about the C3 Framework and developed inquiries on the American Civil War for fifth grade. During the course of this study Ms. Williams designed an inquiry on the Industrial Revolution and designed and implemented an inquiry on the international chocolate industry; here, we focus on her work designing and implementing the chocolate inquiry. In addition, it should be noted that Ms. Williams expressed great enthusiasm for this project, to the extent that she helped a researcher write an article for a practitioner journal detailing her experiences designing and implementing these modules.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-8">Findings</hd> <hd id="AN0129717299-9">Existing PCK influenced inquiry design</hd> <p>As she developed and implemented inquiries over the course of the school year, Ms. Williams drew upon multiple sources of knowledge, including her knowledge of content, curriculum, standards, disciplinary and informational sources, general pedagogy, and reading strategies. Ms. Williams's commitment to content knowledge and the disciplinary aspects of social studies was shaped by the life experiences she brought to her fifth-grade classroom. She followed an alternative path to teaching. After completing a sociology degree at a southern land-grant university, she spent six years in sales. She then enrolled in an MAT program, which “introduced the standards, how to analyze and unpack standards, templates for lesson plans, examples of verbs used in writing strong objectives, and many of the other ‘how to's'” that teachers need to be successful in planning. The “reading/research/work” of this program made her “very confident in [her] teaching philosophies and personal pedagogy,” and as a result, she gained “knowledge and confidence [which] has been really important for me because I am able to defend my philosophy (supported by research) whenever the occasion arises (whether it is administration or a parent questioning what I am doing).” As a sociology major, Ms. Williams was drawn to social studies as her preferred subject. As she put it, “I find students connect better with social studies than most of the other subjects because it involves people. And kids can relate to people if you do it the right way.”</p> <p>In her teaching, Ms. Williams regularly found ways to spend more time with social studies content by bringing it into her reading classes. She was willing and able to use social studies curriculum and standards as her starting place in the inquiry design process. Ms. Williams created inquiries that were content-rich and provided students with opportunities to examine informational text and disciplinary sources and practice with a wide range of literacy skills. To do this, Ms. Williams relied on her knowledge of curriculum, students, the learning context, and content to determine the focus.</p> <p>For example, when Ms. Williams began to design an inquiry on the Industrial Revolution, she was cognizant of the curriculum and time constraints, as well as students' prior knowledge; she therefore limited the number of inventions students would examine. She wanted these inventions, however, to have some tangible qualities (“something they could look at”), and she wanted the content to have clear relevance for students' lives today. As she described:</p> <p>I was just looking at Industrial Revolution but I realized I needed to categorize it somehow…I didn't want to include too many different things that had been invented. I wanted it to be something that they could look at, it was invented in this year and these were the reasons that someone came up with this invention in the first place, this was the impact it had at the time, but I wanted it to be something that I could connect to today.</p> <p>Then when I went back to the standards, I realized it was already done for me.</p> <p></p> <p>In addition to being rich in social studies content, the inquiries Ms. Williams designed made use of a wide range of disciplinary and informational sources while emphasizing reading and research strategies. She carefully selected sources that served the content purposes of the inquiry and developed tasks in which students used a variety of social studies disciplinary literacy skills, such as interpreting maps or analyzing data from an infographic. In other words, she chose her sources in a purposeful manner so that they related to the content but were at a reading level in which they challenged (but did not overwhelm) her students as they drew conclusions from evidence.</p> <p>In her inquiry on the concept of economic choices, Ms. Williams designed a case study in which students examined the economics of chocolate. The inquiry asked the compelling question, “What's the real cost of chocolate?” As Table 1 shows, she included a wide variety of sources within the inquiry, including background text from the International Cocoa Organization, data on the world's top cocoa producers and on chocolate consumption, a Reuters news article, a press release from the Hershey Company, and an essay from the Rainforest Alliance on sustainable cocoa investment.</p> <p>Sources for inquiry on the real cost of chocolate.