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Unpacking Direct and Indirect Relationships of Short-Term Memory to Word Reading: Evidence from Korean-Speaking Children

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Title: Unpacking Direct and Indirect Relationships of Short-Term Memory to Word Reading: Evidence from Korean-Speaking Children
Language: English
Authors: Kim, Young-Suk Grace, Cho, Jeung-Ryeul, Park, Soon-Gil
Source: Journal of Learning Disabilities. Sep-Oct 2018 51(5):473-481.
Availability: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 9
Publication Date: 2018
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Kindergarten
Descriptors: Short Term Memory, Metalinguistics, Phonological Awareness, Morphology (Languages), Orthographic Symbols, Naming, Word Recognition, Reading Skills, Korean, Correlation, Models, Foreign Countries, Kindergarten, Statistical Analysis
Geographic Terms: South Korea
DOI: 10.1177/0022219417724817
ISSN: 0022-2194
Abstract: We examined the relations of short-term memory (STM), metalinguistic awareness (phonological, morphological, and orthographic awareness), and rapid automatized naming (RAN) to word reading in Korean, a language with a relatively transparent orthography. STM, metalinguistic awareness, and RAN have been shown to be important to word reading, but the nature of the relations of STM, metalinguistic awareness, and RAN to word reading has rarely been investigated. Two alternative models were fitted. In the indirect relation model, STM was hypothesized to be indirectly related to word reading via metalinguistic awareness and RAN. In the direct and indirect relations model, STM was hypothesized to be directly and indirectly related to word reading. Results from 207 beginning readers in South Korea showed that STM was directly related to word reading as well as indirectly via metalinguistic awareness and RAN. Although the direct effect of STM was relatively small (0.16), the total effect incorporating the indirect effect was substantial (0.42). These results suggest that STM is an important, foundational cognitive capacity that underpins metalinguistic awareness and RAN as well as word reading, and further indicate the importance of considering both direct and indirect effects of language and cognitive skills on word reading.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 70
Entry Date: 2018
Accession Number: EJ1186264
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0130973063;led01sep.18;2018Jul31.15:00;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0130973063-1">Unpacking Direct and Indirect Relationships of Short-Term Memory to Word Reading: Evidence From Korean-Speaking Children </title> <p>We examined the relations of short-term memory (STM), metalinguistic awareness (phonological, morphological, and orthographic awareness), and rapid automatized naming (RAN) to word reading in Korean, a language with a relatively transparent orthography. STM, metalinguistic awareness, and RAN have been shown to be important to word reading, but the nature of the relations of STM, metalinguistic awareness, and RAN to word reading has rarely been investigated. Two alternative models were fitted. In the indirect relation model, STM was hypothesized to be indirectly related to word reading via metalinguistic awareness and RAN. In the direct and indirect relations model, STM was hypothesized to be directly and indirectly related to word reading. Results from 207 beginning readers in South Korea showed that STM was directly related to word reading as well as indirectly via metalinguistic awareness and RAN. Although the direct effect of STM was relatively small (.16), the total effect incorporating the indirect effect was substantial (.42). These results suggest that STM is an important, foundational cognitive capacity that underpins metalinguistic awareness and RAN as well as word reading, and further indicate the importance of considering both direct and indirect effects of language and cognitive skills on word reading.</p> <p>short-term memory; phonological awareness; morphological awareness; orthographic awareness; RAN; direct effect; indirect effect</p> <p>One of the prominent models of word reading—the connectionist model—specifies that phonological, orthographic, and semantic processes are involved in word reading acquisition ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref2">53</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref3">57</reflink>] ). In line with this theoretical model, a large body of research has shown that awareness of sound structure (phonological awareness); knowledge of letters, including directionality and allowed patterns and sequences (orthographic awareness); and awareness of meaningful units and their structure (morphological awareness) are important to word reading not only in English ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref4">9</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref5">11</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref6">20</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref7">37</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref8">52</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref9">62</reflink>] ) but also in languages with relatively transparent orthographies, such as Korean ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref10">13</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref11">33</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref12">35</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref13">48</reflink>] ). Moreover, despite a lack of consensus on its theoretical underpinnings (see [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref14">25</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref15">26</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref16">30</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref17">66</reflink>] , for various views), rapid automatized naming (RAN)—the ability to name fast highly familiar stimuli, such as letters, digits, and colors—has been consistently shown to be related to word reading ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref18">13</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref19">16</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref20">21</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref21">26</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref22">35</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref23">40</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref24">41</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref25">55</reflink>] ).