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Effects of Pre-Tuning Vocalization Behaviors on the Tuning Accuracy of College Instrumentalists

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Title: Effects of Pre-Tuning Vocalization Behaviors on the Tuning Accuracy of College Instrumentalists
Language: English
Authors: Silvey, Brian A., Nápoles, Jessica, Springer, D. Gregory
Source: Journal of Research in Music Education. Jan 2019 66(4):392-407.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2019
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Undergraduate Students, Music Education, Musicians, Singing, Intonation, Music Techniques, Accuracy, Musical Instruments, Attention
DOI: 10.1177/0022429418806304
ISSN: 0022-4294
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of two pre-tuning vocalization behaviors (humming and singing) on the tuning accuracy of woodwind and brass instrumentalists. Undergraduate collegiate musicians (N = 72) performed a sustained stimulus pitch (concert B-flat) while engaging in one of the two conditions or the control condition (silence). We also explored the relationships between participants' tuning accuracy and their tuning confidence, examined the reasons instrumentalists provided for their pre-tuning vocalization preferences, and compared their most accurate performance condition with the condition they perceived to result in their most accurate tuning. Although participants performed with better tuning accuracy in the singing condition than the humming and silence conditions, these differences were not significant. Correlation analyses examining relationships between participants' tuning accuracy and their tuning confidence in each condition yielded mostly weak and nonsignificant results. Participants reported internalization of pitch, physical response, and focus of attention issues most frequently when asked why they preferred a particular tuning condition.
Abstractor: As Provided
Number of References: 50
Entry Date: 2018
Accession Number: EJ1199338
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0133485942;3ug01jan.19;2018Dec12.09:13;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0133485942-1">Effects of Pre-Tuning Vocalization Behaviors on the Tuning Accuracy of College Instrumentalists </title> <p>The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of two pre-tuning vocalization behaviors (humming and singing) on the tuning accuracy of woodwind and brass instrumentalists. Undergraduate collegiate musicians (N = 72) performed a sustained stimulus pitch (concert B-flat) while engaging in one of the two conditions or the control condition (silence). We also explored the relationships between participants' tuning accuracy and their tuning confidence, examined the reasons instrumentalists provided for their pre-tuning vocalization preferences, and compared their most accurate performance condition with the condition they perceived to result in their most accurate tuning. Although participants performed with better tuning accuracy in the singing condition than the humming and silence conditions, these differences were not significant. Correlation analyses examining relationships between participants' tuning accuracy and their tuning confidence in each condition yielded mostly weak and nonsignificant results. Participants reported internalization of pitch, physical response, and focus of attention issues most frequently when asked why they preferred a particular tuning condition.</p> <p>Keywords: tuning; singing; humming; flat; sharp; vocalization; intonation</p> <p>One major goal for music teachers is to have their students sing or play in tune. It seems axiomatic that the more instructional tools the teacher has for teaching intonation, the greater the possibility that the students can learn to perform with good intonation. In addition to having a variety of resources to assist students, it is also helpful for teachers to know which strategies appear to function better than others in varied tasks as well as which variables are related to improved intonation.</p> <p>Researchers have examined the relationship between instrumentalists' pitch perception and pitch performance to determine whether performing in tune is associated with being able to hear pitches in tune. Some researchers have found a relationship ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref1">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref2">26</reflink>]), while others reported no correlations ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref3">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref4">49</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref5">26</reflink>] found a moderate relationship between instrument tuning and perception, although his participants were more accurate on a tuning perception task than a tuning performance task. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref6">19</reflink>] concluded that perception and performance differences among his participants (college musicians) were not independent of other factors, including accompaniment and scale degree.</p> <p>When examining listener and performer preferences for intonation, many researchers have noted a propensity and preference for sharpness ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref7">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref8">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref9">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref10">49</reflink>]), although [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref11">4</reflink>] found the opposite to be true. Context appears to play a large role in tasks of intonation performance and perception because, as reported in prior research, participants approached seemingly similar tasks in different ways and with varied outcomes. For example, the tasks of playing a single note and playing a four-measure melody yielded different intonation results for primary and secondary band students ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref12">32</reflink>]). Ascending and descending intervals were performed differently ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>]), as were large versus small intervals ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref14">34</reflink>]) and chords in different inversions ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref15">44</reflink>]). In a duet context, experienced wind instrumentalists performed sharper when playing the lower line (i.e., below a stimulus) than when they played the upper line ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref16">27</reflink>]). Trained musicians also identified the direction of pitch error with greater accuracy in a melodic context than a harmonic context ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref17">2</reflink>]).