Historiography of School Architecture in the State of São Paulo: The Nineteenth Century amidst History and Architecture
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| Title: | Historiography of School Architecture in the State of São Paulo: The Nineteenth Century amidst History and Architecture |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Abboud Pompeo de Camargo, Munir |
| Source: | Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education. 2019 55(1):70-87. |
| Availability: | Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 18 |
| Publication Date: | 2019 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Evaluative |
| Descriptors: | Historiography, School Buildings, Architecture, Educational History, Building Conversion, Foreign Countries, Comparative Analysis, Social Status, Social Differences, Illiteracy, Literacy Education, Educational Facilities, Rural Areas, Foreign Policy, Social Class |
| Geographic Terms: | Brazil |
| DOI: | 10.1080/00309230.2018.1546329 |
| ISSN: | 0030-9230 |
| Abstract: | The present article aims to analyse academic production about the history of school architecture in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, concerning the development of research trajectories and dialogue between the areas of architecture and education, sources, analysis methodology and periodisation. The latter was based on research developed in Architecture and led to the depreciation of school architecture in the nineteenth century, especially the imperial period, through the assumed absence of specialised education facilities -- a claim echoed by education historiography. However, education studies show us the importance of schools built between 1870 and 1889. The research concerning schools built in Campinas, a countryside city, will be specially featured; it showcases a common context between the builders inserted in the local society in the nineteenth century, who took part in the founding of schools and their public. The comparison of architectural approaches aimed at students of different social strata is central. They are part of national projects of emancipation, eradication of illiteracy and cultural development. Methodologies such as the ones developed by Escolano, Viñao Frago, and Bencostta are discussed as perspectives for the analysis of school facilities, considering that these buildings feature meaningful traits connected with their goals, public and idealiser's purposes. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Entry Date: | 2019 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1207865 |
| Database: | ERIC |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwElS3U3Wk_Tb_0kfK_bgq5jAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDANspOYlBh6mtCF6jwIBEICBm6vCJb8Vg4dNqt5sT-jsaoohm_EeGngq5tmEcSGCEp7a25o714ssmq1n_-s0XzTjHpqKGBZKqy4GTqPpAQ-CmiZzxcV78WCKWBDcjuArvrvyZH2N4W3I9ZjqLiLgfK602vW826CT2tCao1NmTi2JhccYEqJyho19wlEsKFQLRieAszeMYHRuaD16oOTKK-YfbhfztNQEichqVOE8 Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0135147539;j5401feb.19;2019Mar09.14:14;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0135147539-1">Historiography of school architecture in the state of São Paulo: the nineteenth century amidst history and architecture </title> <p>The present article aims to analyse academic production about the history of school architecture in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, concerning the development of research trajectories and dialogue between the areas of architecture and education, sources, analysis methodology and periodisation. The latter was based on research developed in Architecture and led to the depreciation of school architecture in the nineteenth century, especially the imperial period, through the assumed absence of specialised education facilities - a claim echoed by education historiography. However, education studies show us the importance of schools built between 1870 and 1889. The research concerning schools built in Campinas, a countryside city, will be specially featured; it showcases a common context between the builders inserted in the local society in the nineteenth century, who took part in the founding of schools and their public. The comparison of architectural approaches aimed at students of different social strata is central. They are part of national projects of emancipation, eradication of illiteracy and cultural development. Methodologies such as the ones developed by Escolano, Viñao Frago, and Bencostta are discussed as perspectives for the analysis of school facilities, considering that these buildings feature meaningful traits connected with their goals, public and idealiser's purposes.</p> <p>Keywords: Historiography; school architecture; Brazilian state of São Paulo; nineteenth century; imperial period of Brazil</p> <p>Academic production about the history of school architecture in the state of São Paulo is not something new. It was first discussed in the 1970s by architect Vilanova Artigas who then developed studies concerning facilities and spatial solutions within the range of school buildings in the state of São Paulo and presented the idea that, regarding school architecture, what can be seen is mainly the celebration of successful architectural initiatives and the possible choices for these ideas.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] Inside this perspective, Artigas understands school architecture in the state as divided in five periods. The same periodisation is also used in the 1980s by architect Hugo Segawa, who regards Artigas as a pioneer in the study of school architecture in the state of São Paulo.[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>]</p> <p>1 João Batista Vilanova Artigas, "Sobre Escolas," <emph>Revista Acrópole</emph> 377 (September 1970): 10-12.</p> <p>2 Hugo Segawa, "Arquiteturas escolares," <emph>Projeto</emph> 87 (May 1986): 64-65.</p> <p>The first period comprehends the time between 1890 and the 1920s, i.e. the first years of the Republic. To introduce the discussion on the period's school architecture, Artigas[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] reviews the nineteenth-century architecture, considered by him markedly a subversion of Brazilian architecture. Using Gilberto Freyre to justify his argumentation, he asserts that around the year 1808, with the coming of the royal family to Brazil, King John VI made mandatory the use of glass windows due to the industrial revolution, leading to the importing of British glass. The author concludes that a legitimate national architecture was then being gradually abandoned to be replaced by an adaptation to "new European production means".[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>]</p> <ulist> <item>3 Artigas, "Sobre Escolas," 10.</item> <item>4 Hugo Segawa, "Arquiteturas escolares," 65.</item> </ulist> <p>Working from the idea of a corrupted architecture, the architect affirms that the proposed periodisation represents the development of School Groups originated soon after the Proclamation of the Republic, said to be the holders of the first public school architecture - one considered archaic for the lack of structural impositions or national identity[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>] unlike the one Artigas' generation valued.</p> <p>5 Concerning the creation of a national identity though architecture see Silvana Runino, <emph>As Fachadas da História: os Antecedentes, a Criação e os Trabalhos do Serviço do Patrimônio Historico e Artistico Nacional, 1937-1968</emph> (Campinas: Unicamp, 1992); also Silvana Rubino, "Lúcio Costa e o Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional," <emph>Resvista USP</emph> 53 (March-May 2002): 6-17.</p> <p>Strictly symmetric, some have said, with a defined form and uncut, such architecture expressed the clarity of purpose. It was doubtlessly an archaic construction technique:</p> <p>How long did it take to bring latrines into the plans [...] The structures had little to do with the overlays that coated them. They consisted of a tectonic solution pure in their crudeness destined to harbour humble briefs which depicted the spread of prevailing conceptions over education; structures to feature any content considered by the encyclopaedic schooling to be an artistic manifestation. Designs that were justified by themselves - neither imposed by the tectonic structure nor the search of a form for the Brazilian universe. Regarding the brief, everything was about teaching; there were no quarters for administration. The school ignored any social amplification of its social meaning beyond teaching the first letters and the multiplication table. Only much later would those briefs become richer in content.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>]</p> <p>6 Artigas discusses the architecture of the nineteenth century and, consequently, the school architecture between the nineteenth and early twentieth century period, a matter discussed here soon after. It is worth reminding that Segawa has a dissident view on this matter, as he values points criticised by Artigas in "Sobre Escolas," 11.</p> <p></p> <p>The second period comprehends the 1930s, especially during the service of Armando de Sales Oliveira (1934-1937).[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>] It was a time when cooperation deals were set between the Board of Education [Diretoria de Ensino] and Board of Public Works [Diretoria de Obras Públicas], and featured prominently the advent of the Progressive Education movement.