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Contribution of Parenting to Complex Syntax Development in Preschool Children with Developmental Delays or Typical Development

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Title: Contribution of Parenting to Complex Syntax Development in Preschool Children with Developmental Delays or Typical Development
Language: English
Authors: Moody, C. T. (ORCID 0000-0002-7017-0713), Baker, B. L., Blacher, J.
Source: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. Jul 2018 62(7):604-616.
Availability: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 13
Publication Date: 2018
Sponsoring Agency: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (NIH)
Contract Number: 348791459
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Preschool Children, Parent Child Relationship, Syntax, Developmental Delays, Parenting Styles, Child Language, Language Acquisition, Longitudinal Studies, Multiple Regression Analysis, Coding, Models, Statistical Analysis, Intervention, Correlation
DOI: 10.1111/jir.12501
ISSN: 0964-2633
Abstract: Background: Despite studies of how parent-child interactions relate to early child language development, few have examined the continued contribution of parenting to more complex language skills through the preschool years. The current study explored how positive and negative parenting behaviours relate to growth in complex syntax learning from child age 3 to age 4 years, for children with typical development or developmental delays (DDs). Methods: Participants were children with or without DD (N = 60) participating in a longitudinal study of development. Parent-child interactions were transcribed and coded for parenting domains and child language. Multiple regression analyses were used to identify the contribution of parenting to complex syntax growth in children with typical development or DD. Results: Analyses supported a final model, F(9,50) = 11.90, P < 0.001, including a significant three-way interaction between positive parenting behaviours, negative parenting behaviours and child delay status. This model explained 68.16% of the variance in children's complex syntax at age 4. Simple two-way interactions indicated differing effects of parenting variables for children with or without DD. Conclusions: Results have implications for understanding of complex syntax acquisition in young children, as well as implications for interventions.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2018
Accession Number: EJ1181540
Database: ERIC
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  Value: &lt;anid&gt;AN0130001138;eul01jul.18;2018Jun08.10:12;v2.2.500&lt;/anid&gt; &lt;title id=&quot;AN0130001138-1&quot;&gt;Contribution of parenting to complex syntax development in preschool children with developmental delays or typical development&#160;&lt;/title&gt; &lt;p&gt;Abstract: Background: Despite studies of how parent–child interactions relate to early child language development, few have examined the continued contribution of parenting to more complex language skills through the preschool years. The current study explored how positive and negative parenting behaviours relate to growth in complex syntax learning from child age 3 to age 4&#160;years, for children with typical development or developmental delays (DDs). Methods: Participants were children with or without DD (N&#160;=&#160;60) participating in a longitudinal study of development. Parent–child interactions were transcribed and coded for parenting domains and child language. Multiple regression analyses were used to identify the contribution of parenting to complex syntax growth in children with typical development or DD. Results: Analyses supported a final model, F(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib9&quot; id=&quot;ref1&quot;&gt;9&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib50&quot; id=&quot;ref2&quot;&gt;50&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;11.90, P&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.001, including a significant three‐way interaction between positive parenting behaviours, negative parenting behaviours and child delay status. This model explained 68.16% of the variance in children&#39;s complex syntax at age 4. Simple two‐way interactions indicated differing effects of parenting variables for children with or without DD. Conclusions: Results have implications for understanding of complex syntax acquisition in young children, as well as implications for interventions.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;complex syntax; developmental delay; language; parent–child interaction; parenting; preschool&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The transactional model of development (Sameroff [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib34&quot; id=&quot;ref3&quot;&gt;34&lt;/reflink&gt;] ) asserts that the child and environment interact with one another to contribute to individual developmental trajectories. Consistent with this model, parenting is known to play a vital role in promoting positive social–emotional, cognitive and adaptive skill outcomes in children (Landry et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref4&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Warren &amp;amp; Brady [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib50&quot; id=&quot;ref5&quot;&gt;50&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Fenning &amp;amp; Baker [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib10&quot; id=&quot;ref6&quot;&gt;10&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). Additionally, among children at risk for poor outcomes, parenting may be especially important in fostering developmental resilience (Baker et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref7&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). As the acquisition of productive language is a milestone of universal importance for all children, this is a particularly potent outcome to examine. Accordingly, extensive literature documents the effects of parenting behaviours, such as warmth, affect and responsiveness, on early communication skills before age 3 in both typical and vulnerable children (Hart &amp;amp; Risley [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib15&quot; id=&quot;ref8&quot;&gt;15&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Tamis‐LeMonda et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib45&quot; id=&quot;ref9&quot;&gt;45&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Warren &amp;amp; Brady [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib50&quot; id=&quot;ref10&quot;&gt;50&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). Despite this body of research on parenting and early language development, few studies have examined the continued contribution of parenting to more complex language skills. As present knowledge does suggest that there is considerable variability in child acquisition of complex syntax past age 3 (Huttenlocher et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib21&quot; id=&quot;ref11&quot;&gt;21&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Vasilyeva et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib48&quot; id=&quot;ref12&quot;&gt;48&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Huttenlocher et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib22&quot; id=&quot;ref13&quot;&gt;22&lt;/reflink&gt;] ), it is crucial to examine the role of the parent–child interaction in these individual differences.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-2&quot;&gt;Parenting interaction behaviours&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Parent–child interactions have been examined thoroughly for specific parenting behaviours that may promote child development. Although these behaviours have been given many labels, they frequently measure similar constructs: responsiveness (e.g. contingent responding to the child&#39;s communication), synchronicity (e.g. speech and actions related to the child&#39;s attentional focus), sensitivity (e.g. awareness of and attention to the child&#39;s needs and wants) and scaffolding (e.g. provision of developmentally appropriate support). These positive interaction strategies have been linked to many positive outcomes before age 2, including age of first words, early vocabulary size, play skills, social–emotional development and cognitive skills (Tamis‐LeMonda et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib44&quot; id=&quot;ref14&quot;&gt;44&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Tamis‐LeMonda et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib45&quot; id=&quot;ref15&quot;&gt;45&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Landry et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref16&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). In general, the research in typical development becomes less robust past age 3; however, there appears to be continued support for the positive impact of these parent interaction strategies. Jackson &amp;amp; Roberts ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib23&quot; id=&quot;ref17&quot;&gt;23&lt;/reflink&gt;] ) found that children from more responsive homes were more likely to use increasingly complex grammatical forms in their speech at ages 3 and 4. Similarly, maternal synchronous behaviours were shown to be associated with child language, cognitive and social outcomes at 42&#160;months (Landry et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref18&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;] ).