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Sex Trafficking and the Role of Institutions of Higher Education: Recommendations for Response and Preparedness

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Title: Sex Trafficking and the Role of Institutions of Higher Education: Recommendations for Response and Preparedness
Language: English
Authors: Preble, Kathleen M., Cook, Mackenzie A., Fults, Brittani
Source: Innovative Higher Education. Feb 2019 44(1):5-19.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-348-4505; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2019
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Evaluative
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Higher Education, Sexuality, Victims, Sexual Abuse, Civil Rights, Prevention, Employees, Crime, Policy Formation, Educational Attainment, College Role, College Students
DOI: 10.1007/s10755-018-9443-1
ISSN: 0742-5627
Abstract: In the perceptions of most persons, sex trafficking is a recognized global human rights abuse. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has articulated a call to action with its four "P" policy agenda: prevent, protect, prosecute, and partnership (Office of Trafficking in Persons, 2017). Institutions of higher education are positioned to bolster these initiatives through research, work force and policy development, and education. It is our purpose with this article to begin a discussion within academic institutions and the field of sex trafficking to explore what actions might assist survivors who wish to pursue higher education as well as what protections should be in place to serve students who may become victimized while attending an institution of higher education. We consider human trafficking, the role of institutions of higher education, current policies related to colleges and universities, the vulnerability of college age individuals to potential trafficking, and the unique needs of those who exit trafficking and enter higher education. We offer some recommendations that will enable institutions to engage with and address the intersection of sex trafficking and higher education.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2019
Accession Number: EJ1205271
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0134611511;ihe01feb.19;2019Feb15.08:30;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0134611511-1">Sex Trafficking and the Role of Institutions of Higher Education: Recommendations for Response and Preparedness </title> <p>In the perceptions of most persons, sex trafficking is a recognized global human rights abuse. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has articulated a call to action with its four "P" policy agenda: prevent, protect, prosecute, and partnership (Office of Trafficking in Persons, 2017). Institutions of higher education are positioned to bolster these initiatives through research, work force and policy development, and education. It is our purpose with this article to begin a discussion within academic institutions and the field of sex trafficking to explore what actions might assist survivors who wish to pursue higher education as well as what protections should be in place to serve students who may become victimized while attending an institution of higher education. We consider human trafficking, the role of institutions of higher education, current policies related to colleges and universities, the vulnerability of college age individuals to potential trafficking, and the unique needs of those who exit trafficking and enter higher education. We offer some recommendations that will enable institutions to engage with and address the intersection of sex trafficking and higher education.</p> <p>Keywords: Sex trafficking; Human trafficking; Higher education; Title IX; Exploitation of college students</p> <p>Sex trafficking, a form of human trafficking, is widely regarded as a form of gender-based violence and global human rights abuse (Sen & Baba, 2017). Victimization by sex trafficking is known to increase risks among survivors for mental health and trauma related injury, physical health problems (e.g., Ottisova, Hemmings, Howard, Zimmerman, & Oram, 2016), substance abuse issues (Hopper, 2017), and a host of other social issues such as stigma, difficulty finding employment due to criminal history (Dank et al., 2014; Owens et al., 2014; Preble, 2015; Preble et al., 2015), and many other obstacles to leading a fulfilling life. Though the scope of human trafficking in the United States is unclear, since the beginning of formalized anti-trafficking programming established by the Trafficking Victims Protection Act in 2000, nearly 10,000 survivors of trafficking have been identified (U.S. Department of Justice, 2016) and have been offered assistance in rebuilding their lives (Preble et al., 2015; Sapiro, Johnson, Postmus, & Simmel, 2016). However, there has been little discussion of how to support exploited persons who are pursuing or who wish to pursue degrees from institutions of higher education (Sapiro et al., 2016). As we have become increasingly more aware of vulnerable sub-groups of students over the past several decades, we suggest that it is appropriate to bring attention to this group of students, even though their numbers may be small.</p> <p>The U.S. State Department's call to action implores people to become aware of trafficking through the <emph>Look Beneath the Surface Campaign</emph> of the Department of Health and Human Services (U.S. Office of Trafficking in Persons, 2017) so as to help first responders find and rescue those being exploited. This call to action is emphasized by the U.S. State Department's four Ps initiative: prevent, protect, prosecute, and partnership (U.S. State Department, 2017). Institutions of higher education can bolster these initiatives through research, work force and policy development, and education (Fitzgerald, Bruns, Sonka, Furco, & Swanson, 2016). As the public's awareness and national responses regarding sex trafficking have increased, so, too, has the significance of the role of institutions of higher education to engage in evidenced-based research and be an educational resource for victims and survivors. For example, universities