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>] Also, it is said that this time has seen the rise of Modernist architecture, a concept introduced within the following context:</p> <p>In that time, a team formed by teachers/pedagogues, physicians, engineers and architects tried to establish parameters for school facility projects. They assessed the conditions of the buildings which were then being used - the ones specifically built for school activities or otherwise -, the operation shifts of the buildings, their capacity, dimension and utilisation of classrooms, dimension and utilisation of windows, types of flooring and coating in general, the colour of the walls, annex chambers (auditorium/gymnasium, library, cafeteria, changing room), sun exposure and architectural "style". Concerning this topic, the commission had the following evaluation: 'the opinion was fairly favourable to the modern architecture: sober modernism, discreetly ornamental, closer to the French balance than the disconcerting boldness of the Mexican compositions. João Maria das Neves, young architect from the state of São Paulo, whose flexible intelligence and aesthetic sense [...] could faithfully apprehend and project artfully the mainstream thinking, was worried with the idealisation of simple, cheerful and cheap school buildings but invariably subordinated, in their structural arrange, to education and hygiene'. Silva Neves spoke up: 'The making of modern architecture does not resume the imitation of the last Moscow or Paris ambiances. Rational architecture requires the employment of local materials, seeing to local climate conditions, uses, customs etc. Obeying such basic principles we would create an original style for each people. We shall not be afraid of architectural monotony'. It was the modernism which drew inspiration in art deco that flourished in Brazil in the 1930s.[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>]</p> <p>9 See note 3 above.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item>7 Federal Intervener for the state of São Paulo (1933-1935) and São Paulo state Governor (1935-1936).</item> <item>8 The Progressive Education movement in Brazil is named <emph>Nova Escola -</emph> "New School".</item> </ulist> <p>The third period (1949-1954) sees the creation of the School Pact Executive Committee [Comissão Executiva do Convênio Escolar], formed by the municipal power of the state and the state government itself in collaboration. The architecture of this time is inspired in Rio de Janeiro's modern architecture and the idea of integration between school and community, according to the authors. The period is also defined for the consolidation of educator Anísio Teixeira's ideas in schools.</p> <p>The fourth period (1959 −1975) comprehends Carvalho Pinto's term[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>] and the creation of State Fund for Schools Construction [Fundo Estadual de Construções Escolares] (FECE) - a public part that worked alongside the São Paulo State Social Security Institute [Instituto de Previdênciado Estado de São Paulo] (IPESP) - because the latter had been managing the construction of schools since 1957. This time is characterised by the utilisation of new materials and building techniques, such as the use of ready-made products and pre-stressed structures.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>]</p> <ulist> <item>10 Carvalho Pinto was São Paulo state Governor (1959-1963).</item> <item>11 Since Vilanovas wrote in 1970, the continuation of the periodisation is Segawa's elaboration.</item> </ulist> <p>The period from 1975 on is marked by the end of FECE and the creation of the Education Development Fund [Fundo de Desenvolvimento da Educação] and the São Paulo Company of School Construction [Companhia de Construções Escolares de São Paulo] (Conesp), and is analysed by Hugo Segawa.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref12">12</reflink>]</p> <p>12 Segawa, "Arquiteturas Escolares".</p> <p>Both Vilanova Artigas and Hugo Segawa studied school architecture with very definite ends. The former, writing in the 1970s, justifies his enterprise in the fact that the year he wrote was declared by the United Nations as the International Year of Education, so he opens his text with the affirmation that illiteracy was on the rise in a world where more than half the population is not literate by saying</p> <p>This a problem of mankind centralized in the underdeveloped countries. It's acute in Brazil, it is known. However, as professor Schemberg said [...] 'the major historical decisions are not made in the places where the greatest forces are, but in the places where the greatest problems are'. Thus, the initiative regarding education and the architecture of schools must be handed to the underdeveloped countries.</p> <p></p> <p>There is much to be proposed and more to be done. But history shows we have been looking hard for our course.</p> <p>In this search for courses and ways, in each step of the fight for national education schools are built whose architecture are maybe an even better reflection than any other category of buildings of the most exciting transitions in our artistic culture; the technical resources which we had available; the cultural ideas and mainstream aesthetics; all conditioned to a national project of development. With the knowledge of these transitions, Brazilian architecture cannot only correctly value the success of the nodal points of its history, but also pick new ways.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>]</p> <p>13 See note 3 above.</p> <p>Artigas is the proponent of a movement which hands the responsibility to countries designated by him as underdeveloped and presents the need for looking to the past to create alternatives for the future. It concerns the struggle for the democratisation of the country through education, a process which demanded the creation of a national identity and involved school architecture. Therefore, when debating political emancipation and citizenship models, the creation of specialised school facilities followed what Artigas considered genuine Brazilian designs. These gain importance as the buildings themselves came to be seen as a fundamental part of schooling itself, and the creation of national identity within the educational context, expressed also in the aesthetical and organisational disposition of the school building, which transmitted cultural ideals.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>]</p> <p>14 See note 3 above.</p> <p>Nonetheless, as he elects his periodisation he bolsters - especially in the analysis of the first period (between 1890 and the 1920s) - the memory of vanguard architecture. This is debated in research by anthropologist Silvana Rubino, who develops her thesis mainly from the initial studies by the Service of National Historic and Artistic Heritage [Serviço do Patrimônio Historico e Artístico Nacional] (Sphan), describing how a group of intellectuals took over the organisation, which dictates what ought to be erased from memory or remembered. Such a process can be apprehended by reviewing the persona and agency of Lúcio Costa in the governmental panel.</p> <p>Lúcio [Costa] defended a cause bent towards two aspects: the "holy war", the crusade for modern architecture and the defence of the country's traditional architectural heritage. The common enemies to both causes were the same: the current eclecticism in both the late nineteenth-century architecture and the First Republic and the neo-colonial movement. Of all names brought up by us, maybe Lúcio Costa was the only one to collaborate in three treasury panels of the national past (which have inbuilt proceedings of historical erasure): an intellectual architect but also a stable official, he chose what to salvage, how to take care of heritage works and how to explain and locate such buildings, just as the ones undeserving of such status.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>]</p> <p>15 Rubino, "Lúcio Costa e o Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional," 9.</p> <p></p> <p>Thus, the creation of a national identity and a legitimate Brazilian view was attempted, besides a country project involving necessarily the denial of almost everything developed immediately before the group's intervention.</p> <p>Artigas had the opinion that the nineteenth-century architecture was something imported mainly from Europe, an imitation without national identity. This view came from a complex memory creation process, in which truly national architecture was considered everything made before the eighteenth century.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref16">16</reflink>] As a consequence, buildings constructed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were seen as unimportant for the history of architecture and cultural heritage salvaging procedures.</p> <p>Many authors have already observed that the historic period for the chosen salvaged buildings elected by Sphan is between the 16<sups>th</sups> and 18<sups>th</sups> Centuries, as opposed to the period between the 19<sups>th</sups> Century and the end of the First Republic, the period immediately precedent to the creation of Sphan, which was to be, at most, tolerated when a work of exceptional quality was concerned. It is common place both in Mario and Lúcio's writings the mention of a good or a notable element <emph>despite</emph> being from the 19<sups>th</sups> Century.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>]</p> <p>17 Rubino, "Lúcio Costa e o Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional," 14.</p> <p></p> <p>16 See note 3 above.</p> <p>It is not surprising that Artigas,[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref18">18</reflink>] presenting his periodisation, judges schools from the first period as rude, simplified and almost without purpose, getting to the point of considering buildings to have little relevance to the very history of school architecture and turning a blind eye to schools built in the imperial period, which had basically the same architecture than those built by school groups of the early Republic and built by those who, during the new regime of 1889, would take part in the construction of public school buildings in the state of São Paulo.</p> <p>18 See note 3 above.