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Social Justice, Character Education, and Sport: A Position Statement

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Title: Social Justice, Character Education, and Sport: A Position Statement
Language: English
Authors: Bredemeier, Brenda Light, Shields, David Light
Source: Quest. 2019 71(2):202-214.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 13
Publication Date: 2019
Document Type: Journal Articles
Opinion Papers
Reports - Descriptive
Descriptors: Social Justice, Values Education, Team Sports, Competition, Moral Development, Athletes, Athletic Coaches
DOI: 10.1080/00336297.2019.1608270
ISSN: 0033-6297
Abstract: In this article, we suggest that character education in sport contexts can promote social justice. After defining key terms, we suggest that rethinking competition and the nature of team relationships is required to build a team culture responsive to concerns for social justice. The character of the team provides a nexus within which to develop individual character, which is elaborated in terms of four types of character: moral, civic, intellectual, and performance character. To promote commitment to social justice, character educators can focus on three elements of moral character: moral reasoning, the circle of moral regard, and moral identity. Within civic character, three themes are elaborated: human dignity, full participation, and accountability. The dimensions of critical thinking, willful ignorance, and prioritizing the marginalized are discussed in relation to intellectual character. Performance character is discussed in relation to an ethic of excellence. Finally, conclusions for character educators are elaborated.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2019
Accession Number: EJ1216378
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0136521615;qus01apr.19;2019May22.09:41;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0136521615-1">Social Justice, Character Education, and Sport: A Position Statement </title> <p>In this article, we suggest that character education in sport contexts can promote social justice. After defining key terms, we suggest that rethinking competition and the nature of team relationships is required to build a team culture responsive to concerns for social justice. The character of the team provides a nexus within which to develop individual character, which is elaborated in terms of four types of character: moral, civic, intellectual, and performance character. To promote commitment to social justice, character educators can focus on three elements of moral character: moral reasoning, the circle of moral regard, and moral identity. Within civic character, three themes are elaborated: human dignity, full participation, and accountability. The dimensions of critical thinking, willful ignorance, and prioritizing the marginalized are discussed in relation to intellectual character. Performance character is discussed in relation to an ethic of excellence. Finally, conclusions for character educators are elaborated.</p> <p>Keywords: Social justice; character; competition; contesting theory; moral education</p> <p>Social justice, character education, and sport? Odd bedfellows some may say. To see their intersection, we need to liberate the concepts of character education and social justice from the stereotypes they often evoke. Too often the term social justice is associated with the far-left end of the political spectrum, while character education is seen as reflecting politically and religiously conservative values (Berkowitz & Puka, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref1">8</reflink>]). So, let us state emphatically that both stereotypes are too restrictive, and that effective character education in sport contexts can and should promote social justice. Let's begin by clarifying our terms.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-2">Social justice</hd> <p>Social justice is a term without a consensus definition. With Bell ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref2">5</reflink>]), we view social justice as both a goal and a process. Social justice could be said to exist in a society where there is justice for all, where social group identifiers bear no relationship to opportunities for well-being or distribution of wealth or social position, and where all persons have voice in the formation and evolution of social norms, policies, and practices. Essential for the existence of social justice are dignity and autonomy for each individual, equal rights, and a valuing of diversity.</p> <p>In our view, the process of working for justice involves taking action that is inclusive, collaborative, participatory, and directed toward challenging privileges and oppressions that harm individuals, groups, institutions, and the common good. Social justice work is not simple and conflict-free. Seeking justice goes hand-in-hand with gritty power struggles as oppressed people and their allies fight the dynamics of privilege and intersecting oppressions. Social justice work is often fractured and imperfect, taking place within the contradictory intersections of compromise and hope. Negotiating conflicting tensions with integrity and vision is quite demanding and requires that social justice activists, individually and collectively, exemplify qualities of good character.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-3">Character education</hd> <p>We define character as a multifaceted complex of qualities that predispose a person or group to behave with some consistency in value-related domains. In short, character is a set of dispositions that create a tendency within similar situations to experience specific emotions, cognize in particular ways, and behave in a certain manner. However, behavior is neither a direct reflection of some internal, fixed "trait" nor a simple by-product of environmental influences. While character consists of dispositional tendencies, how and whether those tendencies are manifest in behavior is an outgrowth of complex interactions with other intra-psychic processes as well as social and other contextual factors. Still, as Blasi ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref3">10</reflink>]) notes, the empirical evidence demonstrates that character dispositions are sufficiently stable to recognize that some people exhibit more value-consistent behavior than others.