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Envisioning a Meaningful Future and Academic Engagement: The Role of Parenting Practices and School-Based Relationships

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Title: Envisioning a Meaningful Future and Academic Engagement: The Role of Parenting Practices and School-Based Relationships
Language: English
Authors: Hill, Nancy E., Liang, Belle (ORCID 0000-0002-0005-4856), Price, Maggi, Polk, Whitney, Perella, John, Savitz-Romer, Mandy
Source: Psychology in the Schools. Jul 2018 55(6):595-608.
Availability: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2018
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Secondary Education
Descriptors: Parenting Styles, Structural Equation Models, Academic Aspiration, Parent Aspiration, Student Development, Goal Orientation, Parent School Relationship, Learner Engagement, Academic Achievement, Adolescent Development, Child Rearing, Racial Differences, Youth Opportunities, White Students, African American Students, Secondary Education
DOI: 10.1002/pits.22146
ISSN: 0033-3085
Abstract: In contrast to the focus on short-term, extrinsic goals in our society (e.g., wealth, prestige), positive youth development scholars have highlighted the need for parents and schools to help youths cultivate and plan for long-term, intrinsic, and meaningful goals (i.e., envisioning a meaningful future), arguing that envisioning a meaningful future is potentially inspiring and associated with better outcomes for youths. Envisioning a meaningful future includes being future-oriented and planful and having a sense of purpose, a life focus that provides deep meaning to life and contributes to the good of society. This study used structural equation modeling to examine the direct and indirect effects of parental and school relationships on envisioning a meaningful future and academic engagement in a diverse sample of adolescents (n = 624). Parental and school-based relationships were positively associated with academic engagement, and this association was partially mediated by envisioning a meaningful future. Analyses revealed the importance of parental and school relationships in engaging youths in developing a vision for a meaningful future toward the goal of academic engagement. Variations between African-Americans and Whites, and across grade and parental education levels are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2018
Accession Number: EJ1181815
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0130056760;pis01jul.18;2018Jun11.09:59;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0130056760-1">Envisioning a meaningful future and academic engagement: The role of parenting practices and school‐based relationships </title> <p>Abstract: In contrast to the focus on short‐term, extrinsic goals in our society (e.g., wealth, prestige), positive youth development scholars have highlighted the need for parents and schools to help youths cultivate and plan for long‐term, intrinsic, and meaningful goals (i.e., envisioning a meaningful future), arguing that envisioning a meaningful future is potentially inspiring and associated with better outcomes for youths. Envisioning a meaningful future includes being future‐oriented and planful and having a sense of purpose, a life focus that provides deep meaning to life and contributes to the good of society. This study used structural equation modeling to examine the direct and indirect effects of parental and school relationships on envisioning a meaningful future and academic engagement in a diverse sample of adolescents (n = 624). Parental and school‐based relationships were positively associated with academic engagement, and this association was partially mediated by envisioning a meaningful future. Analyses revealed the importance of parental and school relationships in engaging youths in developing a vision for a meaningful future toward the goal of academic engagement. Variations between African‐Americans and Whites, and across grade and parental education levels are discussed.</p> <p>academic engagement; adolescents; parental support; youth purpose</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-2">INTRODUCTION</hd> <p>At a time of increased emphasis on grades, test scores, and graduation rates, we often lose sight of the role of the deeper identity work that is at the heart of adolescence, including developing an overarching purpose. The lack of purpose among most adolescents (Liang et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref1">39</reflink>] ) may be in part responsible for the decline in academic engagement across middle and high schools (Vasquez‐Salgado & Chavira, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref2">65</reflink>] ). Envisioning a meaningful future is an important developmental task for adolescents (Marcia, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref3">43</reflink>] ), involving grappling with quintessential questions, such as “Who am I?” and “Why am I here?” (Bronk, Hill, Lapsley, Talib, & Finch, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref4">8</reflink>] ). A long‐term purpose may serve as a motivator for academic engagement (Damon, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref5">14</reflink>] ; Nurmi, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref6">49</reflink>] ). Given that parental and school relationships are primary sources of support for future planning (Helwig, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref7">23</reflink>] ) and are associated with academic engagement, envisioning a meaningful future may mediate the association between these relationships and academic engagement. To that end, we test the direct and indirect relations between parental and school‐based relationships and academic engagement, through envisioning a meaningful future.</p> <p>Envisioning a meaningful future combines the constructs of youth purpose and future orientation. Youth purpose is defined as “a stable and generalized intention to accomplish something that is at once meaningful to the self and leads to productive engagement with some aspect of the world beyond the self” (Damon, 2008; Damon, Menon, & Bronk, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref8">15</reflink>] ). This definition includes three key aspects: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref9">1</reflink>) an intention to pursue a personally meaningful ultimate aim; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref10">2</reflink>) an active engagement in this aim as demonstrated by a commitment of time, energy, or resources to achieving the purpose in life; and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref11">3</reflink>) a desire to make a contribution to the broader world. Future orientation may be defined as individuals’ subjective views of their future (Crespo, Jose, Kielpikowski, & Pryor, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref12">13</reflink>] ) and it provides the grounds for setting goals and planning (Seginer, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref13">58</reflink>] ). We combined the constructs of youth purpose and future orientation to underscore an emphasis on long‐term or future‐oriented purpose (rather than short‐term purpose). The youth purpose construct elaborates on future orientation to capture youths’ imagining of a meaningful purpose or aim and actively engaging in activities that are relevant to pursuing this aim. By combining purpose with future orientation, this study captures aspects of meaning‐making and life purpose that are focused on the future and the extent to which youths engage in long‐term planning for their purpose. Both future orientation (Crespo et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref14">13</reflink>] ; Schmid, Phelps, & Lerner, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref15">56</reflink>] ) and youth purpose (Liang et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref16">39</reflink>] ) are associated with academic engagement and positive youth development. Thus, we hypothesized that envisioning a meaningful future would be associated with academic engagement.