</p> <p>The school architecture in the beginning of the Republican Period, criticised by Artigas, was conceived within a debate about the constitution of a national public school system which could live up to republican demands, citizenship and schooling being very important ones. The process of teaching literacy was one of the bases for the new regime. As it was birthed, school architecture had an educational purpose: the construction of huge and monumental schools in the central regions of the cities, often beside other public power facilities, such as the city hall, administrative buildings, and forums, was a sign of the importance of education for the new system.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref19">19</reflink>] It was truly an emancipation plan from a political perspective, which aimed to replace the imperial regime and, in the process, enhance the city for the consolidation of the newly implemented Republic.[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>]</p> <ulist> <item>19 About the constitution of the new republican political plan, education, and school buildings, see Rosa Fátima Souza, <emph>Templos de Civilização: a implantação da escola primária graduada no Estado de São Paulo: (1890-1910)</emph> (São Paulo: Unesp, 1998).</item> <item>20 Concerning the idea of citizenship in Brazil, see José Murilo de Carvalho, <emph>Cidadania no Brasil: o longo caminho</emph> (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2002).</item> </ulist> <p>However, these plans show us that the definition of this new country was also pervaded by the question of what could be considered a heritage, since it is part of official discourses and their justification. To deny the importance of what had been built during the imperial regime and the reminiscent early republican buildings was, thus, the enforcement of new projects already discussed, which contributed for the justification of a new vanguard architectural style as a symbol of emancipation from the old regime.</p> <p>Hugo Segawa - inspired by Artigas - wrote in the year of 1986 to the architecture magazine <emph>Projeto</emph> 87<sups>th</sups> issue, which aimed to discuss questions related to the lack of classrooms in the country and also raise the debate over projects of school buildings, public policies of school construction and construction techniques. Segawa's article is introduced as a way of reviewing the history of school buildings in the country, demonstrating that which had been developed up to that time, and also presenting the timeline for the sequential article.</p> <p>The following article is about some results of heritage salvaging studies made by members of the São Paulo State Historical, Artistic, Archaeological and Touristic Heritage Defence Council [Conselho de Defesa do Patrimônio Histórico, Artístico, Arqueológico e Turístico do Estado de São Paulo], which ranged from 1894 (the building of <emph>Escola Caetano de Campos</emph>) to 1920, and makes the case that, within this timeframe, many school groups were installed as well as the pioneering effort on the construction of buildings specifically for educational purposes, a period denied by architect groups.</p> <p>Interest in the school heritage of São Paulo began in the 1970s - a time in which the demolition of <emph>Escola Caetano de Campos</emph>, a school located in the municipality of São Paulo, was intended. The building was not destroyed due to former students' mobilisation for its preservation. However, it was not salvaged for architectural, technical, or style reasons, but because of the relationship between the population and its space, memory, and location:</p> <p>What sets the effective beginning of a new attitude is, besides a revaluation of 19<sups>th</sups> Century architecture in the international panorama, a cause of popular nature in the city of São Paulo. In the 1970s, the struggle for the preservation of the traditional 'Caetano de Campos' educational institution undertook by its former students is the embryo of a conscience of the importance of public school buildings. The justifications for the continued existence of this building threatened with demolition were supported mainly by its priceless affective value for the population, since its eclectic architecture was disqualified. Its ornamental rhetoric differed from the deloused and contained aesthetics and exposition of the construction sites that characterised the architecture in São Paulo at that moment. To the sentimental value could be added, for the survival of the building, a certain unrest in letting the work of past generations be destroyed. And that atmosphere favoured its architecture and safeguarded it.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref21">21</reflink>]</p> <p>21 Silvia Ferreira Santos Wolff, <emph>Espaço e Educação: Os primeiros Passos da Arquitetura das Escolas Públicas Paulistas</emph> (São Paulo: USP, 1992), 22.</p> <p></p> <p>Starting from the dynamics around this demolition, the school heritage begins to be seen in a difference light, therefore Conesp was founded to assure more detailed work on state school buildings. In 1984, State Education and Culture panels set up a partnership to classify by similarities school buildings according to their plans and façades. The partnership was later interrupted; however, each institution continued researching the theme on its own.</p> <p>In 1987, the Foundation for Education Development [Fundação para o Desenvolvimento da Educação] (FDE) was created and became the institution responsible for public school buildings in the state, even including an office directed to buildings of historical and architectural value, thus developing restoration projects whose goals were to preserve buildings valuable to the history of education. Studies about the buildings and research made then, which resulted in the operation of the FDE's technical restoration team, were published in 1991 with the purpose of "treasuring and announcing the public heritage".[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref22">22</reflink>] The book consists of a study oriented to the area of heritage, especially architectural projects, focused on the school buildings constructed by public initiative comprehending the years between 1890 and 1920, so constructions with no direct ties to public power were not included.</p> <p>22 Maria Elvira Pizzigati Corrêa, <emph>Arquitetura Escolar Paulista: 1890-1920</emph> (São Paulo: FDE. Diretoria de Obras e Serviços, 1991), 2.</p> <p>The devised studies are featured in this publication, which includes basically the buildings constructed by school groups and regular schools up to 1920. It is also intended, through it, to publicise school architecture produced by professionals who worked with official state institutions during that time. Some very important buildings were left out of the publication, such as <emph>Culto à Ciência</emph> ('Cult of Science') from Campinas, <emph>Escolástica Rosa</emph> ('Pink Scholastics') from Santos and many others, for being private buildings, built by other entities or even with different ends and later adapted for schooling. Many of them belong today to the school network and deserve equal treatment as to their preservation. It is important to highlight that the focus of the work is the production of projects and not the undertaking of the works themselves, which usually took many years to be carried out.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>]</p> <p>23 Maria Elvira Pizzigati Corrêa, Helena Maria Vendramini Neves, and Mirela Geiger Mello, <emph>Arquitetura Escolar Paulista: 1890-1920</emph> (São Paulo: FDE. Diretoria de Obras e Serviços, 1991), 2.</p> <p>In the year following this publication, Silvia Ferreira Santos Wolff[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>] defended her master's degree dissertation from the University of São Paulo (USP), from which a book was published in 2010. Extracted from research made in 1984 by the State Education and Culture panels, and in 1987 by FDE, the study shows the use of pattern-projects for the construction of several buildings all over the countryside of the state, and made clear some connections between architecture and educational plans at the period. This was one argument against the dismissal of the importance of such heritage.</p> <p>24 Wolff, <emph>Espaço e Educação</emph>.</p> <p>Wolff aims to deepen the work done by public institutions. Using sources such as original plans, photographs, officials' reports, journals, decrees, and architecture treaties, her study comprehends a wider period between 1870 and 1930, to include what she believed to be the beginning of school construction. Then, a panorama is presented in which nineteenth-century school architecture is described and compared to national architecture, trying to demonstrate the existence of European architectural elements in the national schools. The imperial period is then analysed. Next, typical school buildings made specifically for education purposes and the school architecture of the twentieth century is introduced.</p> <p>Going in the same direction as the public power, Wolff avoids the study of private schools and justifies this by affirming that they were implemented in adapted locations and escaping the origins of an official school architecture. Now, to justify the dismissal of religious schools, she affirmed that they consisted of European projects for the country, and for this reason, studying them would not be useful to understand national solutions for architecture.</p> <p>The architectural style of private schools is not studied here and this can be justified. Like public schools, private schools were initially situated in adapted locations which previously served as dwellings. For this reason, they do not fit the scope of this study about the creation of an architectural style for official schools. Religious private schools came to have their own buildings, in meaningful number, slightly later than public schools. Sometimes, they reproduced their European continental orders' plan. This aspect too is off limits for this study, which aims to analyse architectural solutions developed locally.