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="3"><tr><td align="left">Featured Sources</td><td align="center">Featured Sources</td><td align="center">Featured Sources</td></tr><tr><td align="left">“Origins of Cocoa and Its Spread Around the World” - International Cocoa Organization</td><td align="left">The World's Biggest Chocolate Consumers Infographic - Statista</td><td align="left">USA Edition Cocoa Barometer 2015 - Cocoa Barometer</td></tr><tr><td align="left">The World of Chocolate Infographic</td><td align="left">“Who are the main manufacturers of chocolate in the world?” - International Cocoa Organization</td><td align="left">Hershey's Cocoa Certification Press Release - October 3, 2012</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Top 10 Cocoa Producing Countries - World Atlas</td><td align="left">Mars and Fairtrade International announce collaboration - Press Release</td><td align="left">Dry weather to slash I. Coast cocoa crop as El Nino threatens - Reuters</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Chocolate-Covered Producers - Statista</td><td align="left">21st Century Cocoa - Cocoa Sustainability Strategy - Hershey - The Hershey Company</td><td align="left">Rainforest Alliance and NYU Stern School of Business - Sustainable Cocoa Investment Investment Challenge</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>To support her fifth-grade students as they worked with these sources, Ms. Williams used, in her words, “a lot of scaffolding, a lot of graphic organizers to help them…I don't rewrite my sources in fifth-grade language. I give them the original [source], and then I give them the tools to figure it out.” In this inquiry, as with others, Ms. Williams included not only disciplinary-based informational sources but also tasks where students used scaffolds and close reading strategies to deepen their social studies content knowledge. Figures 3 and 4 are examples of graphic organizers that Ms. Williams provided for her students to use as they worked through supporting questions 1 and 2, respectively.</p> <p>Ms. Williams provided clear directions along with each graphic organizer to facilitate students working somewhat independently of the teacher. In addition to providing support for students as they interpreted various sources, she used the IDM provided for her in the professional development the previous October to structure the overall inquiry in a way that helped her students progress through the inquiry in a logical manner.</p> <p>In the inquiry on the real cost of chocolate, Ms. Williams drew upon her knowledge of pedagogy and followed the IDM approach to develop a series of formative tasks for each supporting question through which students built up their knowledge toward making an argument in response to the compelling question (Table 2).</p> <p>Inquiry questions and tasks on the real cost of chocolate.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="3"><tr><td align="left">Supporting Question 1</td><td align="center">Supporting Question 2</td><td align="center">Supporting Question 3</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Where does chocolate come from?</td><td align="left">What role do major manufacturers and consumers play in the chocolate industry?</td><td align="left">What are the challenges facing the chocolate industry?</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Formative Performance Task</td><td align="center">Formative Performance Task</td><td align="center">Formative Performance Task</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Using the important information students identified in the four sources they will create a world map infographic that describes specifically where chocolate comes from.</td><td align="left">Students will complete a Spider Map (see Figure 3) for each of the manufacturers and consumers identified in the sources and will list important details that support their explanation for the role that each plays in the chocolate industry.</td><td align="left">Using the information from the four sources students will complete a cause and effect graphic organizer (see Figure 4) in order to explain the challenges facing the chocolate industry.</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Ms. Williams arranged these tasks in a logical way, building in complexity, so students could acquire information while practicing the literacy skills she regularly emphasized in her class. The task structure worked as an overall scaffold, one that students had become familiar with because this was not their first inquiry. As Ms. Williams described it:</p> <p>They knew what the big goal was…but then they also knew that they had these smaller tasks and goals that they were working toward along the way…they had done other inquiries earlier in the year, so they knew the format. It was predictable for them to know there's gonna be three questions, each one's gonna have sources, there's gonna be these pieces at the end.</p> <p></p> <p>Ms. Williams also used disciplinary reading scaffolds to support the specific tasks. She explained to her students at the start of one of these inquiries that they would be “practicing reading skills but also using information.” She continued:</p> <p>We're practicing informational text reading skills…everyone needs to read all the sources. You don't have to read the sources in any particular order but you need to read and be able to answer the questions based on all four sources.</p> <p></p> <p>The questions students answered were based in social studies content knowledge, although they were simultaneously building skills for reading informational text by interpreting and analyzing each source.