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Researchers have also examined interaction strategies that have been associated with poor social, behavioural and academic outcomes (Heller &amp;amp; Baker [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib18&quot; id=&quot;ref19&quot;&gt;18&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). These negative interaction strategies are often defined as overtly negative, intrusive or controlling verbal and non‐verbal behaviours (e.g. criticism, unnecessary instructions and interrupting child actions). When specifically examining language outcomes, rates of negative parenting behaviours have independently explained variation in both expressive and receptive language in typically developing (TD) toddlers and preschoolers (Keown et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib26&quot; id=&quot;ref20&quot;&gt;26&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Pungello et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib32&quot; id=&quot;ref21&quot;&gt;32&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). While most studies have supported inverse relationships between negative parenting behaviours and child outcomes, some research has indicated that negative parenting behaviours do not contribute independently over and above positive parenting characteristics (Tamis‐LeMonda et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib46&quot; id=&quot;ref22&quot;&gt;46&lt;/reflink&gt;] ).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-3&quot;&gt;Children with developmental delays&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Many studies have extended these findings to vulnerable populations, including children with a variety of developmental disabilities (Siller &amp;amp; Sigman [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib40&quot; id=&quot;ref23&quot;&gt;40&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Warren &amp;amp; Brady [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib50&quot; id=&quot;ref24&quot;&gt;50&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Warren et al. 2010). For example, scaffolding and synchronicity have been linked to gains in language skills on standardised assessments for both children born prematurely and children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (Siller &amp;amp; Sigman [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib40&quot; id=&quot;ref25&quot;&gt;40&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Dieterich et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib9&quot; id=&quot;ref26&quot;&gt;9&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Siller &amp;amp; Sigman [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib41&quot; id=&quot;ref27&quot;&gt;41&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). Similarly, parental linguistic responses to both child attentional leads and joint attention in minimally verbal preschoolers with ASD were value‐added predictors of later expressive and receptive language outcomes (Yoder et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib52&quot; id=&quot;ref28&quot;&gt;52&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). Further, research indicates that children with developmental risk may be even more sensitive to variability in parenting behaviour than TD children (Crnic &amp;amp; Greenberg [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib6&quot; id=&quot;ref29&quot;&gt;6&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Denham et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref30&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Baker et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref31&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;] ).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;However, parents of children with developmental delays (DD) may also be more likely to utilise negative parenting behaviours than parents of children with TD (Blacher et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib5&quot; id=&quot;ref32&quot;&gt;5&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). These differences may be a result of the child&#39;s interactive style, whereby infants and young children with delays evoke different parental responses. Consistent with this theory, the behaviour of mothers of infants with Down syndrome showed no differences at child age 8&#160;weeks from parents of TD infants but diverged by age 20&#160;weeks to be more remote and less sensitive (Slonims &amp;amp; McConachie [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib43&quot; id=&quot;ref33&quot;&gt;43&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). Analyses in this study indicated that the behaviour of mothers with children with Down syndrome was indeed driven by infant behaviour. Additionally, other research has indicated that children with developmental and language delays have a higher prevalence of behaviour problems, which subsequently predicts increased parenting stress (Hastings [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib17&quot; id=&quot;ref34&quot;&gt;17&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Horwitz et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref35&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;] ) and may also affect parenting behaviour. This potentially altered parenting environment presents additional developmental risk that may amplify the inherent risk in these populations. Expressive and receptive language deficits occur across a variety of developmental disorders (Rice et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref36&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;] ), which may be at least partially explained by impaired intellectual ability (Cromer [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib7&quot; id=&quot;ref37&quot;&gt;7&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). However, Rice et al. ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref38&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;] ) show evidence of unique language profiles in various developmental disorders, which are unexplained by cognitive ability alone. Thus, it is possible that environmental factors, such as parenting interaction style, may have differing salience for different populations and for different components of language (e.g. syntax) within each population.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-4&quot;&gt;The current study&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;There is ample literature supporting the critical role of parenting for early childhood language milestones, such as vocabulary. However, few researchers have looked beyond child age 3 and examined complex syntax use in naturalistic setting. Further, the majority of the studies have been conducted with either TD children or children with DDs, which limits insight into potential differences in the mechanisms of child language learning. In the current study, we sought to address these gaps by investigating the impact of multiple aspects of parenting interaction behaviours (e.g. sensitivity, affect, intrusiveness and engagement) on the development of complex syntax in both TD and DD children.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-5&quot;&gt;Aims and expectations&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;In preparation for the primary analyses, we planned to examine group differences with respect to syntax development and parenting interaction behaviours. Consistent with prior literature (Rice et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref39&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;] ), it was expected that DD children would show less complex syntax than TD children at ages 3 and 4. As parents of DD children have previously shown lower levels of positive parenting and higher levels of negative parenting than parents of TD children (Slonims &amp;amp; McConachie [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib43&quot; id=&quot;ref40&quot;&gt;43&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Blacher et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib5&quot; id=&quot;ref41&quot;&gt;5&lt;/reflink&gt;] ), it was hypothesised that these patterns would also emerge in the current sample.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Building upon studies demonstrating the effects of parenting behaviours on early language development, we hypothesised that both positive and negative parenting dimensions would also contribute to complex syntax growth from age 3 to age 4. However, we hypothesised that the effect of negative parenting at age 3 would depend on the amount of positive parenting interaction strategies present, such that at high levels of positive parenting behaviours, negative parenting behaviours would not have a significant impact. Conversely, at lower levels of positive parenting behaviours, higher rates of negative parenting behaviours would correspond to less growth in complex syntax. This two‐way interaction between positive and negative parenting behaviour dimensions could explain why some studies have shown independent effects of negative interaction elements over and above positive elements, and some have not (Tamis‐LeMonda et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib46&quot; id=&quot;ref42&quot;&gt;46&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). We also expected these relationships to differ by child developmental status, supporting a significant three‐way interaction. Specifically, it was hypothesised that the magnitude of the relationships would be larger for children with DD, similar to prior research (Crnic &amp;amp; Greenberg [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib6&quot; id=&quot;ref43&quot;&gt;6&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Denham et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref44&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Baker et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref45&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;] ).