around the United States have established research centers, often by survivors of trafficking themselves, and have begun exploring multidisciplinary approaches to clinical and legal interventions for human trafficking (see Michigan Law School Human Trafficking Clinic [University of Michigan, 2018]; University of Kansas' Anti-Slavery and Trafficking Initiative [University of Kansas, 2018]; University of Toledo's Human Trafficking and Social Justice Institute[University of Toledo, 2018]) There are also examples of survivors entering post-secondary education to gain expertise and skills needed to become advocates and first responders for other victims of trafficking. Theresa Flores, founder of TraffickFree, was sex trafficked in high school for two years; and her family was forced to relocate to evade her traffickers. She went on to earn a B.S.W from Ball State University and an M.A. in Counseling Education from the University of Dayton (Flores, 2017) and now works to assist victimized women and girls through aftercare services.</p> <p>With this article we seek to begin a discussion within higher education and the field of trafficking to explore what actions are needed to assist survivors who wish to pursue higher education as well as what protections are needed in order to serve students who may be victimized while attending an institution of higher education. The critical question is what responsibilities institutions of higher education have for addressing the issue of sex trafficking, particularly as it relates to their students. After providing background, we explore three topics:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> the applicable laws and policies that are in place and to which universities and colleges must adhere,</item> <p></p> <item> the vulnerabilities that exist among student populations for sex trafficking, and</item> <p></p> <item> the services that should be provided for those pursuing post-secondary degrees and who need help exiting a sex trafficking situation or who are survivors of trafficking.</item> </ulist> <p>We then conclude with policy recommendations to clarify and strengthen an institution's position on sex trafficking.</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-2">Human Trafficking</hd> <p>Though the focus of this article is on a sub-category of human trafficking, that is, sex trafficking, we provide background understanding of human trafficking. Human trafficking, the umbrella term for the exploitation of a person that includes sex and labor trafficking, is essentially the compelling of a person to perform commercial sex acts (i.e., exchanging sex for something of value such as money [Weitzer, 2011]) or any other labor through the use of force, fraud, or coercion (Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of, 2000). In the case of persons under the age of 18 engaged in commercial sex, force, fraud, and coercion are not required to prove sex trafficking has occurred; the commercial sexual exploitation of minors is inherently sex trafficking (Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act, 2000). In essence, sex trafficking is considered a severe form of sexual exploitation in which the victim has been compelled to perform various commercial sex acts (e.g., prostitution) through threats of force, fraud, or coercion. However, it is important to note that an individual can engage in commercial sex work without being victimized by sex trafficking (Chuang, 2010; Weitzer, 2011). The United States adopted the Trafficking Victims Protection Act in 2000 and has since reauthorized the law several times, most recently in 2013 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2017). An updated and revised version is being considered in Congress under H.R. 2200, the "Fredrick Douglass Trafficking Victims Prevention and Protection Reauthorization Act of 2017." As of this writing, it has passed in the House of Representatives and is awaiting action in the Senate.</p> <p>Accurate assessments about the prevalence of sex trafficking are scant due to the clandestine nature of the violence and the lack of solid methodological approaches to estimating prevalence rates (Fedina, 2014; Weitzer, 2011). Even so, there are a few estimates experts use to give context to this complex human rights abuse; however, we must caution readers about the level of confidence we can have in these estimates. Approximately 12.3 to 27 million people, mostly women and children, are believed to be trafficked globally (Chacon, 2006; Clawson, Dutch, Solomon, & Grace, 2009). Through these victims traffickers are estimated to have a profit of approximately $15 billion to $150 billion a year, of which the U.S. contributes an estimated $975.3 million in trafficking profits annually (Dank et al., 2014; Department of Homeland Security, 2013; Inter-American Development Bank, 2006; International Labor Organization, 2015). It is estimated that between 100,000 to 300,000 U.S. children are sexually exploited commercially within the U.S., some as young as 14 (e.g., May, Harocopos, & Hough, 2000; Norton-Hawk, 2004), and anecdotal evidence suggests some victims are even younger. Since 2003, when the Office of Victims of Crime began funding trafficking victims' services, 9,302 victims have been served (U.S. Department of Justice, 2016), which is far fewer than the expected number of cases (approximately 170,000); but each year more victims are being identified. With the wide ranges in estimates and few identified victims, advocates and scholars are questioning the availability and adequacy of professional training to identify and respond to trafficking cases (Nichols & Heil, 2014; Preble, Praetorius, & Cimino, 2016) and are asking for and seeking better data about trafficking (Weizter, 2014).