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref25">25</reflink>]</p> <p>25 Ibid., 18.</p> <p></p> <p>The developments so far presented are the basis to great part of the studies concerning school architecture in the state. Thus, of all studies here referenced within the architecture field, only two of them have a focus other than heritage.</p> <p>Developed as a master's degree dissertation at USP, the study by Mirela Geiger de Mello, motivated by her concentration area in architecture design, carries her interest in the understanding of technical aspects (materials, shapes, dimensions, ambiances) of architectural schooling projects.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref26">26</reflink>] Her eyes turned to FECE, shown in the dissertation as the first panel in the state to have as its only assignment the planning, design, construction, developing and maintenance of the public school system.[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref27">27</reflink>] Therefore, the study encompasses the description and comparison of 15 selected projects according to who executed them and the techniques employed. Moreover, Mello demonstrates other selection criteria:</p> <p>As of assessed buildings, the selection criterion of the researched universe sought to identify little publicised projects and those which had pre-established conditions for the whole of their production, a fact that makes evident the parameters laid down at that time. In all expressive periods of São Paulo school architecture, there are projects that stand out and are the object of many publications, studies, and analysis; however, they often enjoyed special conditions which differ from others, which had much stricter requirements in the built-up area, cost-oriented limitations, and so many other impositions resulting from mass production's inherent demands. Nonetheless, it is also common for a project to be advantaged with extraordinary parameters but not necessarily good. We intend to make our concern clear in sticking to projects which had the same requirements as so many others, but could, nevertheless, stand out and produce quality architecture.[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref28">28</reflink>]</p> <p>28 Ibid., 402.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item>26 Mirella Geiger de Mello, <emph>Arquitetura Escolar Pública Paulista<bold>:</bold> Fundo Estadual de Construções Escolares - FECE: 1966-1976</emph> (São Paulo: USP, 2012); A concentration area whose aim is "to study the architectural plan as an instrument to theoretical-practical reflection, with emphasis to the intermediary scale of buildings and their impact in the urban scale and in the category of objects". Mirella Geiger de Mello, "online article title", http://www.fau.usp.br/area-concentracao/projeto-de-arquitetura/</item> <item>27 Mello, <emph>Arquitetura Escolar Pública Paulista</emph>, 6.</item> </ulist> <p>To be able to promote a proper interpretation of the selection Mello chose documents such as education reports, state education plans, laws, and construction requirements, with an eye to the relationships between school constructions and policies of the time. Even though she brings materials other than projects to the spotlight of analysis and observes selections in their historical context, the periodisation proposed by Artigas[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref29">29</reflink>] is employed and so is his interest of analysis in the construction techniques.</p> <p>29 See note 3 above.</p> <p>Another study also developed at USP, this time a doctoral thesis by André Augusto de Almeida Alves,[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref30">30</reflink>] reviews school buildings constructed by IPESP using the projects of local architects hired by the private initiative and presenting a discussion about different ideas of Brazilian modernisation common in that time. Its area of concentration is fundaments of architecture history and urbanism, so the emphasis on historical processes and historiographical debates is evident in the author's script:</p> <p>Recurring affirmations in historiography related to the model character of the buildings designed by Vilanova Artigas - Gymnasiums in Itanhaém (1959) and Guarulhos (1960) - to the focused production and São Paulo state architecture in general, are revised in a methodological trajectory that includes the historiographical review of modern architecture in the state and in Brazil. This theory frame and theme problems are further developed from pioneer studies dedicated to the history of school architecture by Segawa and Wolff. A formal school architecture approach based in the election of "models" and "typological innovations" is left out in favour of looking into the scope of different projects of a modernised Brazil existent in the Brazilian political and cultural debate defined by the ideological clash of the Cold War.[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref31">31</reflink>]</p> <p>31 Ibid., 9.</p> <p></p> <p>30 André Augusto de Almeida Alves. <emph>Arquitetura Escolar Paulista 1959-1962: O PAGE, o IPESP e os Arquitetos Modernos Paulistas</emph> (São Paulo, Brazil: USP, 2008).</p> <p>Objects of study include, groups of architects and intellectuals who conceive school buildings of the period, the relationships and the political context of Jucelino Kubistschek's presidential term and Carvalho Pinto's governor term, and the conceptualisation of modernity and political polarisation in the world of architecture, especially concerning Artigas' ideals and the Progressive Education movement:</p> <p>A "liberal-democratic" project gains materiality; it finds notable formulation in Anísio Teixeira and the Progressive Education movement, and reveals itself qualified for the shelter of the pioneer school buildings projected by architects of different generations who gather around the furniture shop <emph>Branco &amp; Preto</emph>, beside Oswaldo Bratke and a series of young architects with whom they cooperate. On the other hand, there is the "revolutionary" project by Vilanova Artigas and several architects gently gathered around him. If compatible architectural formulations with Teixeira's Progressive Education movement and other educators are unknown beyond FECE's contribution - in the case of São Paulo - in IPESP's production the same occurs with relative propositions related to an accidental "revolutionary" pedagogy, in the case of the well-known Artigas' schools. Such polarisations are certainly not identifiable, as their own existence is pertinently questioned in São Paulo at that moment. Anyway, it is extremely thought-provoking the fact that, out of Artigas architectural reflections directed to an architectural style alternative to both the modern and the "imperialist" ones and also to the socialist "wedding cake" realism - the latter effectively present in images reproduced in Paschoal Lemme's book, as in the university of Moscow - his Gymnasium in Itanhaém really incites education based in social practises, civil education and citizenship, discipline built out of conviviality rather than imposition, the collective construction of knowledge, the absence of personality development markers and even of evaluation instruments.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref32">32</reflink>]</p> <p>32 Ibid., 336.</p> <p></p> <p>Although Alves revised works on school architecture history and analysed the studies of Artigas and Segawa to put the production into context and shed light on the interests of architect groups breaking with a tradition present in the architecture field of school architecture analysis by heritage, there is in his work no criticism of the periodisation employed by them. It is clear that all approaches present within the cited field employ the time division proposed by Vilanova Artigas. Only Wolff[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref33">33</reflink>] escapes this periodisation as she comprehends in her analysis the end of the nineteenth century. Such move is made, however, as a way to demonstrate the importance of preserving an architectural style. Furthermore, Wolff still considers the turn of the imperial period to the Republic (1889) as a fundamental milestone and established the end point, taking after Artigas.</p> <p>33 Wolff. <emph>Espaço e Educação.</emph></p> <p>The discussion concerning sources is of fundamental importance. History does not exist without questioning. The study field is built through questions made in the present moment:</p> <p>Even the clearest and most complacent document does not speak unless you know how to interrogate it. It is the question we make that shapes the analysis and, ultimately, increases or decreases the importance of a text drawn from a distant time.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref34">34</reflink>]</p> <p>34 Marc Leopold Benjamin Bloch, <emph>Apology of History, or The Historian's Craft</emph> (Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 2001), 8.</p> <p></p> <p>Thus, the objects under question in a given time and space have unlimited potential for the construction of history. Two moments must be aligned: the election of the documental corpus and the questioning; the later cannot be unrelated to the possibilities of the sources, as Prost illustrates:</p> <p>With the question is the historical object built, by operating an original selection in the unlimited universe of facts and possible documents. From the epistemological point of view, the question plays a fundamental role in the epistemological sense of the word: effectively, it counts as the foundation and constitutes the historical object.