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-6&quot;&gt;Methods&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-7&quot;&gt;Participants&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Participants were a randomly selected sample (n&#160;=&#160;60) of families drawn from a larger pool (N&#160;=&#160;208) of English‐speaking families enrolled in a longitudinal study of children with or without DD conducted across three national sites (see Baker et al. 2002 for a thorough description of original study procedures). In the current study&#39;s sample, each of the three sites were represented: University of California, Los Angeles (n=29), the University of California, Riverside (n=15), and Pennsylvania State University (n=16). Selection criteria required that the child be between 30 and 39&#160;months of age, be ambulatory and not be diagnosed with ASD. Families were recruited from community service providers and local preschools.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;A subsample (n&#160;=&#160;60) was used due to the time‐intensive nature of transcription and language coding. Random selection was constrained to maintain equal distribution across the DD (n&#160;=&#160;30) and TD (n&#160;=&#160;30) groups. Families were excluded from the current study selection if the participating child was diagnosed with Down syndrome, because of their unique syntactic development (Rice et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref46&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;] ), or if the child did not reach number of utterances required to obtain a valid Index of Productive Syntax (IPSyn) score (Scarborough [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref47&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). Table&#160; shows demographic characteristics of the current sample. Families were from diverse backgrounds and from a wide socio‐economic range. Overall, there were more male than female children. On average, mothers of TD children had achieved significantly higher levels of education [M&lt;subs&gt;grade completed&lt;/subs&gt;&#160;=&#160;16.27, standard deviation (SD)&#160;=&#160;2.36] than mothers of DD children (M&lt;subs&gt;grade completed&lt;/subs&gt;&#160;=&#160;14.23, SD&#160;=&#160;2.50), t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib58&quot; id=&quot;ref48&quot;&gt;58&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;3.24, P&#160;=&#160;0.002. There were no other significant group demographic differences. Two children in the DD group were diagnosed with cerebral palsy; the rest had undifferentiated DDs.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Demographic data of current study sample of TD children and DD children&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;TD percentage or mean (SD)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;DD percentage or mean (SD)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;t or &amp;amp;#967;2&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Gender (% male)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;60.00&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;73.33&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;1.20&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Race (% Caucasian)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;70.00&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;60.00&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.66&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Family income (% &amp;amp;#60;$50&amp;amp;#160;000)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;40.00&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;63.33&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;3.27&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Maternal education level (last grade completed, where 16 would refer to graduating from a 4&amp;amp;#8208;year university)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;16.27 (2.36)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;14.23 (2.50)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;3.24&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;BSID&amp;amp;#8208;II MDI&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;108.23 (10.92)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;68.03 (10.18)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;14.75&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;1 +p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.10.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;ulist&gt; &lt;item&gt;2 *p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.05.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;3 **p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.01.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;4 ***p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.001.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;5 BSID‐II MDI, Bayley Scales of Infant Development II Mental Development Index; DD, developmental delay; TD, typically developing/typical development.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;/ulist&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-8&quot;&gt;Procedures&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The participating universities&#39; institutional review boards approved all study procedures. All assessments were conducted by trained doctoral students or research staff. At intake, child age 3, early cognitive development was assessed in the home using the Mental Development Index (MDI) on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II (Bayley [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib3&quot; id=&quot;ref49&quot;&gt;3&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). Children were classified as TD if they demonstrated normative cognitive development (MDI &amp;gt;85) or as DD if they demonstrated delayed cognitive development (MDI &amp;lt;85). A classification of intellectual disability was not given at this age. Following intake, families were scheduled for a laboratory visit, which included a videotaped mother–child interaction, consisting of several parts: 10&#160;min of free play, 3&#160;min of clean‐up, 5&#160;min of snack and 10&#160;min of joint problem‐solving tasks (e.g. creating a replica of a lego tower, completing a jigsaw puzzle). For all tasks, parents were provided brief instructions by a research staff member and then left alone with their child. For example, during free play, parents were instructed to act as though they were in their own living room and were provided with a variety of toys (e.g. ball, car wash, potatoheads). The procedures of this lab visit were repeated approximately 1&#160;year later, when the child was 4&#160;years old, with slight modifications to make the materials and tasks developmentally appropriate.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-9&quot;&gt;Child transcription&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Child language during the videotaped mother–child interaction was transcribed by trained research assistants using Computerized Language Analysis software and Child Language Database Exchange System transcription conventions (MacWhinney [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib30&quot; id=&quot;ref50&quot;&gt;30&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). The following activities were transcribed, in the listed order, until the number of spontaneous utterances required to assign a valid IPSyn score was reached: free play, clean‐up, snack and problem‐solving tasks 1–3. The majority of children reached this benchmark within the first three activities, equivalent to 18&#160;min of interaction, at age 3 (26 of the TD children and 24 of the DD children) and 4 (25 of the TD children and 26 of the DD children). The first author reviewed all transcripts to ensure accuracy. Twenty percent of final transcripts were subsequently randomly selected for reliability checks by a research assistant trained in transcription who had not contributed to any of the final transcriptions. Reliability was calculated by dividing the number of utterances in which the reliability judge agreed exactly with the final transcript by total number of utterances. Average reliability was 98.6%, with no one transcript below 92.8% agreement.