</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-3">The Responsibility of Higher Education</hd> <p>Universities and colleges offer educational platforms to learn about societal challenges, to develop evidence-informed scholarship that helps to shape our interventions and policies concerning these issues, and to empower individuals to "chart pathways to achieving upward mobility and civic engagement" (Fitzgerald et al., 2016, p. 246). These institutions have "an implicit responsibility to serve the public that created [them] and [sustains them] financially through tuition, government grants and contracts, corporate giving and partnerships, and public philanthropy" (Fitzgerald et al., 2016, p. 245). Moreover, universities and colleges have a responsibility to provide safe environments for the faculty, staff, and students, as well as to provide an example to the larger community through service to the communities in which the institutions are housed. This responsibility is due, in part, to the fact that institutions of higher education are economic and social incubators, often working in concert with state agencies for workforce, healthcare, transportation, and engineering infrastructure development (Fitzgerald et al., 2016).</p> <p>Each year, anti-trafficking efforts become more sophisticated, which translates into an improved national response to sex trafficking, evidenced in part by the number of legislative responses to the issue, which have emphasized the original three Ps (i.e., prevention, prosecution, and prevention), with the fourth P, partnership, added later. With increasing victim identification, the need for the U.S. to create longer-term support for survivors is critical to ensuring a stable life beyond after-care services. (We should mention that this conversation and these thoughts might be applicable in other countries as well as the U.S.) For some students, this could mean pursuing a degree at an institution of higher education as a survivor, while for others it could mean assistance available after becoming victimized by trafficking while enrolled at an institution of higher education. Examples of such scenarios are discussed in the following section and the discussion about survivors.</p> <p>Though the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act clearly stipulates what victims and survivors are entitled to once they are identified, there is very little in this policy that relates to institutions of higher education. Further, there is little guidance to institutions about how to support currently enrolled survivors or victims and little dialogue about the role of institutions of higher education in the response to sex trafficking. To our knowledge there are no official or unofficial estimates or data about the number of survivors enrolled in post-secondary education, nor is there data to help us understand the context of potential on-campus trafficking victimization or, in the case of survivors, their experiences while on-campus. Even so, there are anecdotes that suggest the presence of victims and survivors in higher education circles (e.g., Lam, 2017; McKenzie, 2017; Mieneke, 2013; Singh, 2013). Moreover, Preble (2015) and Preble et al. (2016) discussed participants' experiences with or desires to attend a professional or post-secondary educational institution, including one example of a mother engaged in sex work to pay for her child's college tuition (Preble, 2015). Though these participants were not classified as sex trafficking survivors, they were exiting sex workers whose experiences often paralleled those of sex trafficked individuals.</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-4">Policies and Law Related to Higher Education and Sex Trafficking</hd> <p>Our search for anti-trafficking polices at institutions of higher education revealed that some universities and colleges do indeed have such policies; however, it was not our purpose to conduct a comparative analysis of them. We found that the anti-trafficking policies which we did discover take a zero-tolerance approach regarding employees' engagement in human trafficking and that they are written with prevention and response language. However, these policies fall short of delineating any specific support systems that trafficking victims and survivors can access on campus, thus limiting their usefulness. Even so, there are a few schools that announce services for trafficking victims and survivors, but these services are not explicitly linked to institutional anti-trafficking policies (see Stanford University, 2018; University of Toledo, 2018; Xavier University, 2018). Hypothetically, for example, an institution may not have an official policy against trafficking, but the student counselling service advertises specialized mental health services for survivors. This discrepancy perhaps indicates that campus units are noticing an issue that has not yet been formally recognized at the institutional level. Moreover, several academic programs offer interdisciplinary curricula around the topic of human trafficking (see Fontbonne University, 2017; University of Michigan, 2018; Vanguard University, 2018), which can be viewed as a form of support for victims and survivors because such programs raise awareness of and increase empathetic responses to persons impacted by trafficking.</p> <p>The policies that tie these more individual anti-trafficking responses together, however, are the federal laws that provide oversight and guidance regarding safety on campus, particularly with regard to gender-based violence and discrimination, employment and labor protections for employees, and other fair labor standards. By virtue of the fact that public universities and colleges receive federal funds for a variety of activities, as do private institutions, these institutions are held accountable to these federal policies as well as any related state level polices. While we acknowledge that there are a number of laws and policies that could pertain to the issue of sex trafficking, it is not our purpose to review or provide an exhaustive list of potential regulations in the context of sex trafficking (for a more comprehensive overview of potential policies pertaining to sexual violence on campuses, see Wood, Sulley, Kammer-Kerwick, Follingstad, & Busch-Armendariz, 2017). We now provide an overview of the policies we consider to be most relevant to the intersection of sex trafficking and higher education.