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref35">35</reflink>]</p> <p>35 Antoine Prost, <emph>Twelve Lessons on History</emph>, 2nd ed. (Belo Horizonte: Autêntica, 2012), 75.</p> <p></p> <p>Furthermore, such operation is necessarily connected to each study area, since the rules of research shaping in different fields change accordingly to their specific and individual questions, debates, methods, and historical and social constitution.[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref36">36</reflink>]</p> <p>36 Michel de Certeau, "The Historiographical Operation," in <emph>A escrita da história 3</emph> (Rio de Janeiro: GEN/Forense-Universitária, 1982), 66.</p> <p>Sources used in the whole area of architecture research about school architecture history are widely varied. Different studies may focus on Architectural Plans, both drawn by researchers from the buildings themselves and the original ones; photographs and drawings, either material produced in the contemporary time of the building's operation or later; laws and decrees; public construction reports; salvage registration documents for heritage buildings; professors' and education overseers' reports and journals. Three types of research within the mentioned area were found and a description of the handling of the sources is set out according to the category of study.</p> <p>The first group encompasses questions pertaining to heritage, which demands the contextualisation of the building in terms of its creation period, mainly through study of its plans and surroundings - getting to the point of using salvage process papers that may inform about the area surrounding the heritage building - putting together the building and laws of its time and ongoing construction reports. Most studies only comprehend the twentieth century, so difficulties in finding plans and original photographs are minimised. In the case of studies partly or entirely dated in the nineteenth century, journals and professors' reports are brought up to reconstitute the described buildings, especially their physical condition; this happens due to the lack of architectural plans and photographs. In the case of studies on movable goods and school archives, the justification comes as inventories of items. Another point that stands out is the study of schools that were demolished or destroyed - with the exception of the Model School <emph>Luz</emph>, built in 1893 by Ramos de Azevedo and ravaged during a fire in 1932, as illustrated by Corrêa, Mello, and Neves:</p> <p>In 1932, the building was destroyed by a fire. In the following years studies were made about rebuilding of school, which actually did not happen. Only about 1950 a new school was built in the location by the City Hall and given to state management.[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref37">37</reflink>]</p> <p>37 Corrêa et al., <emph>Arquitetura Escolar Paulista: 1890-1920</emph>, 3.</p> <p></p> <p>All other schools studied still existed; some became public but were originally private. So, the gathering of sources is done mainly through the demonstration of the building's historical and architectural importance and/or its movable goods and archives, which gives more legitimacy to the heritage.</p> <p>Other studies go through the architectural project; Mirela Geiger de Mello,[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref38">38</reflink>] for one, uses projects, educational reports (State Plan of Education) and public work reports and researches technical aspects of the buildings, reviewing their materials, shapes, dimensions and ambiances and also compares the constructors characteristics, year, municipalities and intended style of education. Thus, this type of study looks for architectural technique data in the sources.</p> <p>38 Mello, <emph>Arquitetura Escolar Pública Paulista</emph>.</p> <p>Yet another type of study relates Architecture to the Ideal of Nation that motivated it. André Augusto de Almeida Alves[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref39">39</reflink>] selects sources as they identify projects of a nation in the architectural style. Sources employed are photographs, plans, journals, laws, decrees of the time, and public construction reports. Therefore, Alves discusses the hiring of private initiative by IPESP for the construction of public schools and architects' positions regarding the government's plans for the time studied.</p> <p>39 Alves, <emph>Arquitetura Escolar Paulista 1959-1962</emph>.</p> <p>Also about the Ideal of Nation, there is Ana Gabriela Godinho Lima's study,[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref40">40</reflink>] which compares the architectural plans of architects Francisco de Paula Ramos de Azevedo from 1890 to 1989 and Hélio Duarte from 1949 to 1954. Even though the article studies the importance of the early republican times in Brazil, the periodisation is within Artigas. The sources are photographs, plans, and newspapers.</p> <p>40 Ana Gabriela Godinho Lima, "Two Moments of School Architecture in São Paulo: Ramos de Azevedo and His Republican Pioneering Schools/Hélio Duarte and the 'Educational Agreement'," <emph>Paedagogica Historica</emph> 41 (2005): 215<emph>-</emph>241.</p> <p>More recently, studies about school architecture in the state made in the Education History field privilege school groups in São Paulo. Such studies have objects like the sense of monumentality and the pedagogical plan that is expressed and even the architecture fostered as criticism to the model.[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref41">41</reflink>]</p> <p>41 Ester Buffa, <emph>Pesquisas sobre Arquitetura e Educação: Aspectos Teórico-metodológicos</emph> (Paraná: Universidade Tuiuti do Paraná, 2008);  Luciano Mendes de Faria Filho and Diana Gonçalves Vidal, "Os Tempos e os Espaços Escolares no Processo de Institucionalização da Escola Primária no Brasil," <emph>Revista Brasileira de Educação</emph>, 14 (2000): 19<emph>-</emph>34.</p> <p>Distinctions made between buildings dated between 1890 and 1930 and those between 1934 and 1937 follow the periodisation made by Artigas. Faria Filho and Vidal realise, though, nuances in the passing from one period to the other:</p> <p>Too expensive, the opulent school buildings made in the first decades of the republic consumed most of the already deployed public education funds. The intended effort and expense inferred to <emph>showcase</emph> the republican achievements in the field of <emph>popular education</emph> began being criticised as movements for the democratisation of public schools emerged. The monumental buildings meant, then, the elite status of education and despise towards the poor people's education. The criticism of Fernando de Azevedo's reform was the beginning of a movement that would allow a change in the school architecture conception in Brazil.[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref42">42</reflink>]</p> <p>42 Luciano Mendes de Faria Filho and Diana Gonçalves Vidal, "Os Tempos e os Espaços Escolares no Processo de Institucionalização da Escola Primária no Brasil," 29.</p> <p></p> <p>In any case, studies about school architecture are mostly about school groups or the functionalist architecture that came after that monumental style of buildings constructed during the First Republic, the period right after 1934 to 1937. These studies relate the buildings, sanitary regulations, posture codes, school regulations, and pedagogical approaches.</p> <p>Other matters addressed are the preoccupation with the implementation and location of the school buildings in the city plan, the dimensions, material aspects, and style of the plans.</p> <p>Studies, such as the ones made by Porcel about architectural images by the School Group <emph>Barão de Santo Monte</emph> in Mococa, and Araújo Júnior,[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref43">43</reflink>] about the materiality of graded schools in São Paulo, see in architecture the possibility of questioning the school construction, the historical, social, and cultural processes, and the material aspects of projects.</p> <p>43 Najar Roberto Porcel, <emph>Republica e Educação<bold>:</bold> as Imagens Arquitetonicas e Jornalisticas do Grupo Escolar Barão de Monte Santo (Mococa-SP)</emph> (Campinas: Faculdade de Educação, Unicamp, 2007); Mozart Araújo Júnior, "<emph>Grupo Escolar e Espaço Arquitetônico: um Estudo Sobre os Dispositivos Materiais de Produção da Escola Graduada (1893-1917)"</emph> (Master's thesis, Universidade de Sorocaba, 2007).</p> <p>Regarding the sources used for analysis, the most common documents used in the field of Education are architectural plans; photographs and drawings; laws and decrees; professors' and educational reports; maps; school construction planning documents, and testimonies.</p> <p>The proximity of sources and periodisation of education history and architecture studies is visible and worthy of consideration, apart from the different perspectives and problems. The sources and periodisation share not only convergences but also gaps. In São Paulo, the period before the Republic was considered a time deficient of school buildings or original architectural solutions. The new regime's propaganda explored the existence of adapted or rented buildings for schools as a way to affirm the lack of school construction during the imperial period.</p> <p>However, works about the process of school creation show us the relevance of schools built in 1870 to 1889. Even though they are not about architecture, studies such as the one made by Carmem Sylvia Vidigal Moraes and Reginaldo Meloni about the high school <emph>Culto à Ciência</emph> make evident the role this building had in the pedagogical project of given political and cultural groups: great landlords who ruled the local society and also urban groups, like merchants, industrialists and immigrants; artists and statists - all of them originated from higher strata well-related to those landlords.