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-10&quot;&gt;Measures&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-11&quot;&gt;Parenting interaction strategies&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Global ratings of both positive and negative interaction features were coded at child age 3 using the Parent–Child Interaction Rating Scale (Belsky et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref51&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). The Parent‐Child Interaction Rating System measures six dimensions of parenting (Table&#160;), which create two composite scores, positive parenting and negative parenting, through a previously derived factor structure (Fenning et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib11&quot; id=&quot;ref52&quot;&gt;11&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). The positive parenting factor score consisted of positive affect&#160;+&#160;sensitivity&#160;+&#160;stimulation of cognition&#160;−&#160;detachment. The negative parenting factor score consisted of intrusiveness&#160;+&#160;negative affect. Coding teams rated each mother in each dimension, in each interaction activity, using a 5‐point Likert scale (1&#160;=&#160;not at all characteristic, 5&#160;=&#160;highly characteristic). Research assistants were trained until reliability was established, defined as reaching a criterion over 70% exact agreement and 95% agreement within one scale point with the criterion coder. Once reliable, two research assistants were paired to code the mother–child interactions as a team. Reliability was collected for 30% of the tapes. Kappa for inter‐rater reliability was 0.71 (range&#160;=&#160;0.68–0.77), which is considered acceptable. Once collected, these Likert ratings were converted into z‐scores and summed to form the two composites.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Description of the six dimensions of parenting interactions coded in the PCIRS&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;Parenting interaction dimension&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;Description&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Positive affect&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Expression of positive regard, either verbal or non&amp;amp;#8208;verbal (e.g. smiling and praising)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Sensitivity&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Ability of parent to respond appropriately and consistently to the child&amp;amp;#39;s needs in a developmentally appropriate way, the extent to which parent is &amp;amp;#8216;child centred&amp;amp;#8217;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Stimulation of cognition&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Attempts to foster cognitive development (e.g. academic skills such as numbers or letters and problem solving)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Detachment (reverse coded in analysis)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Passivity or being unaware of child (e.g. mother reading magazine while child plays)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Negative affect&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Expression of negative regard, either verbal or non&amp;amp;#8208;verbal (e.g. scolding, tone of voice and facial expressions)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Intrusiveness&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Imposition of adult agenda on child activities and overstimulation&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;6 PCIRS, Parent Child Interaction Rating System.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-12&quot;&gt;Child complex syntax&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;As mean length of utterance (MLU) becomes less sensitive to growth past age 3 and may overestimate the language complexity of children with DD (Scarborough et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref53&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;] ), the IPSyn (Scarborough [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref54&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;] ) was used to measure child complex syntax use. The IPSyn is a reliable measure of syntactic growth in the preschool years that has been used with both TD and DD children (Scarborough et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref55&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). An IPSyn score is obtained by analysing a 100‐utterance sample of non‐imitative language for 60 unique syntactic structures. For each syntactic structure measured, the child can receive up to 2 points (i.e. 0 points for no observed use, 1 point for one exemplar and 2 points for two or more exemplars). Thus, the highest possible IPSyn score is 120. During measure development, syntactic structures that showed predictable developmental progression were selected. Therefore, a higher IPSyn score indicates a more developmentally advanced and diverse morphosyntactic repertoire but does not necessarily correspond to a specific level of syntactic development, as the same score can be achieved with different items. Each child&#39;s language was IPSyn scored at ages 3 and 4 from the transcripts produced during the parent–child interaction. Coding teams consisted of two trained coders who established reliability in IPSyn coding by meeting 90% item agreement with the first author master coder on three transcripts in a row. Twenty percent of transcripts were then randomly selected to be coded twice. Reliability was calculated as the percent item agreement with a master IPSyn scoresheet created through consensus. Average reliability was 97.4%, with no transcripts falling below 91.7% agreement.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-13&quot;&gt;Analysis plan&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Prior to exploring the three‐way interaction of primary interest (delay status&#160;&#215;&#160;positive parenting&#160;&#215;&#160;negative parenting), paired samples t‐tests were used to confirm that there was indeed change in complex syntax from age 3 to age 4 for both TD and DD children, which provided the foundation for the regression analyses. One‐way and repeated measures analyses of vaiance (ANOVAs) were conducted to analyse TD/DD differences in complex syntax use at both age 3 and age 4, as well as differences in rates of change in IPSyn scores from age 3 to age 4. With respect to parenting behaviours, one‐way ANOVAs were used to examine group differences in the positive and negative parenting factor scores. Analyses of covariance were also conducted to parcel out any contribution of maternal education to parenting behaviour.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;To address the primary hypothesis, a four‐step hierarchal regression was used. The outcome variable used was child IPSyn score at age 4. In the first step of the analyses, child IPSyn score at age 3 was entered, to control for baseline individual differences and isolate the effects of parenting on change in complex syntax from age 3 to age 4. Mother&#39;s educational achievement was also entered as a covariate given significant group differences. In the second step, the three variables of interest were entered: child delay status, positive parenting factor score and negative parenting factor score. The third step included all possible two‐way interactions between the variables of interest. The final step included the three‐way interaction of delay status, the positive parenting factor score and the negative parenting factor score. As the primary interest in this study was the three‐way interaction, all main effects and two‐way interactions were necessarily included and not evaluated prior to the interpretation of the three‐way interaction. To further understand the three‐way interaction, simple two‐way interactions between positive and negative parenting were examined for both groups of children. Simple slopes were calculated to probe these simple two‐way interactions, which test the effect of negative parenting behaviours on complex syntax growth while holding positive parenting behaviours constant at the mean, as well as &#177;1 SD.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-14&quot;&gt;Results&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-15&quot;&gt;Child complex syntax&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;As expected, data revealed that as children age, their language becomes more syntactically complex. Using the complete sample, children at age 4 received significantly greater IPSyn scores (M&#160;=&#160;67.7, SD&#160;=&#160;13.7) than at age 3 (M&#160;=&#160;52.0, SD&#160;=&#160;17.9), t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib59&quot; id=&quot;ref56&quot;&gt;59&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;10.24, p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.001. Further, within each group, significant complex syntax growth from age 3 to age 4 occurred. TD children received significantly higher IPSyn scores at age 4 (M&#160;=&#160;75.9, SD&#160;=&#160;8.0) than at age 3 (M&#160;=&#160;64.1, SD&#160;=&#160;9.2), t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref57&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;7.32, p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.001. Children with DDs also received significantly higher IPSyn scores at age 4 (M&#160;=&#160;59.4, SD&#160;=&#160;13.4) than at age 3 (M&#160;=&#160;39.9, SD&#160;=&#160;16.3), t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref58&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;8.02, p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.001. Finally, the repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant time by delay status interaction, F(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref59&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib58&quot; id=&quot;ref60&quot;&gt;58&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;6.85, p&#160;=&#160;.011, suggesting that, on average, DD children showed faster growth in complex syntax from child age 3 to age 4 than did TD children.