</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-5">Title IX</hd> <p>Title IX of the Educational Amendments Act of 1972 is a policy designed to ensure that all persons involved in education related activities, for which the educational institution receives federal funds, have protections and recourses against sexual discrimination (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). Title IX defines sexual violence as a form of sexual harassment, including sexual acts perpetrated against a person's will or in cases in which a person is incapable of giving consent (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). The policy defines several acts that fall into the category of sexual violence for anyone regardless of sexual orientation, sexual identity, and gender identity including rape, sexual assault, sexual battery, sexual abuse, and sexual coercion (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). Even so, there is no explicit mention of sex trafficking in the current Title IX policy (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). However, the policy prohibits several types of sexual harassment, including exploitation (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). Individual institutions of higher education may adopt additional layers to Title IX policies that do address human trafficking, which some schools have done (e.g., Indiana University, 2017; University of Iowa, 2017; Wichita State University, 2017).</p> <p>Many institutions of higher education have responded to the requirements of Title IX through programming initiatives including providing relationship violence and sexual assault prevention (i.e., <emph>Green Dot</emph>, a bystander education intervention to prevent violence on college campuses [Alteristic, 2018]) and educational training (i.e., <emph>Student Success: Not Anymore</emph>, an interpersonal violence education and prevention program [Vector Solutions (2018)]), campus drop-in centers, and establishing institutional sexual assault response teams. In fact, the U.S. Department of Education's <emph>Dear colleague letter</emph> (Ali, 2011) provides guidance for how schools can adhere to Title IX through education and prevention programming for employees and students. However, to our knowledge, no data are being collected regarding sex trafficking (exploitation) experienced on campuses. Recently, institutions have begun collecting data that will provide a better understanding of sexual exploitation along with the data already being collected on sexual assaults and harassment through campus climate surveys, which may offer insight about potential threats or reality of sex trafficking. With better data on more severe forms of exploitation, including trafficking, these training and prevention efforts will be better able to achieve their intended goals.</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-6">The Clery Act</hd> <p>The Clery Act (Clery Center, 2018), which was passed in 1998, mandated that knowledge about crimes committed on campuses be made public and that institutions must send notifications to persons on the campus regarding known safety risks (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). Included in the Clery Act are additional requirements regarding educational programming, disciplinary processes, and complaint procedures about sexual violence. The Campus Sexual Violence Elimination (SaVE) Act (Campus SaVE Act, 2018) broadened the requirements of the Clery Act to include incidents of stalking, dating violence, and other gender-based crimes (Wood et al., 2017). Though these protections are steps in the right direction, these polices only apply to incidents that occur on campuses but not to educational experiences outside of the physical campus (Parker, 2017). Institutions of higher education are not required to protect students from harm or report incidents of violence that occur through off-campus educational opportunities such as study abroad programs or internships (Parker, 2017).</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-7">Employment and Labor Laws</hd> <p>Additionally, institutions of higher education are governed by employment and labor laws to ensure fair, decent, and equitable employment conditions for employees. These laws and policies are governed by the U.S. Department of Labor, the mission of which is "[to] foster, promote, and develop the welfare of [the employed to] improve working conditions; advance opportunities for profitable employment; and assure work-related benefits and rights" (<emph>About DOL: Mission,</emph> U.S. Department of Labor, 2017). Included in these regulations are work safety requirements, sexual harassment prohibitions, and other mechanisms to ensure non-exploitative work environments for employees including faculty, staff and students.</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-8">The Intersection of Sex Trafficking Vulnerability and Higher Education</hd> <p>We found no studies that examined the experience or prevalence of trafficking victims/survivors on U.S. college campuses. Noted as an "unsettlingly sparse body of literature addressing the problem of human trafficking in the context of higher education" (Parker, 2017, p. 2), there is no research to assist an institution in developing evidence-based responses and prevention programming. However, anecdotal suggestions cited earlier (e.g., Lam, 2017; McKenzie, 2017; Mieneke, 2013; Singh, 2013), as well as deductive reasoning, might suggest that sex trafficking and higher education do intersect. While extant knowledge around the risks for trafficking vulnerability are wrought with methodological fallacies, experts generally agree that self-displacement, intimate partner violence, poverty, prior abuse history, nationality, gender, and poor physical and mental health are regarded as factors that make individuals vulnerable to sex trafficking (Bales, 2007; Cwikel, Chudakov, Agmon, & Belmaker, 2004; Farrell, McDevitt, & Fahy, 2010; Kim, 2006; Zimmerman et al., 2008; Zimmerman, Hossain, & Watts, 2011). Because so little empirical information exists about the scope and nature of sex trafficking on campuses, we now explore the concept and reality of trafficking vulnerabilities.