</p> <p>In addition to metalinguistic awareness and RAN, another body of research has shown that a person’s short-term memory (STM) capacity is related to word reading as well (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref26">15</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref27">29</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref28">58</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref29">60</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref30">64</reflink>] ). Furthermore, individuals with dyslexia have weaker STM than those without dyslexia ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref31">14</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref32">44</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref33">49</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref34">58</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref35">59</reflink>] ; see [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref36">61</reflink>] , for a review). STM refers to the ability to hold a small amount of information passively and reproduce it in a sequential manner ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref37">19</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref38">61</reflink>] ; see [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref39">24</reflink>] ). Depending on theoretical conceptualization, STM is considered as a subset of the working memory–capturing phonological loop ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref40">5</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref41">7</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref42">24</reflink>] ) or as a separate entity from working memory (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref43">22</reflink>] ; see Note 1). STM is critical to word reading because it constrains the extent to which phonological and orthographic information can be processed ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref44">29</reflink>] ).</p> <p>Despite clear evidence about the importance of metalinguistic awareness, RAN, and STM in word reading, however, our understanding is limited about the nature of relationships among these predictors and their relationships to word reading. This is an important question because STM has been shown to be related to metalinguistic awareness and RAN, in addition to word reading. STM has weak to fairly strong relationships with phonological awareness (.18 ≤ rs ≤ .60; [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref45">8</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref46">15</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref47">20</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref48">27</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref49">29</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref50">64</reflink>] ) and with RAN (–.11 ≤ rs ≤ .79; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref51">18</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref52">20</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref53">43</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref54">47</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref55">63</reflink>] ). Other studies have suggested weak relationships of STM to morphological awareness and orthographic awareness (.11 ≤ rs ≤ .20; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref56">15</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref57">18</reflink>] ). The relationship of STM to word reading, and to other predictors of wording, behooves us to unpack the nature of relationships among predictors (STM, metalinguistic awareness, and RAN), whether STM is directly related to word reading over and above metalinguistic awareness and RAN or its role in word reading is predominantly indirect via metalinguistic awareness and RAN.</p> <p>The aim of the present study was to expand our understanding about the nature of the relationships of STM to metalinguistic (i.e., phonological, morphological, and orthographic), awareness, RAN, and word reading. We hypothesized that STM is a foundational cognitive capacity that is necessary for metalinguistic awareness and RAN as well as for word reading because they require temporary storage to process phonological, semantic, and orthographic information (see Note 2). We examined two alternative ways that STM can contribute to word reading. In the first model (see Figure 1a), STM was hypothesized to influence word reading indirectly via metalinguistic awareness and RAN. In other words, metalinguistic awareness and RAN were hypothesized to completely mediate the relationship of STM to word reading (a complete mediation model). The complete mediation model is based on previous empirical findings. Children’s memory (composed of STM and working memory tasks) in kindergarten was not independently related to word reading in Grade 1 after accounting for phonological awareness, RAN, vocabulary, and word reading in kindergarten ([<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref58">64</reflink>] ). Furthermore, STM was not related to word reading after accounting for phonological awareness and orthographic awareness for children in Grades 1 to 3 ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref59">18</reflink>] ). However, evidence also indicates a potential direct relationship of STM to word reading. STM was related to word reading after accounting for phonological awareness ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref60">46</reflink>] ), phonological awareness and RAN ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref61">29</reflink>] ), RAN, and morphological awareness ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref62">68</reflink>] ), and nonverbal reasoning, vocabulary, letter-name knowledge, and phonological awareness ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref63">8</reflink>] ). Therefore, an alternative direct and indirect relationships model was tested (see Figure 1b). In this model, STM is related to word reading directly as well as indirectly via metalinguistic awareness and RAN.