[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref44">44</reflink>]</p> <p>44 Carmen Sylvia Vidigal Moraes, "A Sociedade Culto à Ciência e o Projeto Republicano de Educação: uma Leitura à Partir dos Estatutos, Regulamentos e Programas de Ensino da Instituição Escolar (1869-1896)" in <emph>IV Congresso Brasileiro de História da Educação</emph> (Goiânia, Brazil, 2006); Reginaldo Alberto Meloni,<bold> </bold><emph>Saberes em Ciências Naturais: o Ensino de Física e Química no Colégio Culto à Ciência de Campinas - 1873/1910</emph> (Campinas: Faculdade de Educação, Unicamp, 2010).</p> <p>Similarly, research such as that about <emph>Colégio Internacional</emph> by Bencostta; popular education in Campinas and the school <emph>Escola Corrêa de Mello</emph> by Mauricéia Ananias; female education in <emph>Colégio Florence de Campinas</emph> by Arilda Ines Miranda Ribeiro; <emph>Colégio Alemão</emph> also in Campinas, by Andrea Mara Souto Karatojanov, <emph>Colégio Piracicabano</emph> by Edivilson Cardoso Rafaeta and Marcelo Cachioni show us that the concern with education motivated innovation initiatives before the republican rise to power.[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref45">45</reflink>]</p> <p>45 Marcus Levy Albino Bencostta, <emph>Ide por Todo o Mundo: a Província de São Paulo como Campo de Missão Presbiteriana 1869-1892</emph> (Campinas: Unicamp/CMU, 1996); Mauricéia Ananias, <emph>As Escolas para o Povo em Campinas, 1860-1889: Origens, Ideário e contexto (</emph>Campinas: Faculdade de Educação Unicamp, 2000), and "O Ensino na Segunda Metade do Século Dezenove: a Escola Corrêa de Mello de Campinas," <emph>Quaestio: Revista de Estudos da Educação 1</emph>, 1 (May 1999): 85-96; Arilda Inês Miranda Ribeiro, "A educação das mulheres na colônia," in <emph>A Educação da Mulher no Brasil-Colônia</emph> (São Paulo: Arte &amp; Ciência, 1997); Andrea Mara Souto Karatojanov, <emph>Vir, Viver e Talvez Morrer em Campinas: um Estudo sobre a Comunidade Alemã Residente na Zona Urbana Durante o Segundo Império</emph> (Campinas: Unicamp, 1999); Edivilson Cardoso Rafaeta, <emph>Luminoso Farol: o Colégio Piracicabano e a Educação Feminina em Fins do Século XIX</emph> (Campinas: Faculdade de Educação, Unicamp, 2008);  Marcelo Cachioni, "Construindo para o Futuro: os Primeiros Tempos do Colégio Piracicabano," <emph>Revista de Educação do Cogeime</emph>, 22 (2003): 125-141.</p> <p>The inventory of studies about schools built in this period in São Paulo does not add up to more than a few tens of studies which are, nonetheless, of help to understand the productivity of initiatives and approaches.</p> <p>Bencosttas's[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref46">46</reflink>] research, backed up by Weber, aims to describe the protestant presence in Campinas during the second half of the nineteenth century illustrated in the history of <emph>Colégio Internacional</emph>. Despite the author not considering his research to be part of the history of education field but religions, his book is a major reference for the educational context of Campinas in the nineteenth century, being one of the main studies to deal with the aforementioned school and depicting the conflicts and bargains present in the creation and permanence of the school and its operation in the city, its curriculum, traits, target public and references to the physical school, presented as a properly educational building.</p> <p>46 Bencostta, <emph>Ide por Todo o Mundo</emph>.</p> <p>Bencostta's choice of subject, <emph>Colégio Internacional</emph>, was due to its founding by Presbyterian missionaries Edward Lane and George N. Morton, who saw in Campinas a potential area for the establishment of a Presbyterian mission from the south of the USA in Brazil. For this purpose they gathered with local powers in meetings attended by farmers and liberal professionals. The institution brought the American model of education, including its secular character. The institution was the stage to many debates in Campinas and both monarchists and republicans praised the initiative. The High School was founded in 1870 and worked in a temporary building. Only in 1874, when the construction of its specialised building was finished, could it work there.</p> <p>In the same year <emph>Colégio Internacional</emph>'s building was finished, so was <emph>Colégio Culto à Ciência</emph>'s. Studied by Carmem Sylvia Vidigal Moraes,[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref47">47</reflink>] it is presented by her as a republican school before the advent of the republican regime itself and constituted as mean of propaganda for the republican politics in the empire. The author reviews the school's curriculum and its specialised spaces made to educate the elites, having been built in a place removed from downtown to avoid noise and grounds with enough space for the practise of Physical Education and to accommodate scientific school subjects dependent of the use of laboratory facilities.</p> <p>47 Moraes, "A Sociedade Culto à Ciência e o Projeto Republicano de Educação".</p> <p>The architect responsible for both schools was Guilherme Krug who had come from the Grand duchy of Hessen-Kassel in contemporary Germany with his family and moved to Campinas. After a short stay in the USA, he returned to Brazil and built both schools. Some years after he started the building of <emph>Colégio Piracicabano</emph> in Piracicaba - a building designed by Antonio de Matheus Häusler from the German city Stuttgart.[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref48">48</reflink>] The building was specialised for the school's operation. Later, an annex was made and the façade was reformed by Guilherme Krug and his son, George Krug. The school, like <emph>Culto à Ciência</emph> and <emph>Internacional</emph>, was projected with hygiene in mind, as well as gymnastics and horticulture classes. Students were rated and classified.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref49">49</reflink>]</p> <ulist> <item>48 Cachioni, "Construindo para o Futuro: os Primeiros Tempos do Colégio Piracicabano".</item> <item>49 Rafaeta, <emph>Luminoso Farol.</emph></item> </ulist> <p>Both Guilherme and George Krug maintained relationships with Francisco de Paula Ramos de Azevedo, an architect graduated in Belgium and credited with the planning of Corrêa de Mello and Ferreira Penteado schools. Mr Ramos de Azevedo returned to Brazil in 1879 after graduating and took part in several constructions in the Campinas region and partnered with other architects, engineers and building contractors; in the case of the two schools aforementioned, they were both designed by him alone and are both studied by Mauricéia Ananias,[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>] who has a dissertation in popular education in Campinas and an article about <emph>Escola Corrêa de Mello</emph>.</p> <p>50 Ananias, <emph>As Escolas para o Povo em Campinas</emph>; "O Ensino na Segunda Metade do Século Dezenove".</p> <p>Ananias' dissertation analyses[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref51">51</reflink>] - from Campinas' press publications, in special city almanacs dated from 1860-1889 - the schools Corrêa de Mello, Ferreira Penteado, and the night classes in <emph>Independência</emph> Masonic lodge with the popular primary education of Campinas in sight, seeing it as constituted by a logic of work and citizenship teaching so as to build up the nation which would consolidate as a Republic.</p> <p>51 Ananias, <emph>As Escolas para o Povo em Campinas.</emph></p> <p>The research delves into social classes' interests within economic criteria, so that "the existence of the social division of work according to social class was evident in the education itself".[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref52">52</reflink>] Ananias[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref53">53</reflink>] uses the same theoretical basis and documents, but aims to present the foundation and existence of Corrêa de Mello school as a way to observe changes in the country's economy, politics, and education. The author demonstrates that the institution was created by a namesake association whose objective was to pay homage to botanic Joaquim Corrêa de Mello and was oriented to popular education - namely Campinas' underprivileged strata - and also offered a vocational night course so as to, in the author's view, educate citizens towards the needs of the ascending bourgeois society. Built by Ramos de Azevedo, it was located in <emph>Largo do Jurumbeval</emph>, an area which had been a swamp and was considered unsanitary by the local population and was the reason of complaints by some proprietors of <emph>Colégio Florence</emph> some years before the construction of Corrêa de Mello school.[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref54">54</reflink>]</p> <ulist> <item>52 Ibid., 97.</item> <item>53 Ananias, "O Ensino na Segunda Metade do Século Dezenove".</item> <item>54 Ribeiro, "A educação das mulheres na colônia".</item> </ulist> <p>About <emph>Escola Ferreira Penteado</emph>, sources gathered consist of no more than a few journal entries in studies of the time. Ananias has the densest study and demonstrates that it consisted of a popular school destined to boys aged from 8 to 13 where the João de Deus method was applied. Its founder was the farmer Joaquim Ferreira Penteado, the baron of Itatiba, who built the institution to celebrate his Golden Anniversary. Ananias[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref55">55</reflink>] affirms that the founder's view was directly connected to the need of a social education: "One more school built for the city's poor populace, it was born from the belief that education would be a great catapulting factor to social development." With the death of the baron in 1884 and of his wife in 1893, his children donated the building to the city hall and consequently it became an isolated municipal school.