</p> <p>Youths are increasingly focused on deriving meaning from future work and their lives (Park, Twenge, & Greenfield, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref17">50</reflink>] ). Based on 40‐year trends, during economic downturns, youths place less emphasis on making money and develop more civically oriented goals, addressing social inequities (Park et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref18">50</reflink>] ). Consistent with youth purpose, it seems that youths are integrating personal goals with desires to contribute to society (Damon et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref19">15</reflink>] ). Envisioning a meaningful future captures how youths pursue future goals that have personal significance, are connected to something bigger than themselves, and link current activities to these goals. As such, youths’ vision for a meaningful future may provide reasons to engage in school.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-3">MEANINGFUL FUTURE AND ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT</hd> <p>Envisioning a meaningful future can activate adolescents’ agency and engagement in pursuing their goals (Schmid et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref20">56</reflink>] ). Youths with clear aspirations are more likely to be academically engaged (Damon et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref21">15</reflink>] ; Hill & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref22">25</reflink>] ). The personally meaningful nature of purpose becomes self‐motivating and leads to productive engagement toward one's goals (Bronk et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref23">8</reflink>] ). Envisioning a meaningful future may infuse relevance and direction to mundane or challenging schoolwork (Damon, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref24">14</reflink>] ). Without purpose, academics can seem pointless. Moreover, an adolescent's future orientation or vision for the future provides the basis for setting goals and planning toward these goals (Seginer, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref25">57</reflink>] ). Indeed, purposeful, future‐oriented youths, compared to their counterparts, performed better academically, concurrently, and longitudinally (Beal & Crockett, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref26">3</reflink>] ; Bronk, Holmes Finch, & Talib, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref27">9</reflink>] ). These links between future orientation and academic achievement are consistent across ethnicity and race (Seginer, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref28">58</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Thus, we expected that envisioning a meaningful future would be positively related to academic engagement. Academic engagement refers to students’ commitment to school and ability to plan and develop strategies for learning (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref29">18</reflink>] ), including monitoring one's progress, self‐evaluation vis‐à‐vis learning, and making modifications based on feedback toward goals (Pintrich & De Groot, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref30">51</reflink>] ). These key indicators for academic success are consistent with adolescents’ increased cognitive abilities. Adolescents’ increased ability to think abstractly and reason from experience (Keating, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref31">32</reflink>] ) enable them to take ownership over schoolwork as it relates to longer‐term goals (Jodl, Michael, Malanchuk, Eccles, & Sameroff, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref32">31</reflink>] ) and to integrate these goals into their identities (Savitz‐Romer & Bouffard, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref33">54</reflink>] ). This is the type of engagement that may be motivated by envisioning a meaningful future. That is, as youths envision a meaningful future, they are likely to be planful in schoolwork to work toward these future goals. Such planful engagement does not happen in isolation; relationships at home and school may help youths make connections between an envisioned future and current academic pursuits (Blattner, Liang, Lund, & Spencer, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref34">5</reflink>] ).</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-4">PARENTAL AND SCHOOL INFLUENCES ON MEANINGFUL FUTURE</hd> <p>Parents can influence what purposes youths pursue, how they pursue them, and whether youths think they can attain them (Liang et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref35">40</reflink>] ; Moran, Bundick, Malin, & Reilly, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref36">46</reflink>] ). High‐quality parent–adolescent relationships are associated with stronger future orientation among youths (Crespo et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref37">13</reflink>] ; Seginer, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref38">58</reflink>] ). Qualities such as parental warmth, supportiveness, and engagement are associated with future‐oriented aspirations (Blattner et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref39">5</reflink>] ; Hill & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref40">27</reflink>] ). Moreover, youths’ future aspirations and academic engagement may be bolstered by parenting support characterized as “academic socialization” (e.g., family support for learning, linking education to future success, educational advice, and scaffolding independence; Hill & Tyson, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref41">24</reflink>] ; Hill & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref42">27</reflink>] ; Wang, Hill, & Hofkens, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref43">68</reflink>] ). Scaffolding independence and linking education to the future have emerged as two essential parenting strategies from focus groups with parents and youths (Hill, Witherspoon, & Bartz, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref44">28</reflink>] ). Indeed, such parenting increases from middle to high school and these increases are associated with academic outcomes (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref45">68</reflink>] ). This parental support may empower youths by helping them understand the utility and value of schoolwork and providing concrete advice for engaging in school.