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;With respect to group differences present at a singular time point (Table&#160;), children with DD used significantly less complex language than TD children at both age 3, F(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref61&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib58&quot; id=&quot;ref62&quot;&gt;58&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;50.25, p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.001, and age 4, F(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref63&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib58&quot; id=&quot;ref64&quot;&gt;58&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;33.88, p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.001. Although the assumption of homogeneity of variances was violated at both age 3 and age 4, the F‐test is known to be robust against inequality of variances when sample sizes are equal (Glass et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib12&quot; id=&quot;ref65&quot;&gt;12&lt;/reflink&gt;] ), as in these analyses.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Descriptive statistics of the language and parenting variables of interest by group&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;6&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;TD children&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;Children with DD&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;F&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;Mean (SD)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;Minimum&amp;amp;#8211;maximum&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;Mean (SD)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;Minimum&amp;amp;#8211;maximum&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;IPSyn score, age 3&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;64.10 (9.17)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;46&amp;amp;#8211;81&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;39.93 (16.27)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;13&amp;amp;#8211;72&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;50.25&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;IPSyn score, age 4&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;75.93 (7.96)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;60&amp;amp;#8211;93&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;59.40 (13.37)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;30&amp;amp;#8211;82&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;33.88&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Positive parenting&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.63 (3.25)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;6.25 to 0.63&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;1.23 (2.82)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;8.79 to 3.76&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;5.58&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Negative parenting&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;1.03 (1.46)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;2.41 to 2.93&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.72 (1.61)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;2.41 to 4.00&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;19.58&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;ulist&gt; &lt;item&gt;8 Parenting variables collected at age 3. Positive parenting is equivalent to the sum of its respective standardised factor dimensions, which included positive affect, sensitivity, stimulation of cognition and detachment reverse coded. Negative parenting is equivalent to the sum of its standardised factor dimensions, which included negative affect and intrusiveness.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;9 *p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.05.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;10 **p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.01.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;11 ***p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.001.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;12 DD, developmental delay; IPSyn, Index of Productive Syntax; SD, standard deviation; TD, typical development.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;/ulist&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-16&quot;&gt;Parenting interaction strategies&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Overall, parents used a range of both negative and positive parenting interaction strategies. The average positive parenting unstandardised factor score, collapsing across DD and TD, was 13.32 (SD&#160;=&#160;1.97), where the range of possible scores was 4–20. The average negative parenting unstandardised factor score across both groups was 3.87 (SD&#160;=&#160;1.26), with the range of possible scores being 2–10, suggesting a low base rate of negative interaction strategies in this sample. When comparing the sum of the standardised factor scores, results revealed that parents of TD children (M&#160;=&#160;−1.03, SD&#160;=&#160;1.46) were significantly less negative than parents of DD children (M&#160;=&#160;0.72, SD&#160;=&#160;1.61), F(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref66&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib58&quot; id=&quot;ref67&quot;&gt;58&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;19.58, p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.001 (Table&#160;). In addition, parents of TD children (M&#160;=&#160;0.63, SD&#160;=&#160;3.25) were more likely to use higher levels of positive interaction strategies than parents of DD children (M&#160;=&#160;−1.23, SD&#160;=&#160;2.82), F(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref68&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib58&quot; id=&quot;ref69&quot;&gt;58&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;5.58, p&#160;=&#160;.022. After controlling for maternal education, parents of DD children remained more likely to use higher levels of negative interaction behaviours than parents of TD children, F&lt;subs&gt;(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref70&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib57&quot; id=&quot;ref71&quot;&gt;57&lt;/reflink&gt;)&lt;/subs&gt;&#160;=&#160;10.16, p&#160;=&#160;.002. However, no differences in positive interaction behaviours were observed between the two groups of parents after controlling for maternal education, F(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref72&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib57&quot; id=&quot;ref73&quot;&gt;57&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;1.64, p&#160;&amp;gt;&#160;.05.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-17&quot;&gt;Multiple regression model&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The final model, including the three‐way interaction, was highly significant, F(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib9&quot; id=&quot;ref74&quot;&gt;9&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib50&quot; id=&quot;ref75&quot;&gt;50&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;11.90, p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.001. Table&#160; includes the unstandardised beta coefficients of each parameter in this model. The full set of variables and interactions explained 68.16% of the variance in children&#39;s IPSyn scores at age 4; however, the bulk of the explained variance was accounted for by prior language at age 3 (R&lt;sups&gt;2&lt;/sups&gt;&lt;subs&gt;IPSYN36&lt;/subs&gt;&#160;=&#160;0.56). The addition of the three‐way interaction in the fourth model resulted in a significant increase in explained variance, F&lt;subs&gt;change&lt;/subs&gt;(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref76&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib50&quot; id=&quot;ref77&quot;&gt;50&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;8.98, p&#160;=&#160;0.004. The significant three‐way interaction indicates that positive and negative parenting behaviours interact with each other differently for TD and DD children. The simple two‐way interactions were graphed for both TD and DD children (Figs&#160;, respectively) to depict the association between negative parenting behaviours and IPSyn scores at varying levels of positive parenting interaction strategies in the two groups.