</p> <p>55 Ananias, <emph>As Escolas para o Povo em Campinas</emph>, 48.</p> <p>Research about schools built in Campinas between 1870 and 1889 clarify the role of constructors inserted in the city's society in the nineteenth century, founder groups, and also the target public in the shaping of schools, especially considering architectural approaches directed to each social class. Thus, it is possible to understand the interregnum of time, 1870-1889, which was little studied concerning school buildings in the state of São Paulo.</p> <p>Thereby, the schools <emph>Internacional, Culto à Ciência, Corrêa de Mello</emph>, and <emph>Ferreira Penteado</emph> were all built by the same social group. However, in their conceptions they are intended for distinct publics: <emph>Internacional</emph> and <emph>Culto à Ciência</emph> were directed to what the idealisers considered to be the managing stratum of the society; <emph>Corrêa de Mello</emph> and <emph>Ferreira Penteado</emph>[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref56">56</reflink>] were meant to educate disadvantaged social strata and those less wealthy.</p> <p>56 <emph>Colégio Internacional</emph> and <emph>Colégio Culto à Ciência</emph> had their constructions completed in 1873; Corrêa de Mello and Ferreira Penteado schools had their constructions completed in 1881.</p> <p>Those distinct views review a national emancipation project connected to the idea of eradicating illiteracy and spreading certain cultural patterns, namely the education of the leading stratum within the country (not abroad) and the education of less wealthy people to accept this stratum's plans and work for its completion. Such questions and plans meant that it was necessary to create education models and specialised facilities. These needs are materialised in the plans of the buildings and their spatial dynamics, so the spatial reading is of crucial relevance to understand the schools in this perspective. As understood by Escolano and Viñao Frago,</p> <p>School architecture is also a programme by itself, a kind of discourse that manifests in its materiality values such as order, discipline and vigilance, milestones to the sensorial and motor learning and a whole semiology that cover different aesthetical, cultural and ideological signs [...] The school space has to be analysed as a cultural construct that expresses and reflects, beyond its materiality, given discourses.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref57">57</reflink>]</p> <p>57 Agustin Escolano and Antonio Vinão Fraga, <emph>Currículo, espaço e subjetividade: a arquitetura como programa</emph> (Rio de Janeiro: DP&amp;A, 2001), 26.</p> <p></p> <p>Understanding the use of space goes through Foucault's analysis method and the recognition that "in such Panoptic and Taylorist planning of school space, a social policy which aims to control movement and customs is evident".[<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref58">58</reflink>] Therefore, the corrective space pervades the school architecture in a symbiotic way which can be seen in the classrooms' disposition, furniture and a rational control of time in a way that disciplines bodies and "organises every minimum movement and gesture and makes the school a 'continent of power'".[<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref59">59</reflink>]</p> <ulist> <item>58 Escolano and Vinão Fraga, <emph>Currículo, espaço e subjetividade</emph>, 27.</item> <item>59 Ibid., 28.</item> </ulist> <p>Analysis must include the location of the buildings, as the school space is also produced within the urban grid. Its location can be a factor of limited access to given social groups; the building's façade can represent numberless meanings such as power and majesty, presenting an image like, as Souza[<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref60">60</reflink>] argues, a "Civilization Temple", which produces the effect of an aura of importance and reinforces the legitimacy of school knowledge. Adversely, buildings removed from downtown can represent the constitution of isolated, clean, silent, and distraction-free locations. Each building exhibits its traits and location according to its educational approach and public.</p> <p>60 Souza, <emph>Templos de Civilização.</emph></p> <p>Traits of the façades are also crucial elements. It is affirmed that not only a good location in the urban grid is enough to grant the building monumentality, but fundamentally important is its façade, too. Bencostta, when interpreting school group Dr Xavier da Silva, located in Curitiba (in the state of Paraná), states vehemently the façade's importance:</p> <p>A U-shaped architectural plan indicates, in a façade facing the street, a function of safeguarding the inner atrium around which are connected the building's facilities. This combination limits an outer viewer's sight and spatial freedom because of the antithesis between the outer and inner space, which has in the façade the outlining that gives rise to admiration to whom contemplates it and simultaneously hides its interior. About this, Bourdon states there cannot be exterior without interior, and if architecture is interior, it cannot possibly be conceived as architecture without an exterior dimension. Thereby, as an inner space item the façade cannot be mistaken as inherent to the outer space, as it comprises streets, squares, etc.[<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref61">61</reflink>]</p> <p>61 Bencostta, <emph>História da Educação, Arquitetura e Espaço Escolar</emph>, 111-12.</p> <p></p> <p>The façade, according to the building and its purposes, can indicate confinement or closure as isolation covering the inner space and, in some cases, having a monument effect. Grids and a distance from streets or circulation spaces can be used. Also, inner chambers can create a similar effect, such as lobbies and gateways located in the building's entrances providing more control over access and mobility within the facilities. On the other hand, school buildings that bear social functions other than their original ones may present other arrangements regarding inner/outer space. Viñao Frago, when reviewing school architecture dated after the 1868 revolution in Spain, clarifies the matter:</p> <p>These schools [...] consisted probably of a classroom or lounge, a garden, a house for the teacher and a 'library room'. This demand must be associated to the creation of the so-called popular libraries, also fostered in 1869 by the revolutionary government [...] Consequently, architects placed the library in an axial display in relation to the building as a whole, easily accessible from the outside to function as a popular library too.[<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref62">62</reflink>]</p> <p></p> <p>62 Antonio Vinão Frago, "Espaços, usos e funções: a localização e disposição física da direção escolar na escola graduada," <emph>História da educação, arquitetura e espaço escolar</emph>. Editor: Marcus Levy Bencostta, 15-47.</p> <p>Thus, the buildings' traits vary over and above their main goals, considering that school buildings have their own reasons according to their educational goals, target public, and conceptions of the individuals or groups that conceived them.</p> <hd id="AN0135147539-2">Final considerations</hd> <p>Studies about the history of school architecture in the state of São Paulo are part of a dialogue between the fields of architecture and education which has important relations to the development of research. According to the social place, the sources and questions change and so do the results.[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref63">63</reflink>] Studies about the history of school architecture in the state of São Paulo in each different area use different lenses of analysis, but keep a live dialogue, so that education researchers can find grounds in architecture studies to consider periods and, in many studies, to make the periodisation itself. Therefore, by revisiting from time to time production from both areas, it is crucial to renew the questioning and comprehension, making other studies possible.</p> <p>63 See note 36 above.</p> <p>Ideas about the history of school architecture developed in the field of architecture are based in the views of Vilanovas Artigas and, for this reason, reproduce his periodisation and undervalue the architecture produced in the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. Analysing what has been considered by Artigas, it can be seen that conflicting emancipation projects, developed in different periods and including different ideas of education. However, researchers of education history looking for references in the field of architecture about school architecture, have incorporated and even reinforced the undervaluation of the nineteenth-century architectural production regarding schools. Because of that, the period was little studied when it comes to the school buildings in the state of São Paulo.</p> <p>To understand that the nineteenth-century schools had a specialised architecture composed from the political ideas discussion it is necessary to further venture in the period as a research object. Studies about history of education in the nineteenth century in Campinas strengthen the matter, though their subject is not school architecture. Such works demonstrate the variety of educational initiatives of that period and present clues to studies concerning the buildings, as well as contribute to the understanding of the fabric of relations that surround the construction of school buildings. Schools like <emph>Colégio Internacional, Colégio Culto à Ciência, Escola Corrêa de Mello</emph>, and <emph>Escola Ferreira Penteado</emph> are rich sources for such studies. All of them were different, despite their common creator group. The first two were directed to the education of richer strata of Campinas' society and presented distinct spatial dispositions, architectural conceptions, and locations when compared to the later, conceived to educate underprivileged strata. Such specific orientations unfold distinct conceptions about which elements should integrate each social stratum's curriculum and also demonstrate that the local ruling power intended to seem able to provide proper education to both bureaucrats and lower stratum citizens within the city.