</p> <p>Dating violence, while certainly not considered sex trafficking, has been identified as a potential risk factor for experiencing sex trafficking. While exploring the general experiences youth (≤ 18 years old) have with dating violence, Rothman, Bazzi, and Bair-Merritt (2015) found that about 1 in 10 young persons experiencing dating violence eventually experience sexual exploitation, approaching and including the severity of sex trafficking, at the hands of their abusive dating partners. Liz Claiborne, Inc. (2011) found in a nationally representative study (<emph>N</emph> = 508) that 57% of college students who had ever experienced an abusive dating relationship indicated it had occurred in college. This implies that as many as 10% of those students who have experienced dating violence could also be a victim or survivor of sexual exploitation, including sex trafficking, at any given time. As awareness about the phenomenon of sex trafficking grows, so too will reports about suspicious trafficking behavior (Parker, 2017), ultimately leading to a rise in identified trafficking survivors. "For students and faculty working with vulnerable populations, it is essential that they be informed as to how to identify signs of human trafficking, and the proper method of reporting these crimes" (Parker, 2017, p. 7). One mechanism by which to accomplish this task is to begin collecting data via campus climate surveys regarding the number of students who are experiencing sexual exploitation, including trafficking. These data can be used to inform training and programming to educate the campus community about trafficking, intervention, and response.</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-9">The Victims</hd> <p>While we have found no studies relating to the trafficking of college students, the available literature relating to sexual harassment and assault paints alarming pictures. According to Cantor et al. (2015a), 18% of the female and nearly 12% of the male graduate and professional students (<emph>n</emph> = 936, 772, respectively) in a large climate survey involving 27 universities and colleges reported experiencing harassment by faculty members or instructors since attending the school. An earlier study that examined the role of power between students and instructors and harassment found that approximately one out of every three or four female undergraduate and graduate students experienced some form of sexual harassment or sexually inappropriate behavior, primarily from male instructors (Grauerholz, 1989).</p> <p>Most of the literature regarding this topic concludes that sexual harassment of students by instructors stems in large part from the unequal power that characterizes the professor-student relationship (Grauerholz, 1989). Professors possess the authority to confer or withhold rewards (e.g., praise, grades, recommendations); and, as Cammaert (1985) suggested, "it seems logical that some professors would attempt to trade sex for grades as employers do for employment benefits" (p. 390). Sexual harassment has not decreased; in fact, Cantor suggested that harassment has increased and that power still plays an important role in understanding how inappropriate power boundaries can transition into trafficking. (For further discussion about the intersection of power and sex trafficking, see Preble, 2016.) While data regarding sexually inappropriate interactions on campuses is being collected, these data fall short in explicitly investigating trafficking-related exploitation, which limits our ability to provide Title IX administrators with recommendations for evidence-based policies, practices, and interventions to address the issue on campuses.</p> <p>Dunkle et al. (2007) explored transactional sex, or "survival sex," within the context of higher education. Transactional sex describes what occurs when in order to meet basic needs persons have sex in situations in which they might otherwise refrain from doing (Dunkle et al., 2007). However, some individuals may also use transactional sex to help advance their education, gain employment or access business opportunities, or achieve a higher status (Dunkle et al., 2007). A recently noted issue on college campuses is the acquisition by some students of a "sugar mama" or "sugar daddy" (See, for example: https://<ulink href="http://www.seekingarrangement.com/browse/members/sugar-momma">www.seekingarrangement.com/browse/members/sugar-momma</ulink>) for whom the student agrees to behave as a significant other in exchange for payment of college tuition and other expenses for the duration of the relationship. The issue with transactional sex and the power dynamics of providing basic survival elements (i.e., shelter, safety) for sex is that this transactional relationship can transition into sex trafficking if the abuser usurps the victim's agency to live independently from him or her (Fedina, Holmes, & Backes, 2016).</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-10">Dating Violence</hd> <p>As cited previously, over half of the college students on U.S. campuses have experienced dating violence while enrolled at an institution of higher education (Liz Claiborne Inc., 2011), and about 10% of American youth who have ever experienced dating violence, whether at college or not, also experience exploitation at the hands of their abusers (Rothman et al., 2015). Exploring literature about general dating violence reveals that some sexually exploited persons are lured into the commercial sex industry by individuals who dupe them with false romantic promises (Rothman et al., 2015). Hence, dating violence can play a role in the initiation of women into sex work more broadly, and even sex trafficking (Rothman et al., 2015) where the power and control used by traffickers can be similar to that of batterers (Bullard, 2012).