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-10">Inquiry implementation and applying PCK</hd> <hd id="AN0129717299-11">Knowledge of context</hd> <p>Ms. Williams's work developing and implementing inquiries occurred in a larger context that was shaped by her early experiences teaching social studies, the amount of instructional time she was willing to commit to inquiry, her experiences learning how to teach, and her willingness to learn from her experiences teaching with inquiry. Ms. Williams's decisions to design and implement inquiries on social studies content as part of reading instruction reflected her comfort and experiences with teaching social studies. She explained:</p> <p>The first year that I taught inquiry, it didn't get much time because I was teaching it as part of social studies, which we didn't have as much time daily blocked aside for. So last year I found a way to weave it into my reading instruction, [for] which I have a larger block [of time], and I use the sources to teach my informational text ELA standards, and so I'm able to give it more time.</p> <p></p> <p>This interdisciplinary inquiry approach allowed Ms. Williams to use instructional time more creatively to effectively meet ELA and social studies learning goals.</p> <p>Indeed, Ms. Williams and her fifth graders spent a surprising amount of instructional time on social studies content and inquiry in her reading classes. From the introduction of the compelling question to working through each of the three supporting questions and their corresponding formative assessment tasks, as well as beginning the culminating task, the inquiry on the real cost of chocolate took more than a month of instructional time. Because of other curricular requirements and local testing schedules, students did not work on the inquiry each day for that month, but over that time period, they spent at least eight hours of instructional time on the inquiry.</p> <p>Students completed an introductory exercise that staged the compelling question and then worked on the first supporting question as a stand-alone part of class in which Ms. Williams allowed all student groups to work on the inquiry at the same time. After these first two instructional days, Ms. Williams moved to a station-based approach where students spent about 20 minutes a day on inquiry as one of several reading station activities. Ms. Williams referred to these as “Literacy Stations,” which is a pedagogical approach enabling her to differentiate and group students as she teaches reading throughout the school year. One station focused on inquiry learning tasks. At the other literacy stations, students continued work on other literacy content and skills.</p> <p>Even given the relatively generous amount of time Ms. Williams and her students spent on the chocolate inquiry, she still felt like it was not enough and said she would organize the time differently the next time she taught it. Ms. Williams regretted that the inquiry, as a whole, took “longer than I wanted it to because we were doing less each day.” Indeed, some students still did not finish the culminating task. She explained that all groups at least began that work but that “many of them were going to, after the school year ended, go ahead and send their letters to the state representatives and senators that they wrote as their action step.” Because much of the inquiry implementation was more student-led at the literacy stations, their progress through the inquiry varied some by reading group. Even though all students did not finish the full inquiry, all groups did work through the majority of the inquiry, which was an improvement on Ms. Williams's attempts to implement inquiry solely during social studies instructional time. Despite the new challenges of implementing inquiry as part of reading classes, rather than in social studies time, Ms. Williams said the whole process still “worked better in my reading classes,” and she planned to continue to use social studies inquiry as a reading station in the future.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-12">Knowledge of students and pedagogy</hd> <p>Ms. Williams's preservice teacher education program placed an emphasis on questioning, and she was familiar with essential or driving questions as a tool for shaping instruction. She used those experiences to situate her new learning about IDM:</p> <p>I've used [an inquiry-like] structure in all my classes at some time or another. I have used it a little bit with webquests in social studies, kind of starting with a question, letting them develop some questions kind of on their own and then going out on the Internet and looking with direction and finding answers.</p> <p></p> <p>Building on her existing understandings of social studies inquiry, Ms. Williams was involved in an inquiry-focused district project in 2014-15 during which time she implemented her first inquiry focused on the Civil War with the compelling question, “Is Democracy always a fair form of government?” After designing and implementing inquiries solely in her social studies classes, she realized that, given the emphasis on analyzing sources and building arguments in the inquiries, it made sense to build on her students' reading and writing skills at the same time.