</p> <p>Instrumentalists' perceptions of accurate tuning have been influenced by their age and prior musical experiences ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref18">29</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref19">28</reflink>], for instance, reported that violinists and pianists had different tuning system preferences based on their prior performing experiences (with experienced violinists preferring Pythagorean intonation and experienced pianists preferring equal temperament). Furthermore, nonmusicians demonstrated no preference for any type of tuning system, suggesting that repeated exposure to a particular tuning system might influence perceptions of tuning accuracy. Musical training may also impact instrumentalists' tuning ability because tuning performance and perception have been reported to improve with gains in experience, especially in the first four years of instruction ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref20">48</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref21">49</reflink>] reported that participation in private instruction was related to significant improvements in instrumentalists' tuning performance and perception. Taken together, these findings underscore the influential role that time spent learning an instrument, either as a function of age ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref22">29</reflink>]), musical experience ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref23">28</reflink>]), or number of years of instruction ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref24">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref25">48</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref26">49</reflink>]), has on musicians' tuning performance and pitch discrimination.</p> <p>Researchers have noted external variables that impact intonation perception and production, some of which even interrelate with intonation. Participants associated bright and dark tones differentially and equated them with sharpness and flatness, respectively ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref27">46</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref28">47</reflink>]). Additionally, a number of researchers have suggested that not only does tone quality and timbre affect intonation, but the two variables also appear to be intertwined in such a way that participants responded to changes in timbre by thinking it was intonation and vice versa ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref29">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref30">30</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref31">31</reflink>]). Vibrato is another factor that relates to intonation ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref32">20</reflink>]) inasmuch as vibrato can mask out-of-tune playing or otherwise affect listeners' perception of pitch ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref33">45</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref34">50</reflink>]).</p> <p>Pedagogues have proposed a variety of strategies to improve their students' tuning accuracy, such as playing along with drones ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref35">17</reflink>]), creating individualized pitch tendency charts for each student ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref36">35</reflink>]), physically adjusting pitches higher and lower through "lipping" ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref37">18</reflink>]), and using chromatic tuners as visual references ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref38">23</reflink>]). Researchers have explored the effectiveness of other strategies that have improved instrumentalists' tuning as well, including contingent verbal feedback ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref39">36</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref40">42</reflink>]), computer training programs ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref41">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref42">25</reflink>]), and providing an accompaniment ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref43">6</reflink>]).</p> <p>Singing and related forms of vocalization have also been suggested by researchers to improve intonation based on the presumption that vocalizing could provide an external pitch reference that might focus instrumentalists' attention to one or more target pitches before performing ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref44">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref45">38</reflink>]). Studies of the effects of singing on instrumentalists' intonation are diverse, with varied protocols, resulting in mixed findings. [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref46">14</reflink>] examined the effects of vocalization on beginning band students' sense of pitch. His results indicated that regular practice in vocalization resulted in improvements in beginning instrumentalists' pitch discrimination and tonal memory and that brass and woodwind musicians were affected by the vocalization treatment similarly. Others have examined the effects of singing/vocalizing on performance outcomes (as opposed to perception measures solely). [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref47">38</reflink>] found that a combination of singing and playing of intervals resulted in improvements in high school instrumentalists' pitch accuracy as compared to a singing-only or playing-only treatment. In another study, collegiate instrumentalists demonstrated no differences in tuning accuracy while performing a B-major arpeggio in a playing-only and sing-and-play condition ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref48">41</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref49">3</reflink>] studied the effects of a different form of vocalization—humming—on instrumentalists' tuning performance, and he found that the strategy did not result in improvements in tuning accuracy. Similarly, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref50">43</reflink>] reported that vocal instruction did not improve the tuning accuracy of middle school band students even though both students and teachers believed that intonation improved as a result of singing instruction.