</p> <p>Two alternative models. Black lines represent predictive relations whereas gray lines with two-sided arrows represent correlations. (a) Indirect relation (complete mediation) model. (b) Direct and indict relations (partial mediation) model.</p> <p>The present study expands our understanding of language and cognitive skills that underpin word reading by examining direct and indirect relationships among STM, metalinguistic awareness, RAN, and word reading. The vast majority of previous studies have employed multiple regression as a data analytic strategy, examining whether any individual metalinguistic awareness skills are independently related to word reading after accounting for the other variables in a statistical model. Although informative, this approach masks important indirect contributions of various skills. For instance, metalinguistic awareness—such as phonological awareness and morphological awareness—are related to each other (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref64">4</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref65">13</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref66">15</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref67">35</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref68">37</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref69">51</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref70">54</reflink>] ). Thus, even if one metalinguistic awareness skill may not be independently related to word reading, it may make an indirect contribution via its shared variance with other variables in the model. In the present study, we estimated total effects of STM, metalinguistic awareness, and RAN on word reading by incorporating both direct and indirect effects.</p> <p>Our research question was addressed using data from Korean-speaking children. Korean differs from English in many aspects related to word reading, including phonological structure and depth of orthography. The Korean oral language has a simple syllabic structure (vowel, consonant-vowel, vowel-consonant, and consonant-vowel-consonant), and Korean-speaking children prefer body-coda ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref71">32</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref72">69</reflink>] ); whereas English has a highly complex syllabic structure, and English-speaking children prefer onset-rime segmentation ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref73">70</reflink>] ). The Korean writing system has a relatively transparent alphasyllabic system ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref74">35</reflink>] ), whereas English has an opaque alphabetic writing system. Despite these differences, however, our goal in the present study was not to examine whether relationships vary as a function of language features, which would require a carefully designed crosslinguistic study. Our general hypothesis is that holding information for a brief time (i.e., STM) is necessary to developing metalinguistic awareness, RAN, and word reading. Although theoretically STM is expected to be important to metalinguistic awareness, RAN, and word reading, it is possible that the relative weight of relationships (e.g., STM to orthographic awareness) may vary as a function of language and orthography to some extent. For example, word length and visual complexity of orthographic symbols vary across languages (e.g., akshara have highly visually complex symbols; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref75">50</reflink>] ), and therefore, STM might make a more or less contribution depending on linguistic and orthographic features. However, this speculation is beyond the scope of the present study and requires a future study.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-2">Method</hd> <hd id="AN0130973063-3">Sites and Participants</hd> <p>Data were collected from 207 five-year-old Korean-speaking children (52% girls) attending 12 kindergartens in four cities and rural areas in South Korea (M = 72.67 months, SD = 3.45 months). Of the 12 institutes, seven were public. All the kindergartens were using the national curriculum. The sample children in this study came from a range of socioeconomic (SES) family backgrounds based on neighborhoods where each school was located, but unfortunately, individual children’s SES information was not available. None of the participating children had reported hearing, visual, or speech difficulties.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-4">Instructional Context in South Korea</hd> <p>The vast majority of children in South Korea attend kindergarten, although it is not mandatory ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref76">35</reflink>] ). Children are expected to have foundational literacy skills prior to entering first grade, and previous studies have confirmed this with kindergartners in South Korea ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref77">12</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref78">34</reflink>] , [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref79">35</reflink>] , [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref80">36</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref81">38</reflink>] ).</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-5">Procedures</hd> <p>All measures were administered by trained research assistants. The assessment battery was administered individually to each child in a quiet room in several sessions of approximately 30 min each. Children were assessed approximately 4 to 5 months into the academic year.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-6">Measures</hd> <p>The following experimental measures used in previous studies were employed in the present study. Reliability was estimated by internal consistency, using Cronbach’s alpha (see [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref82">1</reflink>] ), with an exception of rapid serial naming, for which a test–retest correlation was estimated. Reliability estimates for all the measures were excellent, ranging from .87 to .98. All the items were dichotomously scored.