</p> <p>School relationships are also vital for helping youths envision a meaningful future (Crespo et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref46">13</reflink>] ). Social support from teachers was associated with academic engagement (Green, Rhodes, Hirsch, Suarez‐Orozco, & Camic, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref47">21</reflink>] ), beyond the effect of support from parents (Brewster & Bowen, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref48">7</reflink>] ). Similarly, teacher–student relationship quality was significantly related to academic engagement (Murray, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref49">48</reflink>] ). When teachers were independently observed to be emotionally supportive from the start of the school year, students reported increases in school engagement (Ruzek et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref50">53</reflink>] ). Moreover, school belonging, including with peers, can have a powerful influence on academic engagement (Elffers, Oort, & Karsten, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref51">16</reflink>] ). Within‐person longitudinal analyses have shown that years in which students had a greater sense of school belonging were years in which they viewed school as more useful (Gillen‐O'Neel & Fuligni, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref52">19</reflink>] ). School belonging has an especially significant connection to school achievement for African‐American students (Singh, Chang, & Dika, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref53">59</reflink>] ). When youths feel connected with peers and teachers, it may shape their future aspirations in ways that engage them academically (Liang, Spencer, West, & Rappaport, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref54">38</reflink>] ).</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-5">THE CURRENT STUDY</hd> <p>This study tested a model that hypothesized positive associations between parental and school support and envisioning a meaningful future, which in turn was expected to be positively associated with academic engagement. We examined whether the model fit similarly between African‐Americans and Whites, across grade level, and across parental education level. Whereas academic engagement declines across grade level (Wang & Eccles, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref55">66</reflink>] ), it is unclear whether the hypothesized models are similar across grades. Further, there are well‐established differences in effective parenting between African‐Americans and Whites (Gurland & Grolnick, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref56">22</reflink>] ; Mason, Walker‐Barnes, Tu, Simons, & Martinez‐Arrue, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref57">44</reflink>] ). Also, African‐Americans report less positive school experiences and a lower sense of school belonging (Magnuson & Duncan, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref58">42</reflink>] ; Milner, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref59">45</reflink>] ; Tenenbaum & Ruck, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref60">62</reflink>] ). Therefore, we tested differences in the model between African‐Americans and Whites as an initial test of generalizability across ethnicity. Finally, we tested model fit across parental education level. Parents with at least a college degree possess greater knowledge related to supporting youths in envisioning and planning for the future (Hill et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref61">26</reflink>] ; Lareau, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref62">35</reflink>] ). Understanding the comparative role of family and school‐based relationships across parent education levels is important for research and practice.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-6">METHOD</hd> <hd id="AN0130056760-7">Participants</hd> <p>The sample (n = 624, 54% female) consisted of 9th, 10th, and 11th graders from a public high school in the Northeastern region of the United States, which comprises 85% of the schools’ 9th–11th grade population. As the only high school in the district, it is representative of its diverse, working‐ to middle‐class community. The sample included Whites (n = 397, 63%), African‐Americans (n = 108, 17%), Asian‐Americans (n = 66, 11%), and Latinos (n = 53, 8%). Ethnicity and gender were evenly distributed across grade level (χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref63">6</reflink>) = 7.15 and χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref64">2</reflink>) = 1.56, not significant [ns]). Latinos (M<subs>age </subs>= 16.08) were older than Whites (M<subs>age </subs>= 15.66, F(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref65">3</reflink>, 618) = 3.73, p < .05), with other ethnicities in the middle. The sample represented a range of socioeconomic backgrounds, based on parental education level (18.8% of parents had a master's or doctoral degree, 47.1% an associate or bachelor's degree, 27% graduated from high school, 7.1% did not graduate from high school). Parents’ education level varied across ethnicity; White (M = 4.44) and African‐American (M = 4.30) youths reported that their parents had higher education levels than did Asian‐Americans (M = 3.55) and Latinos (M = 3.64 on a scale where 3 = high school; 4 = associate degree; 5 = bachelor's degree; F(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref66">3</reflink>, 618) = 10.56, p < .001). The parental education levels for African‐American and White students were not different from each other.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-8">Procedures</hd> <p>These data are part of a larger researcher–practitioner partnership focused on increasing school engagement and successful postsecondary transitions. The data used in the present study were collected as part of the baseline survey of all 9th–11th grade students in the district in the late spring of 2014. Because of the focus on student engagement and the role of significant relationships (especially parental relationships), there was concern that active parental consent would result in a sample that would be biased in favor of those who are most engaged, thereby missing the very students of greatest interest to the partnership. Therefore, we requested and were granted approval to use passive informed consent (opt‐out) procedures from our university institutional review board offices. Prior to data collection, the school office mailed to parents an introductory letter from the principal and research team, along with informed passive consent materials. This letter explained that the research focused on supporting students in developing and achieving their goals and understanding youths’ experiences at school and how they impact academic achievement. This letter was followed by a “robocall” (i.e., an automated telephone message to every family in school's database) from the principal that described the study, encouraged families to look for the letter that had been sent, and provided instructions for asking questions and opting out. Two students’ parents opted out of the survey.</p> <p>Students with passive parental consent were invited to participate in the study. Their assent form explained that the study focused on understanding their experiences at school, including their relationships with teachers and friends, their educational and future goals and sense of purpose, whether they think they are learning things important for their future, and their engagement in school, along with strategies they use to complete their schoolwork. All chose to participate, and only one did not finish the survey. Surveys were completed on Internet‐enabled tablets during a class period at the end of the academic year to minimize the impact on instruction and allow them to reflect on the year's experiences. Teachers and research assistants were present to answer questions and assist students. Respondents were given a $5 gift card for a local coffee shop.