</p> <p>After using the IDM to design and implement her Civil War inquiry, Ms. Williams realized that she should vary the types of featured sources she used in each inquiry to differentiate instruction based on students' learning demands. She explained that she was sure to include sources “that required reading, others that were more visual for students who struggle a bit more with the reading…at least one visual or one written, depending on what it was.” In addition to providing more variety of sources, Ms. Williams varied the amounts and kinds of supports she provided students depending on their needs. For example, for “sources I feel like they're already accessible, maybe a little difficult, but accessible, I kind of like to see what [students] do [on their own] first.” If students seemed to struggle to understand the source without a graphic organizer, she either created one specific to that source or the supporting question as a whole or pointed them to a pre-created graphic organizer they used in reading class already.</p> <p>Ms. Williams carefully applied her pedagogical understanding of compelling questions to design inquiries that were based in social studies content and made an effort to connect this content to activate students' prior knowledge. In 2015-16 she developed inquiries on the Industrial Revolution and on economics. Ms. Williams was also sensitive to her students' needs and the relevance of the inquiries for her students. When describing content selection for her Industrial Revolution inquiry she explained, “I wanted it to be something that I could connect to today.” In addition to relevance, she considered students' prior learning as she planned the inquiries. For instance, in designing the economics inquiry on the real cost of chocolate, Ms. Williams looked at the social studies standards students would have covered in Kindergarten through fourth grade to inform her decision making about supporting questions for the inquiry. “In looking at the K-4 standards, it appeared they should have some understanding of [consumers and producers]” so she decided “what role do major manufacturers and consumers play in the chocolate industry” would be an appropriate question. As she implemented the inquiry with her fifth graders, however, it was clear that they needed more content knowledge about consumers before they could complete the formative assessment task for that supporting question. She changed her instruction in response to her students' needs:</p> <p>There was a little gap in background knowledge on that question that I didn't anticipate when I wrote that question, so I had to kind of…push the pause button and find a few things I could use to teach that, but they…I mean, they eventually got it.</p> <p></p> <p>While she intentionally planned the inquiry based on what she believed students' prior knowledge would be, she quickly adapted instruction based on early informal formative assessments to ensure students were prepared for the work of that supporting question.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-13">Discussion</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to consider how a fifth-grade teacher leveraged and expanded her pedagogical content knowledge as she learned about the C3 Framework and the Inquiry Arc, designed social studies inquiries, and implemented inquiries in her reading classes. Ms. Williams acted on her PCK in social studies, and also in reading, as she conceptualized how to create and facilitate inquiry-based learning experiences for her fifth graders. By incorporating her new knowledge of the C3 Framework and IDM into her existing understandings of social studies and ELA content and pedagogies, her students, and her educational contexts, Ms. Williams was able to successfully navigate some of the challenges to implementing inquiry in elementary social studies classrooms. Her experiences offer guidance to others interested in incorporating the C3 Framework and IDM in their classrooms.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-14">Interdisciplinary inquiry</hd> <p>Ms. Williams's teacher education program had placed an emphasis on inquiry and questioning but not in the context of social studies. When Ms. Williams first worked with the Inquiry Arc to engage her students in social studies inquiry, she saw a natural connection to the reading informational text standards she used in her reading classes. After her initial experiences, when she again designed a social studies inquiry with the IDM, she selected a variety of sources for her students to analyze as they investigated a series of supporting questions, all connected to a single compelling question. By designing inquiries that served both social studies and reading purposes, Ms. Williams moved beyond the typical curricular integration in which elementary teachers plan literacy lessons that “connect to social education themes” but not “structured around social education goals” (Brophy & Alleman, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref76">6</reflink>] , p. 39). Contrary to cases in which interdisciplinary teaching “mask real reductions in instructional time for social studies” (Levstik, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref77">37</reflink>] , p. 53), Ms. Williams organized instruction that capitalized on the ample instructional time allowed for reading instruction to engage students in inquiry about social studies content that also met standards for reading informational texts. In her chocolate inquiry, she connected to state social studies standards on economics and civics as well as Common Core ELA standards.