</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-11">Financial Vulnerability</hd> <p>With the rising costs of post-secondary education, it is understandable that students are taking on ever-increasing debt. Some students are also exposed to predatory educational systems that may be fraudulently encouraging students to take on more debt than they are able pay off upon graduation with promises of high employment placements (Carey, 2017). While these institutions were heavily scrutinized under the Obama administration, the scrutiny has substantially eased under Education Secretary Betsy DeVos' command within the Trump Administration (Ivory, Green, & Eder, 2018). Studies have also shown that some students turn to alternative ways to ease the financial burden of higher education; for example, the sex industry (Sagar, Jones, Symons, Tyrie, & Roberts, 2016). A recent study with 197 erotic dancers indicated that one-third of the respondents were college students whose primary motivation for engaging in sex work was the high cost of post-secondary education (Sanders & Hardy, 2014). More broadly, strip club managers are known to hire young women initially to serve drinks and then to pressure them into dancing and eventually into prostitution to make more money for themselves and the club (Preble, 2015; Raymond, Hughes, & Gomez, 2001).</p> <p>In addition to aiding entry to sex trades, financial vulnerability also affects student employees at institutions of higher education. For example, graduate research assistants and teaching assistants are also vulnerable to power disparity and gender discrimination. There is a small body of literature investigating the sexual harassment and exploitation that students (Cammaert, 1985; Cantalupo & Kidder, 2018; Cantor et al., 2015b) face within institutions of higher education. Dorje (2017) detailed how her work as a doctoral student was intermittently sprinkled with promises of publications, conference presentations, and other favors while she was being sexually propositioned by her advisor. According to her, rejecting these sexual advances cost her opportunities for publications, grants, and jobs.</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-12">The Survivors</hd> <p>As stated earlier, we do not know much about general issues relating to sex trafficking and higher education; and we know even less about issues relating to survivors and their potential for involvement with higher education. In spite of the lack of attention given to trafficking survivors who pursue post-secondary education, there are several high-profile trafficking survivor advocates who demonstrate the possibility of success in their pursuit of higher education. Theresa Flores, survivor, author, and founder of Save Our Adolescents from Prostitution (S.O.A.P.), earned a Master's in Counseling and a Master's in Social Work after her trafficking experience (Flores, 2017). Shamere McKenzie, survivor-advocate and CEO of the SunGate Foundation, which provides educational opportunities for survivors of trafficking, is enrolled in law school (McKenzie, 2017). Evelyn Chumbow, survivor-advocate speaker for the Break the Chains Campaign, has pursued a degree in Homeland Security from the University of Maryland; her graduation status is unknown (Chumbow, 2017).</p> <p>When Sapiro et al. (2016) examined the needs of U.S. sex trafficked minors, they concluded that, as higher education should comprehensively consider the needs of all potential students, so, too, should survivors of sex trafficking be included. They wrote, "In addition to providing support with housing, legal issues, and physical and psychological health, youth leaving a domestic minor sex trafficking situation need assistance with pursing education goals, gaining life skills, and job skills" (p. 101). In other words, part of any comprehensive human trafficking after-care approach should include guidance and assistance with post-secondary education in order to assist survivors to thrive beyond their past trauma. In fact, some after-care services do provide educational coaching (e.g., Preble, 2015); however, reflective of recognition of the intrinsic social responsibility of higher education, institutions ought to be engaged with social service programs in order to be able to provide support for victims and survivors both known or unknown.</p> <p>Indeed, sex trafficking aside, there are many students who enroll in institutions of higher education with histories of complex traumas, including adverse childhood experiences (Dube & McGiboney, 2018; Morton, 2018), military conflict (Gregg, Shordike, Howell, Kitzman, & Iwama, 2017), intimate partner violence (Voth Schrag & Edmond, 2017), and human rights abuses (Maringe, Ojo, & Chiramba, 2017). Dube and McGiboney (2018) argued that the entire educational system ought to adopt trauma-informed practices so as to be sensitive to the traumas students may have. This, however, would "require expanded education on realizing that trauma is widespread, recognizing that 'problem' behaviors are symptoms, and resisting re-traumatization by providing students with a responsive learning environment characterized as safe, supportive, and understanding, be it pre-school or college" (Dube & McGiboney, 2018, p. 3).</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-13">Recommendations</hd> <p>As we invite and encourage discussion of the issues relating to sex trafficking and higher education, we also offer some recommendations for consideration. First and foremost, we must act in accord with legal requirements. The Title IX coordinator at an institution of higher education must coordinate the institution's efforts to accept and appropriately respond to all complaints of sex discrimination and should work with the institution to prevent sexual and gender-based harassment (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). Part of this responsibility is to ensure that the definition of sex trafficking, as a form of gender-based violence (Sen & Baba, 2017), is clearly written into the institutional Title IX protocol and with clear examples of sex trafficking scenarios. Sex trafficking could potentially be grouped under sexual exploitation and non-consensual sex or misconduct as an example of what could be considered as a violation of campus anti-discrimination policies. Additionally, the Title IX coordinator should recommend future proactive steps that the institution could take to comply with Title IX and protect students and employees (U.S. Department of Education, 2015); such recommendations could center on establishing or expanding community outreach and response coordination efforts. Many Title IX coordinators sit on at-risk committees and violence prevention task forces, which could provide immediate response to individuals victimized by sex trafficking and access to campus and community resources. These groups allow coordinators the ability to create and respond to the needs of survivors, not only from a compliance standpoint in accord with policies, but also through a multi-faceted student retention approach because such groups generally have wide representation from student affairs offices (e.g., retention specialists, financial aid representatives, counseling and mental health practitioners) and academic officers.