</p> <p>Descriptive Statistics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><tr><th align="left">Variable</th><th align="center">Reliability</th><th align="center">M (SD)</th><th align="center">Min–Max</th><th align="center">Skewness</th><th align="center">Kurtosis</th></tr><tr><td>Short-term memory</td><td>.87</td><td>11.87 (4.13)</td><td>1–22</td><td>0.09</td><td>−0.05</td></tr><tr><td>Rapid automatized naming</td><td>.88a</td><td>20.09 (7.42)</td><td>10–59</td><td>1.89</td><td>5.29</td></tr><tr><td>Phonological awareness</td><td>.96</td><td>10.75 (10.30)</td><td>0–37</td><td>0.82</td><td>−0.48</td></tr><tr><td>Morphological awareness</td><td>.91</td><td>7.62 (5.63)</td><td>0–25</td><td>0.56</td><td>−0.34</td></tr><tr><td>Orthographic awareness</td><td>.89</td><td>50.90 (11.90)</td><td>19–79</td><td>0.34</td><td>−0.61</td></tr><tr><td>Word reading</td><td>.98</td><td>34.80 (22.50)</td><td>0–94</td><td>0.39</td><td>−0.52</td></tr><tr><td>Pseudoword reading</td><td>.94</td><td>6.58 (6.21)</td><td>0–20</td><td>0.48</td><td>−1.14</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>-1 Test–retest reliability.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-7">Word reading</hd> <p>Two tasks were used to assess children’s word reading accuracy. In a word reading task, the child was asked to read aloud words of increasing difficulty. Difficulty of words was initially determined considering transparency of words and number of syllables. The order of words in the present study was determined by item difficulty results (percentage correct) from a pilot study. The word reading task consisted of 96 items (six monosyllabic words, 54 bisyllabic words, 36 trisyllabic words). In the second task, the child was asked to read pseudowords, which had 20 items. Pseudowords were composed of phonologically and orthographically legal monosyllables, which were not real words in Korean. In word reading and pseudoword reading tasks, testing was discontinued after five consecutive incorrect responses.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-8">Short-term memory</hd> <p>The child was orally presented with an increasing number of digits (from two to nine) and was asked to repeat the digits back to the assessor. There were 24 test items, and testing was discontinued after three consecutive incorrect responses.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-9">Phonological awareness</hd> <p>The phonological awareness task was composed of syllable deletion and phoneme deletion. In the syllable deletion task, children heard words containing three- (12 items) or four-syllable words (six items) and were asked to delete one syllable. The first six items were real words, and the rest were pseudowords. There were two practice items and 18 test items. In the phoneme deletion task, children were presented with a monosyllabic word and were asked to delete the coda. There were two practice items and 18 test items; the first 12 test items were real words, and the last six items were pseudowords. Testing was discontinued after five consecutive incorrect responses.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-10">Morphological awareness</hd> <p>The compound construction task was used ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref83">13</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref84">34</reflink>] , [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref85">35</reflink>] ). Children heard orally presented one-sentence scenarios and were asked a question requiring them to construct a compound word. An example item is as follows: “When a refrigerator keeps kimchi in it, then we call it ‘kimchi refrigerator.’ If a refrigerator keeps a flower in it, what would we call it?” (“Flower refrigerator.”) There were two practice items and 25 test items. Testing was discontinued after five consecutive incorrect responses.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-11">Orthographic awareness</hd> <p>The child was asked to identify letters, words, and digits that had correct directional orientations. For instance, and had correct orientations whereas and were incorrect in directionality. There were 80 test items.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-12">Rapid serial naming</hd> <p>The digit task was used ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref86">12</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref87">34</reflink>] ). Following typical administration procedures of RAN in previous studies ([<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref88">67</reflink>] ), the child was presented with a sheet of paper that had five different digits that repeated randomly five times in five rows. The child was asked to name all the stimuli as fast as possible. The child’s score was the time (in seconds) he or she took to complete the task.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-13">Results</hd> <hd id="AN0130973063-14">Descriptive Statistics and Correlations</hd> <p>[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref89">1</reflink>] displays descriptive statistics for the tasks. Children, on average, read approximately 35 words and seven pseudowords correctly with large variations around the means. Distributions approached symmetric for the majority of variables. An exception was the RAN digit task, in which skewness and kurtosis were relatively large. However, the distribution was overall adequate, and the skewness was largely due to a few children who took longer time. Raw scores were used in the subsequent analysis.</p> <p>[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref90">2</reflink>] shows bivariate correlations between tasks. All the relations were in the expected directions. STM was weakly to moderately related to other tasks (–.21 ≤ rs ≤ .45). RAN, phonological awareness, morphological awareness, and orthographic awareness were moderately to fairly strongly related to word reading tasks (–.32 ≤ rs ≤ .61). Word reading and pseudoword reading tasks were strongly related at .83. A latent variable was created for word reading accuracy, using the word reading and pseudoword reading tasks. As shown in Figure 2, loadings of these tasks were high.</p> <p>Correlations Between Measures.