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-9">Measures</hd> <p>The four broad constructs in this study (i.e., parental support, school relationships, envisioning a meaningful future, academic engagement) were assessed by creating latent constructs using several manifest scales. Parental support had four scales: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref67">1</reflink>) Family Support for Learning scale (e.g., “When I have problems at my school my family/guardian(s) are willing to help me”; four items, α = .76; Appleton, Christenson, Kim, & Reschly, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref68">1</reflink>] ), which has been validated on ethnically diverse urban high school students; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref69">2</reflink>) Linking Education to Future Success subscale (e.g., “My parents help me understand how doing well in school impacts the money I will earn later”; seven items, α = .78); (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref70">3</reflink>) Promoting/Scaffolding Independence subscale (e.g., “When I show my parents I am responsible, they decrease their involvement in my schoolwork”; six items, α = .76), both from the Parental Involvement scale (Hill et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref71">28</reflink>] ), which has been used with middle‐ and high‐school students (Hill & Wang, 2015; Hill et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref72">28</reflink>] ); and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref73">4</reflink>) Perceived Parental Educational Advice scale (e.g., “Your parents are able to give good advice about your education”; three items, α = .83; Plunkett, Behnke, Sands, & Choi, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref74">52</reflink>] ), which was validated with ethnically diverse high‐school students. There were no reverse‐scored items and high scores reflect students’ perceptions that parents did more of the support practices.</p> <p>School relationships included the Positive Student–Teacher Relationships subscale (e.g., “Teachers and staff seem to take a real interest in my future”; nine items, α = .91 (Zullig, Koopman, Patton, & Ubbes, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref75">69</reflink>] ), validated on diverse middle‐ and high‐school students. There are no reverse‐coded items and high scores indicate that students find teachers to be caring, available, helpful, and understanding. We assessed school belongingness using the Community subscale of the Relational Health Indices for Youth (e.g., “I feel like people in this school understand me”; six items, α = .86; Liang, Tracy, Kenny, Brogan, & Gatha, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref76">37</reflink>] ), which was validated on ethnically diverse middle‐ and high‐school students. There are no reverse‐scored items and high scores reflect feeling more connected to and affirmed by experiences at school.</p> <p>Envisioning a meaningful future included two measures: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref77">1</reflink>) Future Orientation Measure (e.g., “I work hard now to create a good future for myself”; four items, α = .76; Crespo et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref78">13</reflink>] ), validated on 9‐ to 16‐year‐olds based on Lewin's ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref79">36</reflink>] /1948) conceptualization of “psychological future” as a characteristic of self that is self‐motivating. Students were asked to report on “how they think about their future goals and what it takes to reach these goals.” There are no reverse‐coded items and a high score reflects a greater emphasis on thinking about and planning for the future; and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref80">2</reflink>) two subscales of the Revised Youth Purpose survey (Bundick et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref81">11</reflink>] ): Purpose Commitment subscale (e.g., “I have a purpose in my life that reflects who I am”; eight items, α = .88) and Purpose Engagement subscale (“I participate in one or more organizations that serve my purpose in life”; six items, α = .62), which have been used with adolescents and emerging adults. Students were told that purpose refers to the “most important overall goal or goals for your life.” Each subscale has one reverse‐coded item. Higher scores suggest a stronger sense of meaning (purpose commitment) and more intentional involvement in activities related to one's purpose (purpose engagement).</p> <p>Academic engagement included the Self‐Regulation subscale of the Motivated Strategies for Learning questionnaire (e.g., “I ask myself questions to make sure I know the material I have been studying”; nine items, α = .74; Pintrich & De Groot, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref82">51</reflink>] ), which has been used with high‐school students (e.g., Muenks, Wigfield, Yang, & O'Neal, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref83">47</reflink>] ). We also used the Cognitive Engagement and Strategy Use subscale (e.g., “I try to plan what I have to do for homework before I get started”; four items, α = 80; Wang, Willett, & Eccles, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref84">67</reflink>] ), which was developed and validated on middle‐ and high‐school students. The Self‐Regulation subscale has three reverse‐coded items. High scores suggest that students have self‐awareness and planfulness about their learning and their goals for studying as they do their schoolwork.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-10">Data analytic strategy</hd> <hd id="AN0130056760-11">Preliminary analyses</hd> <p>Means and standard deviations were compared across ethnicity, grade cohorts, and parent education level for each construct using multivariate analysis of variances, with a Bonferroni post hoc comparison. For comparing across parents’ education level, we used the highest education level among parents and compared those students whose parents have a college degree with students whose parents do not have a college degree; 300 (49.2%) students had parents with a bachelor's degree or higher; 316 (50.8%) of students had parents with less than a bachelor's degree. In addition, correlations among all study variables were calculated.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-12">Model testing</hd> <p>A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was calculated to test the fit of the measurement model. For manifest variables, items were only permitted to load on their hypothesized latent construct. To examine the hypothesized associations, a structural equation model was fitted using Mplus. Because the amount of missing data was less than 3%, we used maximum likelihood estimation, which is the suggested method for handling missing data in the standard error of the mean (SEM) (Baraldi & Enders, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref85">2</reflink>] ). For the CFA and SEM, model fit was evaluated via various fit indices, including the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref86">60</reflink>] ) and the comparative fit index (CFI; Bentler, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref87">4</reflink>] ). CFIs of .90 and .95 and above represent good and excellent model fit, respectively (Hu & Bentler, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref88">30</reflink>] ). For the RMSEA index, values of .08 or lower indicate good fit and values of .05 or lower indicate excellent fit (Browne & Cudeck, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref89">10</reflink>] ).</p> <p>The significance of the indirect effects was examined by comparing the fit of the model with and without the direct effects specified. If the model without the direct effects fit the model significantly better than the model without the direct effects specified, it was concluded that envisioning a meaningful future either partially or fully mediated the associations between parental and school relationships and academic engagement. To test the significance of the indirect effects, we used the bias‐corrected bootstrap method, as recommended by MacKinnon, Lockwood, and Williams ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref90">41</reflink>] ); mediation is significant if the confidence intervals do not contain zero (Taylor, MacKinnon, & Tein, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref91">61</reflink>] ).