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Results of multiple regression of child developmental delay status, negative parenting and positive parenting at age 3 on child complex syntax at age 4, controlling for child complex syntax at age 3 and mother&#39;s education at age 3&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;Parameter&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#946;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;SE&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th&amp;gt;t&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Constant (intercept)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;71.02&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;2.04&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;34.88&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;IPSyn at age 3&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.45&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.09&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;5.06&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Maternal education level (grade)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.65&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.51&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;1.27&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Delay status&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;6.98&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;3.21&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;2.18&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Negative parenting&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.75&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;1.15&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.66&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Positive parenting&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.65&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.76&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.86&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Positive&amp;amp;#160;&amp;amp;#42;&amp;amp;#160;negative&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.60&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.42&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;1.42&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Positive&amp;amp;#160;&amp;amp;#42;&amp;amp;#160;status&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.48&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;1.15&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.42&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Negative&amp;amp;#160;&amp;amp;#42;&amp;amp;#160;status&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;2.53&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;1.78&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;1.43&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Positive&amp;amp;#160;&amp;amp;#42;&amp;amp;#160;negative&amp;amp;#160;&amp;amp;#42;&amp;amp;#160;status&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;1.65&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;0.55&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;3.00&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;ulist&gt; &lt;item&gt;13 Delay status: typically developing coded as 0.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;14 *p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.05.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;15 **p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.01.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;16 ***p&#160;&amp;lt;&#160;.001.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;item&gt;17 β, unstandardised regression coefficient; IPSyn, Index of Productive Syntax; SE, coefficient standard error; t, obtained t‐value.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;/ulist&gt; &lt;p&gt;For TD children (Fig.&#160;), the simple two‐way interaction between positive and negative parenting behaviours was not significant, t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref78&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;1.63, p&#160;&amp;gt;&#160;.05. Accordingly, each simple slope at each level of positive parenting behaviours was also non‐significant. This indicates no relationship is present between negative parenting behaviours and complex syntax at 4, while controlling for prior levels of complex syntax, at any of the three levels of the positive parenting factor score. Because the two‐way interaction was not significant for TD children, main effects of positive and negative parenting interaction strategies alone were examined. There were no significant main effects of positive parenting behaviours, t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib25&quot; id=&quot;ref79&quot;&gt;25&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;−0.48, p&#160;&amp;gt;&#160;.05, or negative parenting behaviours, t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib25&quot; id=&quot;ref80&quot;&gt;25&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;0.85, p&#160;&amp;gt;&#160;.05. The only significant predictor of child complex syntax at age 4 was complex syntax scores at age 3, t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref81&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;2.84, p&#160;=&#160;.008, accounting for 22.39% of the variance.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;When examining the relationship between negative parenting behaviours and complex syntax at various levels of positive parenting behaviour for DD children, as seen in Fig.&#160;, results revealed that the simple two‐way interaction was significant, t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref82&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;−2.53, p&#160;=&#160;.018. Thus, for DD children, the association between negative parenting behaviours and complex syntax growth from age 3 to age 4 was dependent on the level of positive parenting interaction strategies. Simple slopes analyses supported a significant negative association between levels of negative parenting interaction elements at age 3 and complex syntax at age 4 but only for those DD children whose parents are above average on positive parenting interaction strategies, t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref83&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;−2.14, p&#160;=&#160;.043. This suggests that at high levels of positive parenting behaviours (i.e. one SD above the mean), child complex syntax growth diminishes significantly as negative parenting behaviours increase. However, at low and average levels of positive parenting behaviours, there was no significant association with negative parenting interaction elements on complex syntax growth.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;As stated, the earlier results included maternal education level in the model as a covariate. However, the model revealed that maternal education level did not explain a significant amount of variance over and above child complex syntax at age 3. Thus, the model was also tested without maternal education level. Overall, the results remained largely similar. However, without this covariate, the simple two‐way interaction between positive and negative parenting behaviours for TD children reached significance, t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref84&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;2.06, p&#160;=&#160;.050. Further, one simple slope approached significance, t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib25&quot; id=&quot;ref85&quot;&gt;25&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;1.90, p&#160;=&#160;.069, indicating that for TD children in high positive parenting strategy contexts, increases in negative parenting interaction elements corresponded to enhanced complex syntax growth from age 3 to age 4.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-18&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;We aimed to elucidate the relationship between parenting interaction style and the continued acquisition of language through the preschool years. At this time, children move past simply expanding their vocabulary and begin to learn the grammatical and syntactical rules that govern language use. Through complex syntax, children begin to communicate and understand increasingly complex ideas and thoughts, an essential developmental task.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Our findings revealed a significant three‐way interaction, suggesting that the predictive power of parenting interaction characteristics on complex syntax growth varies for children with TD versus children with DDs. Although the presence of a significant three‐way interaction is consistent with our hypotheses, the nature of the interaction was different than expected. Specifically, findings indicate that parenting interaction styles, neither positive nor negative, do not significantly impact complex syntax growth from age 3 to age 4 in TD children. In contrast, for DD children, parenting behaviours, as coded here, remain important. As one might expect, the most ideal parenting environment for this population is one of high positive and low negative interactional elements. However, results indicate that high positive parenting behaviours may not be able to buffer against negative parenting interactional elements, such that in the presence of high negative parenting behaviours, the benefits of positive parenting behaviours are diminished.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;For TD children, one interpretation of these results could be that complex syntax learning is fuelled simply by increased language input, irrespective of the emotional context. Therefore, language learning at preschool age may be founded on basic statistical learning, where children notice and generalise the grammatical patterns present in language input, rather than occurring through a dynamic interactional process. This hypothesis would suggest that while positive interaction strategies may be essential for initial word learning and early milestones (Tamis‐LeMonda et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib44&quot; id=&quot;ref86&quot;&gt;44&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Tamis‐LeMonda et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib45&quot; id=&quot;ref87&quot;&gt;45&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Landry et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref88&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;] ), they are not the sole avenue towards syntactic learning. That is, syntactic learning can occur within positive and negative parent–child interaction contexts. These differences across periods of development are face valid, because very young children may require additional interactional supports to establish a level of engagement that enables learning. As TD children become older, these interactional supports may not be necessary for children to cue into syntax and grammar rules, given that they already have the foundational knowledge and ability to use language to interact socially.