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><tr><th align="left">Variable</th><th align="center">1</th><th align="center">2</th><th align="center">3</th><th align="center">4</th><th align="center">5</th><th align="center">6</th></tr><tr><td>1. Short-term memory</td><td align="center">—</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2. Rapid automatized naming</td><td>−.21**</td><td align="center">—</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>3. Phonological awareness</td><td>.40***</td><td>−.35***</td><td align="center">—</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>4. Morphological awareness</td><td>.45***</td><td>−.23**</td><td>.57***</td><td align="center">—</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>5. Orthographic awareness</td><td>.22**</td><td>−.22**</td><td>.41***</td><td>.29***</td><td align="center">—</td><td /></tr><tr><td>6. Word reading</td><td>.37***</td><td>−.39***</td><td>.61***</td><td>.37***</td><td>.46***</td><td align="center">—</td></tr><tr><td>7. Pseudoword reading</td><td>.40***</td><td>−.32***</td><td>.61**</td><td>.38***</td><td>.32***</td><td>.83***</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>-2 p < .01. ***p < .001.</p> <p>Standardized path coefficients for the short-term memory (ST Memory), RAN, and phonological, morphological, and orthographic awareness to word reading. Solid lines represent statistically significant relationships, dashed line represents a nonsignificant relationship, and gray lines with two-sided arrows represent correlations.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-15">Relationships of STM, Metalinguistic Awareness, and RAN to Word Reading</hd> <p>Two alternative models were fitted. The indirect relation model (complete mediation model) had an acceptable fit: χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref91">5</reflink>) = 20.06, p = .001, comparative fit index (CFI) = .97, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = .89, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .12 [.069, .178], standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) = .032. The direct and indirect model (partial mediation model) had a good fit: χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref92">4</reflink>) = 14.01, p = .007, CFI = .98, TLI = .91, RMSEA = .11 [.051, .175], SRMR = .016, although the RMSEA value is greater than the typically accepted .08 or .09 ranges ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref93">42</reflink>] ). Chi-square tests indicated that the direct and indirect model was superior, Δχ2(Δdf = 1) = 6.05, p = .01, and therefore was chosen as the final model. Standardized regression weights are shown in Figure 2.</p> <p>STM was statistically significantly related to all the metalinguistic awareness tasks and RAN, with standardized path coefficients ranging from –.22 to .46. STM was also directly related to word reading (γ = .16, p = .01) after accounting for all the metalinguistic awareness tasks and RAN. Furthermore, RAN (β = –.17, p = .004), phonological awareness (β = .49, p < .001), and orthographic awareness (β = .17, p = .005) were independently related to word reading after accounting for all the other variables in the model. In contrast, morphological awareness (β = –.03, p < .001) was not directly related to word reading after accounting for the other variables. Total effects, including both direct and indirect effects (see [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref94">17</reflink>] , for calculation of indirect effects), were estimated based on the results shown in Figure 2. Total effects of all the included predictors on word reading ranged from none to relatively large (see [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref95">3</reflink>] ). The effects of phonological awareness and STM were large (.49 and .42, respectively). The effects of RAN (.17) and orthographic awareness (.17) were in the relatively small range.</p> <p>Total Effects of Short-Term Memory, Metalinguistic Awareness, and Rapid Automatized Naming on Word Reading.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><tr><th align="left">Variable</th><th align="center">Direct Effect</th><th align="center">Indirect Effect</th><th align="center">Total Effect</th></tr><tr><td>Short-term memory</td><td>.16</td><td>.26</td><td>.42</td></tr><tr><td>Rapid automatized naming</td><td>.17</td><td align="center">—</td><td>.17</td></tr><tr><td>Phonological awareness</td><td>.49</td><td align="center">—</td><td>.49</td></tr><tr><td>Morphological awareness</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="center">—</td></tr><tr><td>Orthographic awareness</td><td>.17</td><td align="center">—</td><td>.17</td></tr></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0130973063-16">Discussion</hd> <p>The primary goal of the present study was to examine the relationship of STM, metalinguistic awareness, and RAN simultaneously to word reading. Despite the relationship of STM to word reading, and the relationships of STM to metalinguistic awareness and RAN, the nature of the relationships among STM, metalinguistic awareness, RAN, and word reading has been nebulous. To unpack this, we fitted two alternative models, using data from beginning readers in Korean.</p> <p>The present findings highlight that STM underpins metalinguistic awareness and RAN. STM was relatively weakly to moderately related to phonological awareness, morphological awareness, orthographic awareness, and RAN, with standardized path coefficients ranging from –.22 to .46. These results are in line with those from previous studies (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref96">8</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref97">18</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref98">20</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref99">29</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref100">43</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref101">47</reflink>] ) and expand our understanding of STM in relation to morphological awareness and orthographic awareness, which has been scarcely investigated. Metalinguistic awareness involves computing linguistic and orthographic information, and STM plays a role in this mental computation. Therefore, it was hypothesized that STM was needed for metalinguistic awareness and RAN, and the present findings support this hypothesis. Note that standardized regression weights for the relationship of STM to metalinguistic awareness and RAN varied to some extent, but in the present study we cannot tell whether these differences reflect true differences in underlying relationships or differences in task demands. For instance, phonological awareness can be measured by different tasks, which vary in memory demands to some extent (e.g., a deletion task places greater memory demands than a blending task; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref102">31</reflink>] ). A future study using various tasks for each construct and using latent variables for data analysis can address this question.