</p> <p>With her integration of social studies inquiry into reading instruction, Ms. Williams gained instructional time while also enhancing the curriculum for students. As she described, there “were a lot of standards we identified [that] could be taught through informational text reading, which is a huge part of our Reading curriculum.” Ms. Williams put forth that and in so doing, this enabled students to “see the connection between different subject areas,” as opposed to “a separate time for this, a separate time for this, [and] a separate time for this.” The state in which this study was conducted does not have statewide accountability tests for elementary social studies, which can have the effect of limiting instructional time for the subject (Fitchett et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref78">15</reflink>] ; Heafner et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref79">28</reflink>] ). Using her understanding of the ways in which the content and pedagogies of social studies and reading could work together, however, Ms. Williams was able to leverage inquiry as a way to mitigate time constraints. Ms. Williams's undergraduate degree in a social science and nontraditional entry into the education profession are not common. It is possible that her undergraduate preparation in the social science disciplines helped prepare her for the challenging task of creating and implementing interdisciplinary inquiries that successfully focus on social studies content. She benefited from strong content preparation in social sciences in her higher education, which those with a more traditional route to elementary licensure typically miss (Bolick et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref80">5</reflink>] ). We know that professional learning can be an effective way for teachers to expand their PCK; perhaps more opportunities and support for elementary teachers wishing to create inquiry-based interdisciplinary units of study would help improve more teachers do this effectively. Even in the absence of formal professional learning opportunities, teachers invested in incorporating IDM in their social studies instruction can seek out guidance and support. Prior to participating in the district inquiry projects, Ms. Williams had already browsed through the C3 Framework on her own, a good starting place. Teachers can also find examples of high-quality inquiries from a variety of state contexts, guidance for completing their own IDMs, and insights from other teachers on the C3 Teachers website (Lee, Swan, & Grant, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref81">35</reflink>] , <ulink href="http://www.c3teachers.org">http://www.c3teachers.org</ulink>).</p> <p>One potential drawback, however, to Ms. Williams's purposeful decision to create interdisciplinary units is that she unilaterally crafted the inquiry questions and determined what her students would study using the IDM. Ideally, inquiries are authentic in nature, meaning that students determine compelling and supporting questions based on their intrinsic interest in a given topic. We would argue, however, that limited instructional time for social studies in elementary classrooms contributes to this teacher-centered approach to designing inquiry. As much as Ms. Williams valued social studies, she was also a pragmatist; she realized that to devote time to social studies inquiries, they would need to serve the dual purpose of incorporating reading instruction, and this practice can be emulated by other elementary teachers. Therefore, she likely felt compelled to ensure that the compelling and supporting questions guided students toward those instructional goals. Certainly, greater student autonomy within the IDM would be ideal, and we believe that better understanding practical ways to encourage such autonomy in elementary classrooms should be encouraged among practicing teachers and subsequently serve as an area for future research.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-15">Knowledge of students</hd> <p>Throughout her experiences learning about the C3 Framework, Inquiry Arc, and IDM, as well as designing and implementing inquiries using the IDM, Ms. Williams constantly considered her fifth-grade students' abilities and needs. This was apparent for the academically gifted students to which this inquiry was taught. Ms. Williams noted that this ability level of students “…may have influenced the time that it took us. We probably did it a little bit faster, and it was done in the latter half of the year, so they were a little bit more independent at that point.” Though Ms. Williams noted that “It wasn't written necessarily at an AG level” and that she “would teach the exact same inquiry with a general ed class,” her pedagogical approach would differ, because she “might slow it down a little bit. I might do a little bit more scaffolding, more graphic organizers, potentially.”</p> <p>Ms. Williams's ability to plan and implement instruction in ways that were responsive to her students' needs was part of her existing PCK as an elementary teacher. Her masterful understanding of the commonplaces of education (Grant & VanSledright, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref82">20</reflink>] ) was evident throughout her experiences, but especially apparent was her understanding—and her use of that understanding—of the learners and learning. As she determined compelling questions for the inquiries, she considered her students' interests, aptitudes, and previous learning experiences; as she selected sources and designed scaffolds for those sources, she considered her students' reading abilities and skills; and as she designed the summative performance task, she left room for students to have a say in how they would take informed action at the end of the inquiry, providing several open-ended options. As teachers work to design their own inquiries, they may want to keep these considerations for their learners in mind.