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;When maternal educational achievement was not included in the model, simple slopes suggest that for TD children, negative parenting interaction behaviours may actually have a positive benefit to complex syntax acquisition but only if high levels of positive parenting interaction behaviours are also present. This finding was unexpected and inconsistent with previous literature, which has found negative or null associations between negative parenting behaviours and language acquisition. However, the current analyses offer an increasingly nuanced examination of this relationship within the context of positive parenting behaviours. Further, as both positive and negative parenting constructs contain variables that may be confounded with increased language input directed at the child (e.g. stimulation of cognition for positive and intrusiveness for negative), it is possible that this result may be a function of increased language input for the child. This result could also be interpreted as consistent with prior research supporting a divergence model of emotion understanding development, which posits that TD children benefit when their two parents demonstrate different emotional reactions to situations (McElwain et al. 2007), suggesting the possible value of using some amount of both positive and negative strategies. Of note, however, parents in this sample used low overall levels of negative parenting behaviours. Thus, it is also possible that more frequent and pervasive levels of negative interaction strategies would elicit different effects.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In contrast to TD children, these results indicate that parenting interaction strategies significantly predict language outcomes at age 4 for children with DDs. This may be simply a function of the fact that children with DD are at an earlier stage of language development at age 3 than TD children. This explanation may suggest that the effects of parenting on language acquisition matters most when children are acquiring new skills and gradually erodes as children solidify their language knowledge. However, these results are also consistent with prior research that suggests that environment, including parenting context, is especially important for children with high developmental risk (Baker et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref89&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Green et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib13&quot; id=&quot;ref90&quot;&gt;13&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). In particular, it appears that interactions that include high levels of positive affect, sensitivity, engagement and cognitive stimulation are especially beneficial for DD children. However, the advantages conferred by positive parenting interactions are sharply diminished if high levels of negative parenting interactional elements (e.g. negative affect, intrusiveness and control) are also present. Comparing this result to TD children, it appears that syntax learning for DD children is dependent on the emotional context of the interaction.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-19&quot;&gt;Limitations&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Although powered to detect moderate to large effect sizes, the current study&#39;s sample size may have limited our ability to detect smaller effects present in the population. Even so, the age and child status differences were consistent and significant, and the presence of a significant three‐way interaction indicates that there are indeed differences in how parenting behaviours predict complex syntax growth children with TD as compared with DD. Further, although results suggest that parenting behaviours at age 3 may impact complex syntax growth, particularly for children with DD, the nature of the analyses can not rule out alternative explanations of the observed relationship between parenting behaviours and complex syntax. A second limitation is the use of unidirectional analyses, examining parenting behaviours as a predictor of child language. As stated in the transactional theory of development (Sameroff [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib34&quot; id=&quot;ref91&quot;&gt;34&lt;/reflink&gt;] ), there is likely a bidirectional influence, whereby child language predicts parenting behaviours, but that was not the focus of this study. Similarly, the current study only examined characteristics of mother–child interactions; however, at this age, children likely interact with other caregivers, including fathers, teachers and day‐care providers. These interactions may also have predictive value for complex syntax learning.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-20&quot;&gt;Future directions&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;To further explore the effect of parenting on complex syntax development in children, it would be important to examine the role of parent language input during this preschool period. Parent language input characteristics, such as the number of different words or MLUs spoken to the child, have been linked to larger child vocabularies (Tomasello et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib47&quot; id=&quot;ref92&quot;&gt;47&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Huttenlocher et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib20&quot; id=&quot;ref93&quot;&gt;20&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Hart &amp;amp; Risley [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref94&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;] ) and more advanced complex syntax use (Huttenlocher et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib21&quot; id=&quot;ref95&quot;&gt;21&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Huttenlocher et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib22&quot; id=&quot;ref96&quot;&gt;22&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). The limited body of research relating to complex syntax is in need of replication in TD populations and extension to children with DDs, a population for which the impact of parental language input (e.g. parent MLU and telegraphic speech) has only preliminary support (Venker et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib49&quot; id=&quot;ref97&quot;&gt;49&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Sandbank &amp;amp; Yoder [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib35&quot; id=&quot;ref98&quot;&gt;35&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). Further, to our knowledge, no studies have examined both parent language input and parent interaction strategies simultaneously. Although past research has demonstrated the benefits of input that follows a child&#39;s lead (Siller &amp;amp; Sigman [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib41&quot; id=&quot;ref99&quot;&gt;41&lt;/reflink&gt;] ), this research could be expanded to account for other interactive elements, such as affect and spatial proximity. In the context of the current study&#39;s findings with respect to TD children, examining the role of input would determine whether amount of parent language is indeed one of the propelling mechanisms behind syntactic growth and confirm that this process is robust regardless of the emotional context of the parent–child interaction.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-21&quot;&gt;Implications&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;As such, the current study has particularly clear implications for intervention efforts with preschool children with DDs and their families. As high levels of negative parenting have particularly deleterious effects and parents of children with delays used more negative parenting behaviours in this sample, reducing negative interaction elements may be an important treatment target, rather than just boosting positive interaction elements. Additionally, as positive interaction strategies seem to offer continued benefit through the preschool years in this population, these results provide support for continued parent education regarding how to adapt to their children as they develop. In particular, constructs such as sensitivity, stimulation of cognition and engagement may each require adjustment as children grow older. Indeed, the effect of different types of caregiver responsiveness is moderated by developmental language level in children with ASD (Haebig et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib14&quot; id=&quot;ref100&quot;&gt;14&lt;/reflink&gt;] ). The feasibility of such approaches is bolstered by prior parent training research, in which parents of children with and without DD have successfully increased contingent responding and enthusiasm, while decreasing criticism (Schuhmann et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref101&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Kasari et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib25&quot; id=&quot;ref102&quot;&gt;25&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Kaiser &amp;amp; Roberts [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref103&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Siller et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib42&quot; id=&quot;ref104&quot;&gt;42&lt;/reflink&gt;] ; Sanders et al. [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref105&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;] ).