</p> <p>In addition to its indirect relationship via metalinguistic awareness and RAN, STM was also directly related to word reading. This finding is in line with the results from previous studies showing that STM was related to word reading after accounting for phonological awareness and other variables (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref103">8</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref104">46</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref105">68</reflink>] ).</p> <p>The present findings expand our understanding of the role of STM in word reading in two important ways. First, to our knowledge, no previous studies have examined direct and indirect relationships, particularly by including a comprehensive set of metalinguistic awareness and RAN. Second, our study suggests that the role of STM in word reading is substantial, at least for beginning readers in Korean, when considering both direct and indirect effects, with a total effect of .57. Previous studies using regression analysis showed the relationship of STM to word reading but did not reveal its total effect, incorporating both direct and indirect effects. The current findings indicate that one’s ability to hold small amounts of information temporarily is important not only to metalinguistic awareness and RAN but also directly to word reading. As word reading involves converting print into sounds, holding orthographic and phonological information in memory for a short period of time would be necessary. Taken together with previous studies, the present findings underscore the role of STM as a foundational cognitive capacity for word reading.</p> <p>The lack of an independent relationship of morphological awareness to word reading does not indicate absence of its relation to word reading as it was related to the other skills included in the study, particularly with phonological awareness (r = .57). However, the present finding is discrepant from previous studies with Korean-speaking children as well as English-speaking children. For instance, morphological awareness was independently related to word reading after accounting for visual skills, phonological awareness, vocabulary, and RAN for Korean-speaking children ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref106">13</reflink>] ). However, this relationship was found for reading only phonologically opaque words, not transparent words. Furthermore, morphological awareness was also independently related to word reading for English-speaking first-grade children after accounting for phonological awareness, orthographic awareness, and vocabulary ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref107">37</reflink>] ). However, the results of these previous studies cannot be directly compared to the present findings because of differences in study design, such as variables included in the statistical models as well as linguistic differences (e.g., Korean and English). Therefore, future studies are needed to investigate the effect of morphological awareness on word reading by considering word characteristics (i.e., transparent and opaque words) and in relation to other known predictors of word reading.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-17">Limitations, Future Directions, and Implications</hd> <p>A few limitations and related future directions are worth noting. First, in the present study, we investigated a unidirectional relationship between STM and metalinguistic awareness. However, a bidirectional relationship—the relationship between STM and phonological awareness in particular—has been suggested in a previous study ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref108">28</reflink>] ). Longitudinal and experimental studies are needed to elucidate potential bidirectional relations. Another important way to extend the present study is to replicate the present study including other known predictors, such as SES and working memory. Working memory involves storing and manipulating information simultaneously ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref109">60</reflink>] ), and it has been hypothesized to play an integral role in word reading as it allows storage and manipulation of phonological and orthographic information ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref110">6</reflink>] ). Indeed, studies have demonstrated the relationship of working memory to metalinguistic awareness and word reading ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref111">2</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref112">3</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref113">39</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref114">45</reflink>] ; [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref115">56</reflink>] ). Therefore, it would be informative to replicate the present findings with working memory in addition to STM. Finally, future studies should replicate the present study with children at different stages of word reading in different languages. Generalizability of the present findings are limited to beginning readers in Korean, and therefore, future work with children of various developmental phases of word reading in different languages would reveal whether the nature of relationships of STM to metalinguistic awareness and word reading are similar or different as a function of children’s word reading proficiency and language and orthography features.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-18">Conclusion</hd> <p>Overall, the present findings suggest that STM is likely to be a foundational cognitive capacity necessary for metalinguistic awareness and RAN as well as word reading. The findings also indicate the importance of considering both direct and indirect effects for a more precise understanding about language and cognitive skills that underpin word reading development.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-19">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>The authors wish to thank all the participants including schools and children.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-20">Declaration of Conflicting Interests</hd> <p>The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</p> <hd id="AN0130973063-21">Funding</hd> <p>The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was supported by Grant NRF-2010-330-B00299 from the National Research Foundation of Korea. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Research Foundation of Korea.</p> <ref id="AN0130973063-22"> <title>Footnotes</title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext>Depending on theoretical framework, working memory and short-term memory have been used interchangeably and operationalized in a similar manner in some studies. In the present study, our literature review primarily draws on studies that have measured storage capacity, not storage and manipulation of stimuli. </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref90" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext>In fact, we hypothesize that STM is necessary for any learning. For instance, studies have shown that STM is related to oral language (e.g., Cain, 2007; Florit, Roch, & Levorato, 2011; Willis & Gathercole, 2001). </bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0130973063-23"> <title>References</title> <blist> <bibtext>Adams M. (1990). 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Unpacking Direct and Indirect Relationships of Short-Term Memory to Word Reading: Evidence from Korean-Speaking Children
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kim%2C+Young-Suk+Grace%22">Kim, Young-Suk Grace</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cho%2C+Jeung-Ryeul%22">Cho, Jeung-Ryeul</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Park%2C+Soon-Gil%22">Park, Soon-Gil</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Learning+Disabilities%22"><i>Journal of Learning Disabilities</i></searchLink>. Sep-Oct 2018 51(5):473-481.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 9
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2018
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Short+Term+Memory%22">Short Term Memory</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Metalinguistics%22">Metalinguistics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Phonological+Awareness%22">Phonological Awareness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Morphology+%28Languages%29%22">Morphology (Languages)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Orthographic+Symbols%22">Orthographic Symbols</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Naming%22">Naming</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Word+Recognition%22">Word Recognition</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Skills%22">Reading Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Korean%22">Korean</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Models%22">Models</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Statistical+Analysis%22">Statistical Analysis</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22South+Korea%22">South Korea</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1177/0022219417724817
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0022-2194
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: We examined the relations of short-term memory (STM), metalinguistic awareness (phonological, morphological, and orthographic awareness), and rapid automatized naming (RAN) to word reading in Korean, a language with a relatively transparent orthography. STM, metalinguistic awareness, and RAN have been shown to be important to word reading, but the nature of the relations of STM, metalinguistic awareness, and RAN to word reading has rarely been investigated. Two alternative models were fitted. In the indirect relation model, STM was hypothesized to be indirectly related to word reading via metalinguistic awareness and RAN. In the direct and indirect relations model, STM was hypothesized to be directly and indirectly related to word reading. Results from 207 beginning readers in South Korea showed that STM was directly related to word reading as well as indirectly via metalinguistic awareness and RAN. Although the direct effect of STM was relatively small (0.16), the total effect incorporating the indirect effect was substantial (0.42). These results suggest that STM is an important, foundational cognitive capacity that underpins metalinguistic awareness and RAN as well as word reading, and further indicate the importance of considering both direct and indirect effects of language and cognitive skills on word reading.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
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  Data: As Provided
– Name: Ref
  Label: Number of References
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  Data: 70
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2018
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1186264
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1186264
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/0022219417724817
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 9
        StartPage: 473
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Short Term Memory
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Metalinguistics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Phonological Awareness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Morphology (Languages)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Orthographic Symbols
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Naming
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Word Recognition
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Korean
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
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      – SubjectFull: Models
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
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      – SubjectFull: Kindergarten
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Statistical Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: South Korea
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Unpacking Direct and Indirect Relationships of Short-Term Memory to Word Reading: Evidence from Korean-Speaking Children
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            NameFull: Kim, Young-Suk Grace
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            NameFull: Cho, Jeung-Ryeul
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            NameFull: Park, Soon-Gil
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            – TitleFull: Journal of Learning Disabilities
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