</p> <p>With the best fitting model, we used multigroup SEM to examine whether the model fit similarly across grade level, parent education level, and ethnicity. Two sets of models were tested: one constraining factor loadings to be equal across two groups and one allowing factor loadings to vary across groups. The significance of the Δχ<sups>2</sups> between the models was examined. A nonsignificant Δχ<sups>2</sups> indicates that constraining the factor loadings to be equal across groups does not reduce the fit and thus the model is equivalent across groups. A significant Δχ<sups>2</sups> suggests that the models were different across groups and the factor loadings were examined to determine which factor loadings differed. For grade level, 10th and 11th grades were compared to 9th grade. For ethnicity, only African‐Americans and Whites were compared given long‐standing concerns over achievement gaps between these two populations and because the samples for the other ethnic groups were too small for comparison.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-13">RESULTS</hd> <hd id="AN0130056760-14">Preliminary analyses</hd> <p>African‐Americans reported lower levels of purpose engagement (F(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref92">3</reflink>, 614) = 2.61, p < .05, Cohen's d = .38), with no differences in purpose commitment (see Table ). The omnibus F was significant for linking education to future success (F(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref93">3</reflink>, 618) = 3.58, p < .05), and post hoc tests showed significant differences between Whites and Latinos (Cohen's d = .38). Across grade level, mean level differences existed for three of the four parental relationship measures (see Table ): compared to 11th graders, 9th graders reported higher levels of support for learning (F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref94">2</reflink>, 619) = 3.40, p < .05, Cohen's d = .28), linking education to future success (F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref95">2</reflink>, 619) = 4.64, p < .01, Cohen's d = .32), and education advice (F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref96">2</reflink>, 619) = 3.41, p < .05, Cohen's d = .28). Also, 10th graders compared to 9th graders reported lower levels of teacher–student relationship quality (F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref97">2</reflink>, 619) = 3.12, p < .05, Cohen's d = .24) and moderately lower purpose commitment (F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref98">2</reflink>, 615) = 2.52, p < .10, Cohen's d = .20).</p> <p>Summary of adjusted means from analyses of variance by race/ethnicity</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="6"><tr><th /><th>Overall</th><th>African‐American</th><th>Asian‐American</th><th>White</th><th>Latino</th></tr><tr><th /><th>M (SD)</th><th>M (SD)</th><th>M (SD)</th><th>M (SD)</th><th>M (SD)</th></tr><tr><td>Educational advice</td><td>4.04 (.85)</td><td>4.00 (.93)</td><td>3.98 (.97)</td><td>4.05 (.81)</td><td>4.06 (.80)</td></tr><tr><td>Link education and success</td><td>3.55 (.77)</td><td>3.65 (.73)</td><td>3.68 (.84)</td><td>3.48 (.78)</td><td>3.75 (.63)</td></tr><tr><td>Family education support</td><td>17.02 (3.01)</td><td>16.78 (2.96)</td><td>16.56 (3.21)</td><td>17.17 (2.95)</td><td>16.98 (3.30)</td></tr><tr><td>Scaffolding independence</td><td>3.54 (.73)</td><td>3.51 (.68)</td><td>3.41 (.86)</td><td>3.57 (.71)</td><td>3.61 (.78)</td></tr><tr><td>Teacher relationship</td><td>31.48 (6.67)</td><td>30.85 (6.84)</td><td>32.24 (5.52)</td><td>31.61 (6.74)</td><td>30.79 (7.16)</td></tr><tr><td>School belongingness</td><td>3.54 (.85)</td><td>3.49 (.89)</td><td>3.51 (.80)</td><td>3.55 (.86)</td><td>3.60 (.80)</td></tr><tr><td>Purpose commitment</td><td>3.53 (.70)</td><td>3.58 (.74)</td><td>3.64 (.69)</td><td>3.48 (.70)</td><td>3.60 (.63)</td></tr><tr><td>Purpose engagement</td><td>3.56 (.47)</td><td>3.46 (.49)</td><td>3.53 (.42)</td><td>3.60 (.48)</td><td>3.58 (.45)</td></tr><tr><td>Future orientation</td><td>4.16 (.67)</td><td>4.20 (.63)</td><td>4.27 (.62)</td><td>4.12 (.68)</td><td>4.29 (.70)</td></tr><tr><td>Cognitive strategy use</td><td>3.42 (.71)</td><td>3.38 (.73)</td><td>3.59 (.72)</td><td>3.40 (.71)</td><td>3.41 (.68)</td></tr><tr><td>Self‐regulated learning</td><td>3.09 (.51)</td><td>3.09 (.48)</td><td>3.21 (.46)</td><td>3.08 (.53)</td><td>3.05 (.46)</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Across rows, columns denoted by same letter are significantly different from each other.</p> <p>Summary of adjusted means from analyses of variance by grade level</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="5"><tr><th /><th>Overall</th><th>Grade 9</th><th>Grade 10</th><th>Grade 11</th></tr><tr><th /><th>M (SD)</th><th>M (SD)</th><th>M (SD)</th><th>M (SD)</th></tr><tr><td>Parental educational advice</td><td>4.04 (.85)</td><td>4.15 (.74)</td><td>4.03 (.90)</td><td>3.92 (.87)</td></tr><tr><td>Link education and success</td><td>3.55 (.77)</td><td>3.68 (.72)</td><td>3.53 (.80)</td><td>3.44 (.76)</td></tr><tr><td>Family education support</td><td>17.02 (3.01)</td><td>17.45(2.68)</td><td>16.95 (3.19)</td><td>16.63 (3.08)</td></tr><tr><td>Scaffolding independence</td><td>3.54 (.73)</td><td>3.62 (.67)</td><td>3.53 (.74)</td><td>3.48 (.77)</td></tr><tr><td>Teacher relationship</td><td>31.48 (6.67)</td><td>32.35 (6.42)</td><td>30.82 (6.47)</td><td>31.28 (7.10)</td></tr><tr><td>School belongingness</td><td>3.54 (.85)</td><td>3.62 (.80)</td><td>3.53 (.81)</td><td>3.46 (.95)</td></tr><tr><td>Purpose commitment</td><td>3.53 (.70)</td><td>3.60 (.69)</td><td>3.46 (.68)</td><td>3.53 (.74)</td></tr><tr><td>Purpose engagement</td><td>3.56 (.47)</td><td>3.59 (.50)</td><td>3.54 (.43)</td><td>3.57 (.49)</td></tr><tr><td>Future orientation</td><td>4.16 (.67)</td><td>4.16 (.70)</td><td>4.20 (.63)</td><td>4.12 (.68)</td></tr><tr><td>Cognitive strategy use</td><td>3.42 (.71)</td><td>3.40 (.74)</td><td>3.41 (.68)</td><td>3.44 (.73)</td></tr><tr><td>Self‐regulated learning</td><td>3.09 (.51)</td><td>3.13 (.50)</td><td>3.10 (.48)</td><td>3.05 (.55)</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 Across rows, columns denoted by same letter are significantly different from each other.</p> <p>Across parent education level, there were differences for all four levels of parental support. Students whose parents had a college degree reported higher levels of parent educational advice (F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref99">1</reflink>, 617) = 34.73, p < .001), promoting independence (F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref100">1</reflink>, 617) = 6.01, p < .05), linking education to future success (F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref101">1</reflink>, 617) = 5.01, p < .05) and family support (F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref102">1</reflink>, 613) = 15.23, p < .001). For envisioning a meaningful future, students whose parents did not have a college degree scored higher on purpose commitment (F(1,735 = 4.20, p < .05) but lower on purpose engagement (F(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref103">1</reflink>, 735) = 5.68, p < .05). Correlations provided some support for the model in that parenting and school relationship variables were positively correlated with purpose, future orientation, and academic engagement variables (see Table ).