</p> <p>Results of a survey of public school and university band directors' tuning practices indicated that many directors use some process of vocalization—humming or singing—with their students as part of their daily tuning sequence ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref51">37</reflink>]). Similarly, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref52">7</reflink>] reported that vocalization techniques were perceived to be effective strategies among a sample of public school and collegiate directors. Thus, it seems that the process of vocalizing a pitch prior to performing it is a common, widespread rehearsal practice. As noted previously, empirical support of such a practice is mixed, with some older research findings indicating improvements in tuning performance and perception as a result of vocalization ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref53">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref54">38</reflink>]) and others reporting no effect due to vocalization ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref55">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref56">43</reflink>]). Much remains to be known about the relative efficacy of pre-tuning vocalization techniques, especially the differential effects of singing versus humming on instrumentalists' tuning accuracy.</p> <p>The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of pre-tuning vocalization behaviors on the tuning accuracy of undergraduate instrumentalists performing a sustained tuning pitch. The following research questions guided the study: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref57">1</reflink>) What are the effects of pre-tuning vocalization behaviors (singing, humming, or silence) on the tuning accuracy of undergraduate instrumentalists? (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref58">2</reflink>) What are the relationships between instrumentalists' tuning accuracy and their tuning confidence? (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref59">3</reflink>) What pre-tuning vocalization behaviors do instrumentalists prefer, and what reasons do they provide to justify their preference? and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref60">4</reflink>) What pre-tuning vocalization behaviors do instrumentalists believe result in their most in-tune performance, and are the accuracy of these judgments better than chance?</p> <hd id="AN0133485942-2">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0133485942-3">Participants</hd> <p>Before recruiting participants, we conducted an a priori power analysis using G*Power software, version 3.1.9.2 ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref61">16</reflink>]), to determine the necessary sample size for this investigation. Given the use of a repeated measures ANOVA (within-between interaction), an intended test power of .80, considered the "industry standard" ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref62">33</reflink>], p. 45), a significance level of α = .05, and a small effect size of partial η<sups>2</sups> = .05 ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref63">10</reflink>]), the results of the power analysis suggested a minimum sample size of 72. We began with 77 participants. When analyzing our data, we identified 7 (4 from one institution, 3 from another) participants whose tuning performances deviated more than 20 cents from the tuning stimulus in at least one of the three tuning conditions. These participants were labeled outliers, and they were removed from our study. We then recruited 2 additional participants to achieve the minimum required sample size. Participants (N = 72) in our final pool were undergraduate music majors enrolled at either a large midwestern, western, or southern university. Demographic data indicated our participants' gender (male, n = 46, female, n = 26), age (M = 22.08, SD = 6.16), year in school (freshmen n = 9, sophomore n = 10, junior n = 22, senior n = 31), academic major (music education n = 57, music performance n = 10, bachelor of arts n = 5), and years of private lesson instruction on their major instrument (M = 6.52, SD = 3.63).</p> <hd id="AN0133485942-4">Stimulus Recording and Creation</hd> <p>We asked the oboe professor at the first author's institution to record the stimulus tone (B-flat 4) that would be heard by participants, chosen for its frequent use ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref64">40</reflink>]) and effectiveness ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref65">9</reflink>]). The oboist viewed a tuner while performing and played without vibrato. The resulting eight long tones lasted approximately 7 seconds in length each. Consistent with prior research ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref66">9</reflink>]), we conducted a mean frequency analysis of the middle 3 seconds of each tone using Praat software ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref67">5</reflink>]) to determine which of the performed tones most closely matched the equal-temperament standard frequency for B-flat 4 (466.16 Hz) and avoid the likely pitch deviation at the attack and release. The chosen stimulus tone, selected through consensus after multiple listenings, had a mean frequency of 466.75 Hz.</p> <hd id="AN0133485942-5">Procedures</hd> <p>Once participants (who had read and signed Institutional Review Board–approved informed consent letters) arrived at a practice room at the institution where they were enrolled, we instructed them to warm up on their instruments by playing long tones and/or major scales for approximately 90 seconds. To have participants serve as their own controls, we asked participants to complete three iterations of a tuning procedure after hearing the stimulus tone with two vocalization conditions (singing and humming) and one control condition without vocalization (silence). At the conclusion of the warm-up period, we read the following instructions:</p> <p>You are about to hear a concert B-flat played multiple times by an oboist. After listening to the tuning pitch the first time, I will stop the tone and instruct you to match the pitch either by (a) singing it on a "la" syllable, (b) humming it, or (c) sitting in silence. The tuning pitch will be heard a second time, stopped, and you will play the pitch on your instrument. You will then hear the oboe pitch a third time and be given a final opportunity to match this pitch on your instrument. At the conclusion of this task, you will hear music and be asked to respond to the following question: "How confident are you that you played in tune with the oboe you heard?" We will repeat this process three times, once for each of the three pre-tuning activities. I will give you instructions as we go. Each time you play the pitch on your instrument, make sure you sustain it for at least 5 seconds. If you have any questions, please ask them now.