</p> <p>In recent decades, character educators have attended most closely to the moral dimension of character. This is true, for example, in the way the U.S. Department of Education defines character education, describing it as an intentional learning process that enables people "to understand, care about and act on core ethical values" (US Department of Education, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref4">54</reflink>]). Later, we will expand on this and other dimensions of character as we analyze the potential for sport-based character education for social justice.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-4">Social justice, character education, and sport</hd> <p>Many accept the adage, "sport builds character," believing that sport experiences naturally promote desirable attributes (see Shields & Bredemeier, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref5">39</reflink>], for a critique). If, however, we think of character as including a sensitivity to, valuing of, and engagement with issues of social justice, the claim will strike many as odd and perhaps untenable. After all, sport is embedded in and reflects cultural power dynamics. For example, women are underrepresented in the ranks of coaches, administrators, and owners (Burton, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref6">13</reflink>]), and girls' access to sports remains limited by gendered biases, labor responsibilities, and legal restrictions. Still, sports have been and will continue to be sites of social resistance and reconstruction.</p> <p>We believe sport teams can become sites for the promotion of social justice when they help develop athletes' justice-embracing character. Our approach emphasizes the dynamic relationship between team character and individual character. Correspondingly, we begin by reflecting on two themes – competition and relationships – that have powerful significance for creating team cultures that can motivate and enable action for social justice.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-5">Rethinking competition</hd> <p>As Kohn ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref7">25</reflink>]) noted long ago, the experience of contesting, which permeates nearly every facet of our lives, can lead to prejudice, stereotyping, and intergroup hostilities. Ironically, these well-documented outcomes are far from the positive benefits many associates with competition. Ideally, contesting advances some form of human excellence (Shields, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref8">45</reflink>]). In our politics, we require candidates for office to compete in elections in the hopes that the more excellent candidate will represent us. In our economy, we want businesses to compete for our purchases as a stimulus to innovation and service improvement. Lawyers compete, students compete, athletes compete – all designed to promote a relevant excellence. But in practice, contesting often fails to achieve these goals and may even have quite contrary outcomes (Rosenau, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref9">36</reflink>]).</p> <p>Sport brings competition to the forefront of our consciousness and may provide a view into why contesting so often goes off the rails. Research suggests that there are two ways in which contesting is understood (Shields & Bredemeier, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref10">43</reflink>]; Shields, Funk, & Bredemeier, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref11">46</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref12">49</reflink>]). In one, contesting is seen as a means to seek excellence, and competitors – despite wanting and striving to emerge victorious – recognize the important value of opponents who are essential partners in a mutual push toward improvement and mastery. This understanding is consistent with the etymology of the word <emph>competition</emph> (from the Latin, "to strive or to seek <emph>with</emph>"). True competition is rooted in a partnership metaphor for contesting.</p> <p>An alternative way to comprehend contesting is as a metaphoric war; viewed this way, the purpose is simply to win and claim the rewards of victory. In this view, the social purposes and benefits of contesting are minimized and only individual or partisan gain is salient. Since thinking of the contest as a war is in opposition to the etymological meaning of <emph>competition</emph>, Shields and Bredemeier ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref13">41</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref14">43</reflink>]) have coined the term <emph>decompetition</emph> to designate this form of contesting. Rather than "striving with" opponents to promote some excellence of social value, decompetition involves "striving against" opponents for a largely unshared benefit.</p> <p>Competition and decompetition are two distinct mindsets with comprehensive implications for how the contest is viewed (Shields & Bredemeier, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref15">43</reflink>]). Everyone who contests may at times be a competitor and at times a decompetitor, but we also have dispositional preferences (Shields, Funk, & Bredemeier, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref16">47</reflink>]; Shields et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref17">49</reflink>]). And these matter. The partnership metaphor is more compatible with concern for social justice; it is much more sensitive to issues of fairness, equal protection, reciprocity, and the common good (Shields, Funk, & Bredemeier, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref18">48</reflink>]). And far from undermining performance, the partnership mindset can optimize such performance advantages as grit and self-control (Shields, Funk, & Bredemeier, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref19">50</reflink>]). The war metaphor, by contrast, is more compatible with acceptance of perpetual inequality, systemic privilege, domination of "the other," and so on. If sport experiences are to build character dedicated to social justice, people at all levels of the sport system need to encourage true competition and actively work against decompetition. This will also require that we rethink the nature and quality of sport relationships.