</p> <p>The reading classes in which Ms. Williams implemented the social studies inquiries were both part of the school's AG program, which likely influenced the design of her inquiry, including the content she focused on and the sources she selected for each supporting question. While she indicated that she would still implement social studies inquiries in a non-AG reading class, we do not know whether or how the level of students would affect the way she designed and implemented the inquiries.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-16">Professional learning</hd> <p>Over the course of the study, Ms. Williams participated in both formal and informal professional learning experiences that supported her social studies PCK. Formal professional learning refers to structured events, such as a one-time workshop or graduate coursework, as opposed to informal professional learning that takes place in the workplace context and involves learning from colleagues (Jurasaite-Harbison & Rex, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref83">33</reflink>] ; Mesler & Spillane, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref84">41</reflink>] ; Richter, Kunter, Klusmann, Lüdtke, & Baumert, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref85">53</reflink>] ). Ms. Williams was part of the formal three-day training experience in October 2015, where she had time to plan inquiries with support from one of the researchers and the district's social studies curriculum coordinator. As she worked during those three days to build her own inquiries, Ms. Williams utilized her existing PCK; for example, she carefully selected texts and designed a variety of graphic organizers to help students analyze specific sources for the inquiries. Furthermore, she began the work of integrating the inquiries with reading and decided to use some graphic organizers that were more generally applicable for all informational texts. Ms. Williams leveraged the supported work time during the professional learning experience to incorporate new ways of thinking into her existing PCK and, logistically, to maximize her productivity in designing her inquiries during the release-time provided.</p> <p>In addition, informally working with colleagues at different schools during the three days of the training experience allowed Ms. Williams to consider her own students, colleagues, and contexts while also working with teachers from slightly different contexts, which research suggests is a hallmark of high-quality professional learning (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref86">9</reflink>] ; Grossman, Wineburg, & Woolworth, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref87">22</reflink>] ). This work time allowed for the “sense-making activities” Wei, Darling-Hammond, Andree, Richardson, and Orphanos ([<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref88">66</reflink>] , p. 6) have argued are critical for high-quality professional learning to take place. During such activities, teachers are able to incorporate the new knowledge into their existing understandings through practice and reflection. By collaborating with colleagues throughout her participation in the inquiry project, Ms. Williams kept the context of her work always at the forefront of her mind. The task of creating inquiries was already embedded in her daily work, because she knew she was designing them for use in her classroom (Easton, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref89">12</reflink>] ; Grossman et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref90">22</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Her professional learning experiences during the 2015-16 academic year helped shape the way she designed and implemented social studies inquiry. Furthermore, her experience planning and teaching the inquiry on the cost of chocolate influenced her professional learning over the summer of 2016. Partially because of her experience in social studies inquiry, Ms. Williams applied for a formal professional learning seminar for science teachers that took her to a chocolate farm in Belize. Although the focus of the seminar was on science content and pedagogy, Ms. Williams leveraged that experience to continue her work on the social studies inquiry by gathering more sources to include in the inquiry when she teaches it in the future. The enthusiasm with which Ms. Williams sought out and participated in formal and informal professional learning experiences is notable and likely had a positive effect on her ability to incorporate new ideas into her social studies PCK. While funding for high-quality professional learning experiences is often limited, especially for social studies (Hess & Zola, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref91">29</reflink>] ), providing more high-quality professional learning opportunities for elementary teachers would likely address teachers' needs for growing their PCK.