</p> <p>We chose to give our participants two attempts to match the stimulus tone after each pre-tuning vocalization behavior (singing, humming, or silence). We believed this procedure was more indicative of the tuning process that performers in large ensemble settings undertake because once the tuning pitch is sounded, more than one attempt at matching the stimulus is generally taken (e.g., players might first listen to the tuning pitch, play to match the pitch, stop and adjust their instrument while the tuning pitch is still sounding, and then play again). Furthermore, this decision allowed participants an opportunity to make an adjustment to their instrument length before performing the last attempt on their instrument.</p> <p>After the tuning pitch was heard, we told participants what pre-tuning vocalization behavior should occur (i.e., singing, humming, or silence) before they attempted to match the stimulus tone. We presented the stimulus pitch from iTunes on a laptop computer that was played through a Bose Soundlink speaker. Participants' performances were recorded using the same equipment referenced earlier for creating the tuning stimulus. We only recorded the second of the two performances on the instrument for each of the conditions. To help control for order effects, we used a 3 × 3 Latin square design, which allowed us to incorporate three different orders that were rotated equally among our participants.</p> <p>We played 15 seconds of Edgard Varèse's Amériques between each of the three tuning performances (humming, singing, or silence). Per previous research protocols ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref68">24</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref69">41</reflink>]), we chose this somewhat atonal excerpt to serve as distraction music between each repetition of the tuning task to reduce our participants' tonal memory. While listening to this 15-second excerpt of distraction music, participants were asked to respond on a 10-point Likert-type scale anchored by 1 (not confident) and 10 (very confident) to the following question: "How confident are you that you played in tune with the oboe that you heard?" Participants provided their answers on a response sheet that appeared on a music stand beside the microphone in each room. Once participants were finished with all tuning performances, we asked them to indicate "Which of the pre-tuning behaviors resulted in your most in-tune performance? Why?" on their response sheet. Similar to [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref70">8</reflink>] study, we wanted to explore participants' perceptions of their tuning efficacy with their actual performances. After giving the participants time to respond, we asked them to complete a final demographic questionnaire.</p> <hd id="AN0133485942-6">Results</hd> <p>We calculated participants' mean frequencies by extracting and analyzing the middle 3 seconds of their final tuning performances in each condition. Deviation values were determined by comparing each of the participants' three final performances to the oboe stimulus they had heard (466.75 Hz) and attempted to match during each tuning procedure. We then used an online calculator ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref71">39</reflink>]) to determine cent deviation scores, which were interpreted in absolute value and used for analysis purposes. These procedures were replicated from tuning studies involving instrumentalists ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref72">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref73">8</reflink>]).</p> <p>Before conducting our analyses, we calculated one-sample t tests comparing absolute cent deviations for each of the conditions with 5 cents (i.e., the threshold for "in-tuneness" proposed by [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref74">8</reflink>]) to determine whether values deviated significantly from the expected range. Results indicated significant differences in the singing condition, t(<reflink idref="bib142" id="ref75">142</reflink>) = 2.89, p < .01; humming condition, t(<reflink idref="bib142" id="ref76">142</reflink>) = 1.95, p < .01; and silence condition, t(<reflink idref="bib142" id="ref77">142</reflink>) = 3.96, p < .01.</p> <p>We conducted a three-way repeated measures ANOVA with two between-subjects factors (institution, order) and one within-subjects factor (pre-tuning vocalization behavior) to determine the effect of pre-tuning vocalization behavior on tuning accuracy, as measured by absolute cent deviation. Results indicated no significant main effect for the within-subjects factor, pre-tuning vocalization behavior, F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref78">2</reflink>, 126) = 1.67, p = .192. Mean cent deviations for singing (M = 6.66, SD = 4.88), humming (M = 6.95, SD = 4.82), and silence (M = 7.76, SD = 5.91) were not significantly different (p > .05). We also found no significant main effects for institution, F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref79">2</reflink>, 63) = 2.21, p = .118, or order, F(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref80">2</reflink>, 63) = 1.57, p = .214. There were no significant interactions among any of the variables.</p> <p>Because we wanted to examine relationships between participants' tuning accuracy and their tuning confidence, we ran correlation analyses between participants' self-reported tuning confidence scores (humming, singing, and silence) and their absolute cent deviation scores in each tuning condition. The Pearson correlation coefficient between participants' confidence in the singing condition (M = 7.82, SD = 1.28) and their performance in the singing condition was weak and nonsignificant, r = –.19, p = .11. We found a similar result when comparing participants' confidence in the silence condition (M = 7.37, SD = 1.70) to their performance in the silence condition, r = –.02, p = .84. However, we found a significant, although weak, negative correlation between participants' confidence in the humming condition (M = 7.65, SD = 1.38) and their performance in the humming condition, r = –.26, p = .026.