</p> <p>Interitem correlation matrix</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="11"><tr><th /><th>1</th><th>2</th><th>3</th><th>4</th><th>5</th><th>6</th><th>7</th><th>8</th><th>9</th><th>10</th></tr><tr><td>1. Education support</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2. Link education and success</td><td>.61</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>3. Educational advice</td><td>.78</td><td>.63</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>4. Scaffolding independence</td><td>.63</td><td>.61</td><td>.54</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>5. Teacher relationship</td><td>.34</td><td>.38</td><td>.33</td><td>.32</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>6. School belongingness</td><td>.35</td><td>.39</td><td>.32</td><td>.32</td><td>.57</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>7. Purpose commitment</td><td>.22</td><td>.33</td><td>.24</td><td>.25</td><td>.25</td><td>.29</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>8. Purpose engagement</td><td>.30</td><td>.29</td><td>.30</td><td>.27</td><td>.29</td><td>.41</td><td>.44</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>9. Future orientation</td><td>.28</td><td>.36</td><td>.28</td><td>.24</td><td>.24</td><td>.22</td><td>.48</td><td>.41</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>10. Cognitive strategy use</td><td>.27</td><td>.36</td><td>.28</td><td>.29</td><td>.33</td><td>.21</td><td>.33</td><td>.28</td><td>.46</td><td /></tr><tr><td>11. Self‐regulated learning</td><td>.30</td><td>.37</td><td>.32</td><td>.29</td><td>.38</td><td>.28</td><td>.35</td><td>.31</td><td>.51</td><td>.64</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-15">Initial model testing</hd> <p>The measurement model provided a good fit and all factor loadings were significant (χ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref104">37</reflink>) = 149.14, p < .0001, RMSEA = .07, CFI = .96, Tucker–Lewis index [TLI] = .94) (see Table ). Next, the hypothesized model was tested and fit the data well (see Figure ). The amount of variance explained for academic engagement (R<sups>2</sups> = .56, p < .001) and meaningful future (R<sups>2</sups> = .36, p < .001) were significant. Parental support and school relationship latent constructs were positively and significantly related to envisioning a meaningful future, which was positively related to academic engagement. The direct effects from parental support and school relationships to academic engagement were not significant.</p> <p>Measurement model</p> <p> <ephtml> <table border="1" cellpadding="2"><tr><th /><th>Meaningful future</th></tr><tr><td>Family support</td></tr><tr><td>Parental educational advice</td><td>.76</td></tr><tr><td>Linking education to future success</td><td>.82</td></tr><tr><td>Family education support</td><td>.77</td></tr><tr><td>Scaffolding independence</td><td>.74</td></tr><tr><td>School context</td></tr><tr><td>Teacher–student relationship</td><td>.77</td></tr><tr><td>School belongingness</td><td>.73</td></tr><tr><td>Meaningful future</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Sense of purpose ‐ commitment</td><td>.64</td></tr><tr><td>Sense of purpose ‐ engagement</td><td>.60</td></tr><tr><td>Future orientation</td><td>.74</td></tr><tr><td>School engagement</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cognitive strategy use</td><td>.77</td></tr><tr><td>Self‐regulated learning</td><td>.84</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 Note. χ2(<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref105">37</reflink>) = 149.14, p < .0001, root mean square error of approximation = .07, comparative fit index = .96, Tucker–Lewis index = .94.</p> <p>To test whether the associations from parental support and school relationships on academic engagement were fully or partially mediated, the direct paths from school relationships to academic engagement and from parental support to academic engagement were removed and the fit of this trimmed model was compared to the fit of the previous model. The model without the direct effects also fit the data well (χ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref106">39</reflink>) = 159.26, p < .0001, RMSEA = .07, CFI = .95). However, the χ<sups>2</sups> difference test was significant (Δχ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref107">2</reflink>) = 10.12, p < .01), indicating that removing the nonsignificant direct effects reduced the fit of this model. Although the individual factor loadings from school relationships and parental support to academic engagement were not significant, the combined effects of parental and school relationships on academic engagement were significant (Wald (df = 2), 11.48, p < .001). The indirect effects through meaningful future from parental support on academic engagement were tested using bootstrapped standard errors and were significant (β = .039, 95% confidence interval [CI] = .022, .061). The indirect effects from school relationships on academic engagement through meaningful future was also significant (β = .016, 95% CI = .007, .027). Next, we tested whether the model fit similarly across ethnicity, grade, and parent education level.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-16">Model fit across student characteristics</hd> <p>The model fit similarly between African‐Americans and Whites, across grade levels, and between parent education levels. For ethnicity, both the unconstrained (χ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref108">81</reflink>) = 200.86, p < .0001, RMSEA = .07, CFI = .95), and constrained models fit the data well (χ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref109">86</reflink>) = 209.26, p < .0001, RMSEA = .08, CFI = .95). Constraining the factor loadings to be equal did not reduce the fit (Δχ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref110">5</reflink>) = 8.40, ns).</p> <p>For the comparison between 9th and 10th grade, the constrained (χ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref111">81</reflink>) = 145.57, p < .0001, RMSEA = .06, CFI = .97), and unconstrained models provided an adequate fit (χ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref112">86</reflink>) = 148.70, p < .0001, RMSEA = .07, CFI = .95). The change in fit between the models was not significant (Δχ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref113">5</reflink>) = 3.13, ns), indicating similar fit across grades. Between 9th and 11th grades, the unconstrained (χ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref114">81</reflink>) = 191.12, p < .0001, RMSEA = .08, CFI = .94) and constrained models fit the data well (χ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref115">86</reflink>) = 197.22, p < .0001, RMSEA = .08, CFI = .94). The change in fit between models was not significant (Δχ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref116">5</reflink>) = 6.10, ns), indicating no differences across grades.</p> <p>Finally, the model fit similarly for students whose parents had at least a bachelor's degree compared to students whose parents did not. The unconstrained model (χ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref117">81</reflink>) = 214.58, p < .0001, RMSEA = .07, CFI = .96) and the constrained model (χ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref118">86</reflink>) = 218.56, p < .0001, RMSEA = .07, CFI = .96) fit the data well. The change in fit was not significant (Δχ<sups>2</sups> (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref119">5</reflink>) = 3.88, ns). In sum, the model fit similarly across ethnicity, grade, and parent education level. In each case, parental support and school relationships had significant indirect effects on academic engagement, partially mediated through envisioning a meaningful future.