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-17">Limitations and future directions</hd> <p>This was a study of one teacher's experiences designing and implementing a C3 Framework-based inquiry. Despite her previous experience and training, she still had difficulties implementing this with academically gifted students, particularly for allocating the instructional time necessary to accomplish the inquiry. Because it is not possible to generalize from Ms. Williams's experiences, a need for further scholarship that focuses on inquiry in elementary classrooms exists.</p> <hd id="AN0129717299-18">Conclusion</hd> <p>The experiences of Ms. Williams demonstrate the importance of professional learning, while also recognizing the extent to which teacher agency and the capacity of teachers to act on what they learn in professional learning is a major factor in the success of instructional design and pedagogical reform in social studies. As the Inquiry Arc is more widely implemented, it is critical for the field to develop best practices for in-service teacher professional learning to build on teachers' PCK, particularly for elementary teachers, as they “reintroduce” social studies to the curriculum. Ms. Williams's emphasis on social studies countered the trend in elementary grades that has minimized social studies, but she did so while demonstrating a strong commitment to literacy. Others interested in using the IDM in their social studies instruction may look to Ms. Williams's experiences for guidance on design considerations, such as integrating social studies and reading content by using a stations strategy and reflecting on student content readiness and interests, as well as implementation challenges, such as the required amount of instructional time and the need for flexibility in support for students. By reporting on a single-case study, this research begins to unpack the complexities of in-service professional learning for the C3 Inquiry Arc, particularly for the context of elementary teachers.</p> <ref id="AN0129717299-19"> <title>References</title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref18" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext>Bain, R., & Mirel, J. ( 2006 ). Setting up camp at the great instructional divide: Educating beginning history teachers. 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The impact of NCLB and accountability on social studies: Teacher experiences and perceptions about teaching social studies. The Social Studies, 102, 221 - 227. doi: 10.1080/00377996.2011.571567 </bibtext> </blist> </ref> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 1. The IDM tempate.</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 2. Pedagogical content knowledge.</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 3. Example of graphic organizer.</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 4. Example of graphic organizer.</p> <aug> <p>By Emma S. Thacker; Adam M. Friedman; Paul G. Fitchett; Wayne Journell and John K. Lee</p> </aug>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Thacker%2C+Emma+S%2E%22">Thacker, Emma S.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Friedman%2C+Adam+M%2E%22">Friedman, Adam M.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Fitchett%2C+Paul+G%2E%22">Fitchett, Paul G.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Journell%2C+Wayne%22">Journell, Wayne</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lee%2C+John+K%2E%22">Lee, John K.</searchLink>
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Teachers%22">Elementary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Studies%22">Social Studies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Case+Studies%22">Case Studies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inquiry%22">Inquiry</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pedagogical+Content+Knowledge%22">Pedagogical Content Knowledge</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+5%22">Grade 5</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Models%22">Models</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22History+Instruction%22">History Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Active+Learning%22">Active Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Semi+Structured+Interviews%22">Semi Structured Interviews</searchLink>
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  Data: Social studies continues to be marginalized in elementary grades, yet the "C3 Framework" and its Inquiry Arc offer possibilities for high-quality elementary social studies instruction. However, the "C3 Framework" requires that teachers possess an adequate understanding of how to implement inquiry within the various social studies disciplines, which we argue is an aspect of the pedagogical content knowledge necessary for effective elementary social studies instruction. This single-case study follows an elementary teacher through her use of the "C3 Framework", Inquiry Arc, and a related curriculum approach called the Inquiry Design Model as she conceptualized, planned, and implemented inquiries in her fifth-grade classroom. By incorporating this new knowledge into her existing understanding of social studies pedagogy, as well as her knowledge of her students and specific educational context, the teacher was able to successfully navigate some of the challenges associated with implementing social studies inquiry in elementary classrooms.
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