</p> <p>We examined each participant's tuning performance descriptively to identify which pre-tuning condition resulted in their most in-tune performance. The greatest percentage of participants performed most accurately in the singing condition (n = 29, 40.3%), which was closely followed by the silence (n = 24, 33.3%) and humming (n = 19, 26.4%) conditions.</p> <p>To answer our third research question, regarding participants' perceptions of their tuning efficacy among the three conditions, we examined their responses to the question "Which of the pre-tuning behaviors resulted in your most in-tune performance? Why?" We adopted a qualitative analysis procedure whereby we independently reviewed participants' responses, assigned codes, and combined codes into themes ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref81">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref82">22</reflink>]). Once coding was complete, we exchanged the list of themes with one another. After consultation, we reduced the number of categories by eliminating redundancies and combining similar comments. There were seven categories in the final classification system. To establish reliability, an independent observer (a music education faculty member not involved with the research study) examined 20% of the comments. Reliability was calculated by dividing the number of agreements by total observations, resulting in a high interrater reliability of .93. The largest portion of participants (n = 30, 41.7%) selected singing as their most accurate condition, followed by humming (n = 20, 27.8%) and silence (n = 18, 25.0%). (Four participants did not indicate a condition.)</p> <p>Themes and frequency of comments associated with each theme are displayed in Table 1. Of the 76 total comments (4 participants provided multiple responses, and we categorized them accordingly), most were related to issues of internalization of pitch, physical response, and focus of attention. Participants commented on internalization of pitch most frequently (n = 19, 25%), reporting that they believed that engaging in one of the vocalization conditions provided them with a reference for the pitch they were about to play. One participant explained, "I think the humming was best because I felt like I internalized the pitch without having a disconnect between my brain and vocal cords from singing." Participants also wrote about physical response issues (n = 15, 19.74%), including having something to do physically besides listening and believing that singing or humming helped prepare them for the appropriate mouth shape when shifting to their instruments. Sample comments included "The singing. I could feel the tongue placement in my mouth where it was supposed to be to play in tune" and "Singing on a 'la' syllable. I think hearing myself produce the same pitch out loud helped to further wrap my head around it and shape my throat to imitate the pitch."</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Themes and Frequency of Participants' Written Comments (N = 76).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left">Theme</th><th align="center">n (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Internalization of pitch</td><td>19 (25.00)</td></tr><tr><td>Physical response (doing something physically helped)</td><td>15 (19.74)</td></tr><tr><td>Focus of attention/distraction issues</td><td>13 (17.11)</td></tr><tr><td>Other</td><td>9 (11.84)</td></tr><tr><td>Resonance/vibration issues</td><td>8 (10.53)</td></tr><tr><td>Familiar with/preference for one approach</td><td>7 (9.21)</td></tr><tr><td>Order effect</td><td>5 (6.58)</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>76 (99.97)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Note. Four participants provided multiple responses, which we coded as separate responses. Thus, the number of comments exceeds the total sample size for the study.</p> <p>The focus of attention category included opposing opinions regarding the tasks. Some participants found that one approach allowed them to focus their attention entirely on the pitch; others found having to do something concurrently while listening was a distraction. One participant responded, "Silence; execution of humming and singing seemed to distract from the pitch." Some of the comments in the "other" category related to confidence issues ("Hearing my own voice adds a level of uncertainty prior to playing, insofar as I am not a confident singer") or no clearly expressed preference for any particular vocalization technique ("I think the pre-tuning behaviors were all pretty equal in terms of creating an in-tune performance").</p> <p>When comparing their written responses to their performance results, it was clear that participants self-assessed their intonation deviations with varying degrees of accuracy. First, we analyzed responses to the question "Which pre-tuning behaviors resulted in your most in-tune performance" and found that 52.77% of the participants stated that they performed better in a particular condition that was in reality not their most in-tune performance. Thirty-four out of 72 (47.22%) accurately identified the condition in which they performed most in tune.</p> <p>To further examine how accurate participants were in their perceptions, we conducted a chi-square test, the results of which revealed a significant difference between their perceived best performance and their actual best performance, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref83">2</reflink>, N = 72) = 7.09, p < .05, Cramer's V = .33. As seen in Figure 1, more participants believed that singing and silence resulted in their most in-tune performance, and among these participants, more than half accurately selected the behavior that resulted in their most in-tune performance. It is clear that participants who chose humming were less accurate than those who chose singing or silence.</p> <p>Matches between perceived best tuning condition and actual best tuning condition: frequency of accurate and inaccurate responses.