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-17">DISCUSSION</hd> <p>Our findings extend prior research (Schmid et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref120">56</reflink>] ; Seginer, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref121">58</reflink>] ) by demonstrating the mediating role of students’ vision of a meaningful future in the link between parental and school relationships and academic engagement. Parental support and school relationships were indirectly related to academic engagement through youths envisioning a meaningful future. Envisioning a meaningful future is associated with the types of academic engagement that are especially relevant for adolescence and postsecondary goals (Fredricks et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref122">18</reflink>] ; Pintrich & De Groot, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref123">51</reflink>] ). Further, school relationships and parental relationships focused on supporting education were associated with envisioning a meaningful future and, in turn, greater academic engagement.</p> <p>The indirect role of envisioning a meaningful future for the associations from parental and school relationships to academic engagement suggests that one of the critical roles of families and schools may be to help youths discover and develop their long‐term goals (Chao & Hill, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref124">12</reflink>] ). Indeed, empowering, formative relationships during adolescence may provide a sense of security that enables youths to explore life possibilities (Bowlby, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref125">6</reflink>] ; Felsman & Blustein, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref126">17</reflink>] ). Moreover, supportive and caring connections with parents and people at school may serve as sounding boards through which students explore, try on, coconstruct, and vet future plans and dreams (Koepke & Denissen, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref127">34</reflink>] ; Schachter & Ventura, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref128">55</reflink>] ). Such relationships may help youths see the relevance of academics to reaching their dreams.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-18">Similar processes, but mean level differences</hd> <p>The full model fit similarly across student characteristics, yet there were several noteworthy differences across means. Whereas African‐Americans reported lower levels of purpose engagement than did Whites, there were no differences in students’ purpose commitment. Although the differences are small, they do mirror prior research showing that African‐Americans have high aspirations academically, but that they often do not reach their goals (Trusty & Harris, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref129">63</reflink>] ; Trusty & Niles, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref130">64</reflink>] ). Similarly, students whose parents did not have a college degree had lower levels of purpose engagement, while having higher levels of purpose commitment. These students also reported lower levels of each type of parental support. These parental support types have been shown to relate to aspiration and engagement (Hill & Wang, 2015; Wang, Hill, & Hofkens, 2014), that is, going beyond dreaming to achieving goals. Together, whereas the effects are small, these results suggest that while researchers and practitioners often emphasize increasing students’ aspirations, youths from underprivileged backgrounds (e.g., African‐American, low socioeconomic status, first generation to go to college) may need greater support in translating their aspirations into executable plans.</p> <p>Across grade level, 11th graders reported less parental support, educational advice, and parental assistance in linking education to future success. It is plausible that parents of older youths provide less “hands‐on” support because they assume youths need it less (Kerr & Stattin, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref131">33</reflink>] ). This mean level difference across grade levels is small and based on cross‐sectional data. Nevertheless, it is consistent with longitudinal data showing significant decreasing trends in these constructs using linear growth modeling (Hill et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref132">29</reflink>] ). It is important to note, however, that increasing parental engagement, including educational support as in this study, is associated with academic outcomes (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref133">68</reflink>] ). Our findings show that these parental supports are associated with envisioning a meaningful future.</p> <p>Tenth graders reported lower quality teacher relationships and moderately lower levels of purpose commitment than 9th‐grade students. The importance placed on providing students support during school transitions might explain why 9th graders report greater school support (Vasquez‐Salgado & Chavira, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref134">65</reflink>] ). The moderately lower purpose commitment fits established trajectories of identity development. Younger adolescents, who are foreclosed (i.e., low search and high purpose commitment) having adopted uninvestigated ideas about purpose, become actively engaged in searching for their own purpose when exposed to new possibilities in high school (Blattner et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref135">5</reflink>] ). Moreover, for many school districts, 10th grade is when students realize whether they are eligible for advanced placement or honors classes and many take the preliminary scholastic aptitude test for the first time. These provide students objective clues as to their standing vis‐à‐vis students across the nation aspiring to attend college, which may affirm or call into question students’ goals. Thus, although the real differences are small but significant, our results suggest that as they question their purpose and school relationships, 10th‐grade students need continued support and attention to stay on track.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-19">Limitations</hd> <p>As with any study, there are limitations. This study relies on self‐report data and thus benefits from shared method variance. This means that reports on parental and school‐based relationships are one‐sided. However, the current study's intention was to examine students’ own experiences of their parental relationships and their own views about their future. Moreover, adolescents’ reports of parenting tend to be more accurate than parents’ reports (Gonzales, Cauce, & Mason, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref136">20</reflink>] ). Second, although this study focused on parents, teachers, and school belonging, other sources of support might also play a significant role in helping youths to envision a meaningful future. Third, cross‐sectional data means that the direction of effect can be interpreted with theory, but not confirmed. It is plausible that academic engagement leads to envisioning a meaningful future and elicits supportive parental and school relationships. However, our inferred sequence that goals lead to academic engagement is consistent with prior longitudinal bidirectional research (Hill & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref137">27</reflink>] ).