</p> <p>Written into the Title IX guidelines are steps the Title IX coordinator should take to help prevent sexual discrimination (including exploitation), which include professional development activities and programs (e.g., <emph>Green Dot</emph> [Alteristic, 2018]; <emph>Student Success: Not Anymore</emph> [Vector Solutions, 2018]) related to inclusivity and anti-discrimination goals about what conduct constitutes a violation and how to respond appropriately when it occurs (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). These programs ought to include sex trafficking education by explaining what bystanders should look for and how to respond.</p> <p>Coordinators could also help institutions develop items for campus climate surveys that evaluate whether any discriminatory attitudes pervade the school culture. These surveys help determine whether any problematic behaviors are occurring; where they are happening; which students, faculty, or staff are responsible; which are targeted; and ways in which threatening and adverse conditions may be remedied (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). Coordinators could choose to include survey items regarding trafficking survivors and students currently being trafficked, which would increase our knowledge about these issues within higher education, identify potential trafficking threats specific to campus environments, and aid the conversation about safety from the threat of sex trafficking. Below we offer several specific recommendations for the consideration of interested persons, groups, and institutions.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> The definition of sex trafficking should be clearly outlined and consistent with current gender-based violence and gender discrimination law. This definition should also be included in the collective rules and regulations of the institution's office handling Title IX complaints. Clear illustration of a trafficking situation should be provided along with the definition.</item> <p></p> <item> Title IX administrators need to be up to date on best practices to identify and respond to victims and complaints on campus with explicitly clear instructions about response policies and protocols (i.e., protocol for handling victims versus handling perpetrators; if sexual trafficking is involved, when to use the protocol of the University Sexual Assault Response Teams).</item> <p></p> <item> Institutions of higher education should encourage, guide, and recognize the importance of research in developing evidence-based practices.</item> <p></p> <item> Per guidance in the <emph>Dear colleague letter</emph> (Ali, 2011), institutions should provide training on sex trafficking for students, faculty, and staff in their regular Title IX training as already required by many schools. This training should include information about what trafficking is, how to identify trafficking, to whom incidents of trafficking should be reported, and bystander intervention techniques.</item> <p></p> <item> Colleges and universities should be well connected to state and local resources that respond to trafficking and other parallel violence such as sexual assault and intimate partner violence. Ideally, institutional representatives would participate in regular stakeholder meetings with such area resources in order to ensure seamless and congruent response for victims and accountability for perpetrators.</item> <p></p> <item> Institutional protocols, plans, and policies should detail how to respond to trafficking related situations. This information should include an explanation of the support available for victims and survivors.</item> <p></p> <item> Institutions should create policies regarding off-campus educational opportunities (e.g., study abroad, internships) in which information about incidents of physical, sexual, and gender-based violence is made available to students. Additionally, institutions should "guide the formation of contractual agreements with program providers by assessing the formal legal structures put in place by host countries for the prevention, protection against, and prosecution of human trafficking" (Parker, 2017, p. 10).</item> <p></p> <item> Institutions should work closely with their campus office of institutional research to include questions about sex trafficking in general campus climate surveys, association accreditation surveys, and surveys specifically focused on campus sexual violence. Questions must be clearly defined in order to not confuse commercial sex work with sex trafficking. Lastly, these surveys should ask whether or not individuals are currently involved in trafficking, were previously involved before attending college, or were previously involved in sex trafficking while attending college.</item> <p></p> <item> Though the focus of this article is sex trafficking, we would also encourage institutions to consider the issue of labor trafficking. Labor trafficking involves the exploitation of a person for non-sexual labor services (e.g., day labor; commercial and residential cleaning services; health and beauty services; farming), and it can include experiences with sexual exploitation (Brennan, 2008). Evidence suggests that labor trafficking survivors experience as much coercion, violence, and trauma as sex trafficking survivors and that they are often assumed to exist in fewer numbers and have fewer needs (Brennan, 2014; Owens et al., 2014). Though scant scholarship exists examining the intersection of labor trafficking and institutions of higher education, there are anecdotes suggesting that such an intersection does, in fact, exist, which at a minimum suggests a lack of adherence to employee and student codes of conduct (see Swarens, 2018).