</p> <p>Graph</p> <hd id="AN0133485942-7">Discussion</hd> <p>The results of this study indicated no significant effects of pre-tuning vocalization behaviors (singing or humming) as measured in mean cent deviation on the tuning accuracy of woodwind and brass instrumentalists' performance of a sustained stimulus pitch (concert B-flat). Previous research has also shown no effect of singing or humming on instrumentalists' tuning performance ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref84">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref85">41</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref86">43</reflink>]). When calculating instrumentalists' cent deviation means, we found little difference among scores in each condition (singing M = 6.66, humming M = 6.95, silence M = 7.76). Given that researchers have previously set thresholds of 6 cents ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref87">27</reflink>]) and 5 cents ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref88">8</reflink>]) when determining whether tuning responses were within acceptable boundaries from a stimulus tone, our participants seemed relatively accurate in their tuning performances, irrespective of the condition.</p> <p>Our findings also stand in contrast to those in which instrumentalists' tuning accuracy improved after vocalizing ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref89">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref90">38</reflink>]), but participants in those studies had considerably less musical experience (students were enrolled in beginning band and high school band, respectively). We wonder if the mixed outcomes from many of these investigations involving the effects of vocalization on instrumentalists' tuning performances may be due to the diverse research protocols that have been used. These differences among studies were reflected in the general design (between-subjects vs. within-subjects) and variables investigated. Similar to the present study, some previous studies (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref91">41</reflink>]) utilized a within-subjects design in which participants served as their own controls, yet others (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref92">38</reflink>]) used between-subject designs. The dependent variables also varied across studies as some researchers included performance accuracy measures as outcomes (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref93">3</reflink>]) while others used perceptual measures such as pitch discrimination (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref94">14</reflink>]). To further complicate the comparison of results across studies, the general vocalization treatment differed greatly among studies. For example, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref95">14</reflink>] vocalization training involved the singing of exercises from the band class text before playing them over an extended instructional period, while [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref96">41</reflink>] vocalization treatment simply included 30 seconds of vocalizing on a syllable of choice immediately performing a B major arpeggio. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref97">3</reflink>] participants hummed (rather than sang) pitches during their vocalization treatment. Therefore, the mixed findings may simply be a function of these notable differences across studies. The need for participants from varying populations (e.g., middle school, high school, and college ensembles) to respond to similar treatments might prove beneficial in detecting any real benefits of singing and humming for musicians' tuning accuracy throughout their musical development.</p> <p>Although we found no statistically significant differences in participants' tuning accuracy across the three pre-tuning conditions, the largest portion of our sample (n = 29, 40.3%) performed most accurately after they sang the pitch on a "la" syllable. Fewer participants performed most accurately in the silence (n = 24, 33.3%) and humming (n = 19, 26.4%) conditions. It is tempting to present these descriptive differences as evidence that participants' tuning accuracy was not greatly influenced by any particular pre-tuning behavior that was used in our study. However, our chi-square results did indicate a difference between participants' predictive accuracy by condition, perhaps indicating that some individual participants did improve their tuning performance as a result of certain pre-tuning vocalization behaviors, a finding that is consistent with [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref98">8</reflink>] results. In fact, they wrote that "the tuning experience . . . is multiple experiences—different within and across individuals as revealed in the individual performance and verbal opportunities provided in this study" (p. 355).</p> <p>One important pedagogical implication from these two studies' findings may be that directors should diversify how they teach ensemble members to tune prior to their rehearsals and performances in a massed setting. Adhering to a "one size fits all" tuning approach may disadvantage students who otherwise could make tuning improvements if they were taught multiple tuning strategies, such as playing with a drone, vocalizing before performing, or watching a digital tuner. A suggestion for educating secondary school and university band students about tuning approaches could be setting up multiple days or weeks during which a particular tuning strategy is discussed and implemented with the full ensemble, with directors encouraging their students to experiment with these strategies during their individual practice sessions. Promoting a dialogue involving which tuning strategies appeared most successful could provide lasting benefits for both the individual and ensemble. Finally, it would be helpful for future researchers to investigate instrumentalists' home tuning behaviors to compare them with the tuning practices used by their instructors.