</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-20">CONCLUSIONS</hd> <p>Despite limitations, there are multiple strengths to this study. The sample is large and diverse and considers questions about relational influences on a student's future aspirations and corresponding academic engagement. Indeed, there are reasons to encourage parents (and schools) to stay involved, providing support for scaffolded autonomy. In particular, the current study suggests that such support for academic engagement should occur in the context of developing students’ long‐term aspirations. Indeed, helping parents and schools better cultivate a sense of meaningful future in youths is a potential lever for positive intervention.</p> <hd id="AN0130056760-21">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</hd> <p>This study is based on a researcher–practitioner partnership among Medford Public Schools (MPS), Harvard Graduate School of Education, and Boston College. The authors acknowledge those at MPS who have made this partnership possible: Superintendent Roy Belson, administrators, and staff, including Amelia Jensen, Tim Klein, Nicholas Tucci, Curtis Tuden, and Lisa Bowler, along with the teachers, families, and students. In addition, we acknowledge the research assistants on the partnership team who make this work possible, especially Allison White, Jonathan Sepulveda, Pei Pei Liu, and Yuseph Mkangara. 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Hill; Belle Liang; Maggi Price; Whitney Polk; John Perella and Mandy Savitz‐Romer</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib81" firstref="ref108"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib86" firstref="ref109"></nolink>
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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Envisioning a Meaningful Future and Academic Engagement: The Role of Parenting Practices and School-Based Relationships
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  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hill%2C+Nancy+E%2E%22">Hill, Nancy E.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Liang%2C+Belle%22">Liang, Belle</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0005-4856">0000-0002-0005-4856</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Price%2C+Maggi%22">Price, Maggi</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Polk%2C+Whitney%22">Polk, Whitney</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Perella%2C+John%22">Perella, John</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Savitz-Romer%2C+Mandy%22">Savitz-Romer, Mandy</searchLink>
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  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Psychology+in+the+Schools%22"><i>Psychology in the Schools</i></searchLink>. Jul 2018 55(6):595-608.
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  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 14
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2018
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parenting+Styles%22">Parenting Styles</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Structural+Equation+Models%22">Structural Equation Models</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Aspiration%22">Academic Aspiration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Aspiration%22">Parent Aspiration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Development%22">Student Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Goal+Orientation%22">Goal Orientation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+School+Relationship%22">Parent School Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learner+Engagement%22">Learner Engagement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescent+Development%22">Adolescent Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Rearing%22">Child Rearing</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Differences%22">Racial Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Youth+Opportunities%22">Youth Opportunities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22White+Students%22">White Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22African+American+Students%22">African American Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1002/pits.22146
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0033-3085
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: In contrast to the focus on short-term, extrinsic goals in our society (e.g., wealth, prestige), positive youth development scholars have highlighted the need for parents and schools to help youths cultivate and plan for long-term, intrinsic, and meaningful goals (i.e., envisioning a meaningful future), arguing that envisioning a meaningful future is potentially inspiring and associated with better outcomes for youths. Envisioning a meaningful future includes being future-oriented and planful and having a sense of purpose, a life focus that provides deep meaning to life and contributes to the good of society. This study used structural equation modeling to examine the direct and indirect effects of parental and school relationships on envisioning a meaningful future and academic engagement in a diverse sample of adolescents (n = 624). Parental and school-based relationships were positively associated with academic engagement, and this association was partially mediated by envisioning a meaningful future. Analyses revealed the importance of parental and school relationships in engaging youths in developing a vision for a meaningful future toward the goal of academic engagement. Variations between African-Americans and Whites, and across grade and parental education levels are discussed.
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  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2018
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1181815
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1181815
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/pits.22146
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 14
        StartPage: 595
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Parenting Styles
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Structural Equation Models
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Aspiration
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Aspiration
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Goal Orientation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent School Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Learner Engagement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescent Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Child Rearing
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Youth Opportunities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: White Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: African American Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Secondary Education
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Envisioning a Meaningful Future and Academic Engagement: The Role of Parenting Practices and School-Based Relationships
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Hill, Nancy E.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Liang, Belle
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Price, Maggi
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Polk, Whitney
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Perella, John
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Savitz-Romer, Mandy
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 07
              Type: published
              Y: 2018
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0033-3085
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 55
            – Type: issue
              Value: 6
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Psychology in the Schools
              Type: main
ResultId 1