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0130001138-22&quot;&gt;Acknowledgements&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;This article utilizes data originally collected by the Collaborative Family Study (CFS), supported by Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Grants 34879‐1459 (PIs: K. A. Crnic, B. L. Baker, J. Blacher, C. Edelbrock). The CFS was conducted at three sites: Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, the University of California, Los Angeles, CA, and the University of California, Riverside, CA. The authors would like to acknowledge Catherine Sandhofer, PhD, for her consultation on this work and the research assistants who contributed to transcription and coding, especially Yassaman Erfani, Gina Hana, Janet Quan, Yerim Oh, Mary Dizon, Amanda Tran, Marco Gomez, Araceli Gonzalez, Tram Nguyen, Josefina Flores, and Stephanie Le. Lastly, the authors would like to thank the children and families who participated and made this research possible.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;ref id=&quot;AN0130001138-23&quot;&gt; &lt;title&gt;References&lt;/title&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib1&quot; idref=&quot;ref59&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;1&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt;Baker B. L., Blacher J., Crnic K. A. &amp;amp; Edelbrock C. (2002) Behavior problems and parenting stress in families of three‐year‐old children with and without developmental delays. 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R. &amp;amp; Lambert W. (2015) Value‐added predictors of expressive and receptive language growth in initially nonverbal preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 45, 1254–1270. &lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;p&gt;PHOTO (COLOR): Simple two‐way interaction between positive and negative parenting for typically developing children. IPSyn, Index of Productive Syntax.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;PHOTO (COLOR): Significant simple two‐way interaction between positive and negative parenting for children with developmental delays, t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref106&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;−2.53, P&#160;=&#160;0.018. A significant negative association between levels of negative parenting at age 3 and complex syntax at age 4 was detected for those developmental delay children whose parents were above average on positive parenting interaction strategies, t(&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref107&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;)&#160;=&#160;−2.14, P&#160;=&#160;0.043. IPSyn, Index of Productive Syntax.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;aug&gt; &lt;p&gt;By C. T. Moody; B. L. Baker and J. Blacher&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/aug&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl1&quot; bibid=&quot;bib58&quot; firstref=&quot;ref48&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl2&quot; bibid=&quot;bib59&quot; firstref=&quot;ref56&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl3&quot; bibid=&quot;bib57&quot; firstref=&quot;ref71&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt;
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Contribution of Parenting to Complex Syntax Development in Preschool Children with Developmental Delays or Typical Development
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Moody%2C+C%2E+T%2E%22&quot;&gt;Moody, C. T.&lt;/searchLink&gt; (ORCID &lt;externalLink term=&quot;http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7017-0713&quot;&gt;0000-0002-7017-0713&lt;/externalLink&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Baker%2C+B%2E+L%2E%22&quot;&gt;Baker, B. L.&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Blacher%2C+J%2E%22&quot;&gt;Blacher, J.&lt;/searchLink&gt;
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;SO&quot; term=&quot;%22Journal+of+Intellectual+Disability+Research%22&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Journal of Intellectual Disability Research&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/searchLink&gt;. Jul 2018 62(7):604-616.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 13
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2018
– Name: SourceSuprt
  Label: Sponsoring Agency
  Group: SrcSuprt
  Data: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (NIH)
– Name: NumberContract
  Label: Contract Number
  Group: NumCntrct
  Data: 348791459
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles&lt;br /&gt;Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Preschool+Children%22&quot;&gt;Preschool Children&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Parent+Child+Relationship%22&quot;&gt;Parent Child Relationship&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Syntax%22&quot;&gt;Syntax&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Developmental+Delays%22&quot;&gt;Developmental Delays&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Parenting+Styles%22&quot;&gt;Parenting Styles&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Child+Language%22&quot;&gt;Child Language&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Language+Acquisition%22&quot;&gt;Language Acquisition&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Longitudinal+Studies%22&quot;&gt;Longitudinal Studies&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Multiple+Regression+Analysis%22&quot;&gt;Multiple Regression Analysis&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Coding%22&quot;&gt;Coding&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Models%22&quot;&gt;Models&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Statistical+Analysis%22&quot;&gt;Statistical Analysis&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Intervention%22&quot;&gt;Intervention&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Correlation%22&quot;&gt;Correlation&lt;/searchLink&gt;
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1111/jir.12501
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0964-2633
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Background: Despite studies of how parent-child interactions relate to early child language development, few have examined the continued contribution of parenting to more complex language skills through the preschool years. The current study explored how positive and negative parenting behaviours relate to growth in complex syntax learning from child age 3 to age 4 years, for children with typical development or developmental delays (DDs). Methods: Participants were children with or without DD (N = 60) participating in a longitudinal study of development. Parent-child interactions were transcribed and coded for parenting domains and child language. Multiple regression analyses were used to identify the contribution of parenting to complex syntax growth in children with typical development or DD. Results: Analyses supported a final model, F(9,50) = 11.90, P &lt; 0.001, including a significant three-way interaction between positive parenting behaviours, negative parenting behaviours and child delay status. This model explained 68.16% of the variance in children&#39;s complex syntax at age 4. Simple two-way interactions indicated differing effects of parenting variables for children with or without DD. Conclusions: Results have implications for understanding of complex syntax acquisition in young children, as well as implications for interventions.
– Name: AbstractInfo
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  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2018
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1181540
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1181540
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1111/jir.12501
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 13
        StartPage: 604
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Child Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Syntax
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Developmental Delays
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parenting Styles
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Child Language
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Language Acquisition
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Longitudinal Studies
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Multiple Regression Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Coding
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Models
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Statistical Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intervention
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Contribution of Parenting to Complex Syntax Development in Preschool Children with Developmental Delays or Typical Development
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            NameFull: Moody, C. T.
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            NameFull: Baker, B. L.
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            NameFull: Blacher, J.
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              Type: published
              Y: 2018
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              Value: 62
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              Value: 7
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            – TitleFull: Journal of Intellectual Disability Research
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