</p> <p>Results of correlation analyses indicated weak (with correlations ranging in magnitude from r = –.02 to –.26) and mostly nonsignificant relationships between our participants' tuning confidence and tuning accuracy in each condition, although the relationship between tuning confidence and accuracy was statistically significant in the humming condition (p = .026). The nature of these negative correlations would perhaps be expected because an increase in tuning confidence would most likely be related to a decrease in out-of-tuneness (i.e., cent deviation). Given the slight negative correlations observed between these variables in the present study, however, it seems that only a weak relationship existed between our participants' confidence ratings and their tuning accuracy in each of the pre-tuning vocalization conditions, a finding that is corroborated by previous research ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref99">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref100">49</reflink>]).</p> <p>The qualitative data provided insight into what factors impacted participants' tuning preferences. Comments were varied and revealed that preferences were unique to the individual. Whereas some participants strongly believed that humming or singing provided them with an internalization of the pitch (n = 19, 25.0%), there were others who believed that these activities were in fact a distraction (n = 13, 17.11%). While some claimed that producing a physical response to the pitch was helpful (n = 15, 19.73%), others found that it interfered with their focus of attention (n = 13, 17.11%). It is possible that musicians have preferences based on what is most familiar. Perhaps familiarity provides a level of confidence that helps them believe they are performing more in tune. Inaccurate self-assessment issues aside, there are two main reasons that participants in our study appeared to prefer pre-tuning behaviors of humming or singing: (a) the ability to internalize the pitch before playing and (b) producing a response that ultimately helped them feel more confident. Future research might include an investigation of band directors' tuning preferences to determine whether their reasons are similar to those offered by college musicians when choosing to include humming and singing before tuning.</p> <p>Our findings (and those of others) demonstrating that performers' tuning performance and tuning confidence is unrelated ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref101">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref102">49</reflink>]) raises an interesting pedagogical question: Should instrumental ensemble directors continue to utilize singing and humming in their massed tuning procedures even if there is no empirical evidence that these activities are helpful toward the goal of better individual and ensemble intonation? Given our participants' data about their tuning preferences, directors' beliefs about the perceived usefulness of either singing or humming before tuning ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref103">37</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref104">40</reflink>]), and the mixed findings of intonation research in general, convincing directors to abandon pedagogical strategies that have been advocated for decades (e.g., tuning to the tuba, vocalizing) is still premature. Especially when examining the varied protocols listed in the literature review, there is simply not enough evidence to advise practitioners to use or discontinue to use any particular approach.</p> <p>Perhaps the appearance of trying to play in tune serves an important function for adjudicators and audience members who have come to expect directors to engage in these types of tuning activities. Pedagogically, it could be that pre-tuning vocalization strategies like singing and humming can serve to address one or more ancillary goals, such as timbral blend or ensemble balance. Considering previous research indicating that pitch and tone quality are often confused ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref105">46</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref106">47</reflink>]), we believe that these vocalization strategies could have benefits on these related areas—conjecture that is beyond the scope of this investigation but would be a beneficial area for future study. Additional research involving adjudicators' and audience members' perceptions of ensemble tuning efficacy prior to performance would be a useful addition to the tuning literature.</p> <p>There are some limitations to the current study that must be noted. Having an individual performer tune to a single pitch with a researcher present may be considered a different task than having an entire ensemble tune as a group in a rehearsal room. While individual accountability is important, there are numerous variables that potentially impact performers' abilities, including anxiety, comfort level with their voice quality, or the presence of a recording device. It would be equally valuable to observe performers while tuning in an ensemble setting due to the tendency for ensembles to shift in pitch throughout the duration of rehearsals and performances, thereby resulting in a flexible target pitch. Additionally, some ensemble directors employ a tuning process that involves having performers continue to listen to and match the reference pitch. We used a different protocol, wherein participants listened to the pitch, then tuned to the pitch after the recording ended, because of the need to record a single pitch for subsequent analysis. We also considered having participants listen to the tuning pitch via headphones to allow them to perform with the stimulus simultaneously but decided against that process due to the confounding variable of bone conduction (skewed perception due to issues of bone conduction while listening in headphones). Finally, our participants attempted to match a unison pitch target in this study rather than a more complex melodic/harmonic context because such a practice is common in instrumental rehearsal rooms. It is important to consider these results in this particular context.</p> <p>Considering the importance that band directors place on teaching their students to play in tune ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref107">37</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref108">40</reflink>]), the need for continued study of instrumentalists' pitch performance and perception seems apparent. In future studies, researchers should continue to examine the effectiveness of other recommended pedagogical practices, such as playing with drones ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref109">17</reflink>]) and looking at digital tuners while performing ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref110">23</reflink>]). Furthermore, additional studies of the effects of pre-tuning vocalization behaviors are needed to examine additional outcomes such as tone quality because it is possible that singing and humming could affect this as well. We believe it is critical for researchers to continue to identify a variety of instructional strategies that improve instrumentalists' tuning performance because these strategies can be used by music educators to assist their students in the development of pitch perception and tuning accuracy skills.