</p> <p>That corresponds to the development and application of an emancipation plan for the country, which included eradicating illiteracy and educating the society's leading stratum within the country through the aforementioned education models. As a demonstration of the group's organisation and the capacity of defending their interests and world views in order to use school architecture itself as strategic means to consolidate political and cultural projects, school architecture is seen as a rational and organised element which the hirer group and the hired architect take part to fulfil the national emancipation plan.</p> <p>Hence, the review of architectural plans, school buildings, and spatial disposition in the nineteenth century unfold new perceptions on the period, since</p> <p>The many dimensions of school space allow us to understand it as a language to be learned. To functional rationality, employment and use we can add components such as educational character, symbolic dimensions and mind and body control technologies. The review of these dimensions make the study of school space and architecture potential research subjects crucial do understand educational institutions, as the analysis' intrinsically relational nature highlights the internality of school grammar and school architecture as historical, cultural and social processes.[<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref64">64</reflink>]</p> <p>64 Bencostta, <emph>História da educação, arquitetura e espaço escolar</emph>, 8.</p> <p></p> <p>From this perspective, one of the possible trajectories for the analysis of school buildings from the nineteenth century are, comparative readings of architectural plans and the buildings' façades as well as matters such as: monumentality, location in the urban grid, dynamics and disposition of inner spaces and their relation with the outer space and buildings' perimeter, so as to understand the listed elements within a specific political and social context, presenting the relations with the social group that conceived and funded the schools' construction and the engineers and architects who designed them.[<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref65">65</reflink>] Thus, the possibilities of analysis for school architecture in the nineteenth century in the state of São Paulo denote the relevance of this period to school architecture history, fomenting the confection of new lenses for such topic as a research object.</p> <p>65 Studies within this perspective are taking shape. An example is the recent research about <emph>Colégio Internacional, Colégio Culto à Ciência, Escola Corrêa de Melo</emph>, and <emph>Escola Ferreira Penteado</emph>, in Unicamp: see Munir Abboud Pompeo de Camargo, "The Republican Project and the Scholar Architecture During the Second Half of nineteenth century in Campinas: groups, projects, and ideas," <emph>Resumen</emph> 39 (Buenos Aires: Educación y emancipación, 2017).</p> <hd id="AN0135147539-3">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.</p> <aug> <p>By Munir Abboud Pompeo De Camargo</p> <p></p> <p>Munir Abboud Pompeo de Camargo has a Bachelor's and Licentiate Degree from State University of São Paulo and a Master's Degree from Campinas State University (UNICAMP). He is also a researcher on the Education History Studies and Research Programme at the Education Memory Centre, UNICAMP.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib1" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib2" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib3" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib4" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib5" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib6" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib7" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib8" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib9" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref65"></nolink> |
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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Historiography of School Architecture in the State of São Paulo: The Nineteenth Century amidst History and Architecture – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Abboud+Pompeo+de+Camargo%2C+Munir%22">Abboud Pompeo de Camargo, Munir</searchLink> – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Paedagogica+Historica%3A+International+Journal+of+the+History+of+Education%22"><i>Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education</i></searchLink>. 2019 55(1):70-87. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 18 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2019 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Evaluative – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Historiography%22">Historiography</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Buildings%22">School Buildings</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Architecture%22">Architecture</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+History%22">Educational History</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Building+Conversion%22">Building Conversion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Comparative+Analysis%22">Comparative Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Status%22">Social Status</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Differences%22">Social Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Illiteracy%22">Illiteracy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Literacy+Education%22">Literacy Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Facilities%22">Educational Facilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Rural+Areas%22">Rural Areas</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Policy%22">Foreign Policy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Class%22">Social Class</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Geographic Terms Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Brazil%22">Brazil</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1080/00309230.2018.1546329 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 0030-9230 – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: The present article aims to analyse academic production about the history of school architecture in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, concerning the development of research trajectories and dialogue between the areas of architecture and education, sources, analysis methodology and periodisation. The latter was based on research developed in Architecture and led to the depreciation of school architecture in the nineteenth century, especially the imperial period, through the assumed absence of specialised education facilities -- a claim echoed by education historiography. However, education studies show us the importance of schools built between 1870 and 1889. The research concerning schools built in Campinas, a countryside city, will be specially featured; it showcases a common context between the builders inserted in the local society in the nineteenth century, who took part in the founding of schools and their public. The comparison of architectural approaches aimed at students of different social strata is central. They are part of national projects of emancipation, eradication of illiteracy and cultural development. Methodologies such as the ones developed by Escolano, Viñao Frago, and Bencostta are discussed as perspectives for the analysis of school facilities, considering that these buildings feature meaningful traits connected with their goals, public and idealiser's purposes. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2019 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1207865 |
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| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1080/00309230.2018.1546329 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 18 StartPage: 70 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Historiography Type: general – SubjectFull: School Buildings Type: general – SubjectFull: Architecture Type: general – SubjectFull: Educational History Type: general – SubjectFull: Building Conversion Type: general – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries Type: general – SubjectFull: Comparative Analysis Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Status Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Differences Type: general – SubjectFull: Illiteracy Type: general – SubjectFull: Literacy Education Type: general – SubjectFull: Educational Facilities Type: general – SubjectFull: Rural Areas Type: general – SubjectFull: Foreign Policy Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Class Type: general – SubjectFull: Brazil Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Historiography of School Architecture in the State of São Paulo: The Nineteenth Century amidst History and Architecture Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Abboud Pompeo de Camargo, Munir IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 01 Type: published Y: 2019 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 0030-9230 Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 55 – Type: issue Value: 1 Titles: – TitleFull: Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education Type: main |
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