</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0134611511-14">Conclusion</hd> <p>Sex trafficking is a heinous human rights violation experienced by far too many persons. Though the number of sex trafficking victims or survivors within higher education is unknown, an intersection between higher education and sex trafficking exists. Fear (2015) and Fitzgerald et al. (2016) suggested that institutions of higher education have a responsibility to their host communities to advance the economic, health, and social wellbeing of students as well as residents. In this article we have raised the issues relating to how these responsibilities might shape appropriate responses and preparedness of colleges and universities regarding sex trafficking, and we concluded with several recommendations for such response. Though conversations around sexual coercion and exploitation within the context of higher education have begun, more research is needed. At a minimum, schools need to have estimates regarding the frequency by which schools and trafficking are intersecting, to understand how best to educate students and employees on how to identify and respond to the suspicion of trafficking, and to ensure that support programming such as mental health services and violence prevention programming are appropriately addressing the needs of victims and survivors enrolled in higher education programs.</p> <hd id="AN0134611511-15">References</hd> <ref id="AN0134611511-16"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Ali, R. (2011)., Dear colleague letter. Washington, DC: Office of Civil Rights, U.S. department of Education. Retrieved from, https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-201104.pdf</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Alteristic (2018)., Green Dot. 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Retrieved from, <ulink href="http://www.xula.edu/counseling/Resources1/trafficking.html">http://www.xula.edu/counseling/Resources1/trafficking.html</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zimmerman C, Hossain M, Yun K, Gajdadziev V, Guzun N, Tchomarova M, Motus MN, The health of trafficked women: A survey of women entering posttrafficking services in Europe, American Journal of Public Health, 2008, 98, 55, 59, 10.2105/AJPH.2006.108357</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zimmerman C, Hossain M, Watts C, Human trafficking and health: A conceptual model to inform policy, intervention and research, Social Science & Medicine, 2011, 73, 327, 335, 10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.05.028</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Kathleen M. Preble; Mackenzie A. Cook and Brittani Fults</p> <p></p> <p>Kathleen M. Preblereceived her M.S.W. and Ph.D. from the School of Social Work at the University of Texas at Arlington. Currently, she is Assistant Professor in the School of Social Work at the University of Missouri Columbia, where she focuses her area of inquiry on issues related to human trafficking and gender based violence. Email: preblek@missouri.edu</p> <p>Mackenzie A. Cookreceived her M.S.W. from the Brown School of Social Work at Washington University and is currently a doctoral student in the School of Social Work at the University of Missouri Columbia. She focuses her area of inquiry on issues related to sexual health, behaviors, and education across the lifespan.</p> <p>Brittani Fultsreceived her Master's in Education from the University of Missouri Columbia where she currently serves as the Education and Prevention Coordinator in the Office for Civil Rights and Title IX at the University of Missouri Columbia.</p> </aug>
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  Data: Sex Trafficking and the Role of Institutions of Higher Education: Recommendations for Response and Preparedness
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Innovative+Higher+Education%22"><i>Innovative Higher Education</i></searchLink>. Feb 2019 44(1):5-19.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-348-4505; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sexuality%22">Sexuality</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Victims%22">Victims</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sexual+Abuse%22">Sexual Abuse</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Civil+Rights%22">Civil Rights</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Prevention%22">Prevention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Employees%22">Employees</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Crime%22">Crime</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Policy+Formation%22">Policy Formation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Attainment%22">Educational Attainment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Role%22">College Role</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1007/s10755-018-9443-1
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  Data: 0742-5627
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  Data: In the perceptions of most persons, sex trafficking is a recognized global human rights abuse. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has articulated a call to action with its four "P" policy agenda: prevent, protect, prosecute, and partnership (Office of Trafficking in Persons, 2017). Institutions of higher education are positioned to bolster these initiatives through research, work force and policy development, and education. It is our purpose with this article to begin a discussion within academic institutions and the field of sex trafficking to explore what actions might assist survivors who wish to pursue higher education as well as what protections should be in place to serve students who may become victimized while attending an institution of higher education. We consider human trafficking, the role of institutions of higher education, current policies related to colleges and universities, the vulnerability of college age individuals to potential trafficking, and the unique needs of those who exit trafficking and enter higher education. We offer some recommendations that will enable institutions to engage with and address the intersection of sex trafficking and higher education.
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