</p> <hd id="AN0133485942-8">Declaration of Conflicting Interests</hd> <p>The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</p> <hd id="AN0133485942-9">Funding</hd> <p>The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</p> <hd id="AN0133485942-10">Author Biographies</hd> <p>Brian A. Silvey is associate professor of music education and director of bands at the University of Missouri. His research interests include conducting pedagogy, instrumental music teacher preparation, and music performance evaluation.</p> <p>Jessica Nápoles is associate professor of choral music education at University of North Texas. Her research interests are in conducting, teacher talk, and perceptions of expressivity.</p> <p>D. Gregory Springer is assistant professor of music education at Florida State University. His research interests include music perception, music performance evaluation, and music teacher education.</p> <ref id="AN0133485942-11"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref3" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Ballard D. L. (2011). Relationships between college-level wind instrumentalists' achievement in intonation perception and performance. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 187, 19–32. 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  Data: Effects of Pre-Tuning Vocalization Behaviors on the Tuning Accuracy of College Instrumentalists
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Silvey%2C+Brian+A%2E%22">Silvey, Brian A.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Nápoles%2C+Jessica%22">Nápoles, Jessica</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Springer%2C+D%2E+Gregory%22">Springer, D. Gregory</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Research+in+Music+Education%22"><i>Journal of Research in Music Education</i></searchLink>. Jan 2019 66(4):392-407.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 16
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2019
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undergraduate+Students%22">Undergraduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Music+Education%22">Music Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Musicians%22">Musicians</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Singing%22">Singing</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intonation%22">Intonation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Music+Techniques%22">Music Techniques</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Accuracy%22">Accuracy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Musical+Instruments%22">Musical Instruments</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attention%22">Attention</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1177/0022429418806304
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0022-4294
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of two pre-tuning vocalization behaviors (humming and singing) on the tuning accuracy of woodwind and brass instrumentalists. Undergraduate collegiate musicians (N = 72) performed a sustained stimulus pitch (concert B-flat) while engaging in one of the two conditions or the control condition (silence). We also explored the relationships between participants' tuning accuracy and their tuning confidence, examined the reasons instrumentalists provided for their pre-tuning vocalization preferences, and compared their most accurate performance condition with the condition they perceived to result in their most accurate tuning. Although participants performed with better tuning accuracy in the singing condition than the humming and silence conditions, these differences were not significant. Correlation analyses examining relationships between participants' tuning accuracy and their tuning confidence in each condition yielded mostly weak and nonsignificant results. Participants reported internalization of pitch, physical response, and focus of attention issues most frequently when asked why they preferred a particular tuning condition.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: Ref
  Label: Number of References
  Group: RefInfo
  Data: 50
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2018
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1199338
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1199338
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/0022429418806304
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 16
        StartPage: 392
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Undergraduate Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Music Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Musicians
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Singing
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intonation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Music Techniques
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Accuracy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Musical Instruments
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Attention
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Effects of Pre-Tuning Vocalization Behaviors on the Tuning Accuracy of College Instrumentalists
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Silvey, Brian A.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Nápoles, Jessica
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            NameFull: Springer, D. Gregory
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            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2019
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0022-4294
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              Value: 66
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              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Research in Music Education
              Type: main
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