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-6">Rethinking relationships</hd> <p>Sport is about contesting, and participants' appropriate passion for victory can still open deep divides among people. It is precisely for this reason that sport offers a powerful opportunity to set the moral compass on human connection. Is sport (and society) most fundamentally about "we" or "us/them"? At the heart of the competitive – as opposed to decompetitive – sport experience is an affirmation of human relationship; there is an appreciation of interconnection across divides. True competition enables the mutual enhancement of all – teammates and opponents, winners and losers, even officials and fans. Those who are "different" (e.g., opponents) are valued not only as necessary and beneficial but as worthy human beings.</p> <p>Rethinking the relationships within sport, seeking to build on themes of care and respect even when there are divisions, can develop team character. When the character of a team reflects mutually supportive relationships, devoid of domination or exploitation, it supports partnership thinking; it provides a setting for building commitment to social justice because injustice tears at the fabric of human connection. This has important implications for how leadership, decision-making, and accountability are exercised. These and other themes are explored below.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-7">Character education for social justice</hd> <p>It is important to remember that team and personal character are dynamically related. It is also helpful to recognize that multiple clusters of dispositions are animated within personal character. In his article, "Character as the Aim of Education," Shields ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref20">44</reflink>]) proposed a model that identifies four interrelated components of personal and collective character (moral, civic, intellectual, and performance), a model later replicated in an influential position paper by the Jubilee Center for Character and Virtues ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref21">21</reflink>]). Here, we use the four components to frame and elaborate our discussion of character education for social justice.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-8">Moral character</hd> <p>Berkowitz and Puka ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref22">8</reflink>]) define moral character as "the composite of those characteristics of the individual that directly motivate and enable him or her (sic) to act as a moral agent" (p. 109). In situations of choice and conflict, the person of moral character is predisposed to give priority to moral over nonmoral considerations. For our purposes, we have identified three moral character themes that hold particular promise for social justice education: moral reasoning, circles of moral regard, and moral identity.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-9">Moral reasoning</hd> <p>Research on moral reasoning began with the pioneering work of Piaget ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref23">31</reflink>]). A lasting insight from Piaget's work is that mature moral thinking arises as children move from unquestioned acceptance of adult moral dictates to a more autonomous form of moral reasoning that emerges largely through peer interaction. Piaget suggested that mature moral judgment arises gradually through extended discussions among relative equals, an insight consistent with the view that an autonomy-affirming, democratic leadership style in sport is key to promoting participants' ability to see injustice and take action to address it.</p> <p>Lawrence Kohlberg ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref24">23</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref25">24</reflink>]) extended Piaget's work and broadened its impact on moral education. For Kohlberg, awareness of injustice was a form of cognitive dissonance that could facilitate growth in moral reasoning competence, and he illustrated advanced reasoning with social justice exemplars like Martin Luther King Jr. and Gandhi who were willing to engage in civil disobedience to challenge societal injustices. Within the sport literature, there is considerable evidence that more advanced moral reasoning is associated with positive moral behavior (Kavussanu, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref26">22</reflink>]; Shields, Funk, & Bredemeier, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref27">51</reflink>]). Also, evidence in the broader psychology literature suggests that mature moral judgment is associated with political attitudes that support social justice work (see Rest, Narvaez, Bebeau, & Thoma, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref28">34</reflink>]). We look forward to future research on these relationships within a sport context.</p> <p>A second Kohlbergian contribution stems from his work with a radical form of school democracy called the "just community" school (Power, Higgins, & Kohlberg, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref29">32</reflink>]). These schools featured a democratic process that fostered shared responsibility among students and staff for developing and sustaining norms of justice and care; researchers found that these experiences promoted students' moral reasoning competence. Coaches who want to promote their athletes' moral character have much to learn from the democratic school movement.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-10">Circle of moral regard</hd> <p>The development of moral character involves expanding the circle of people to whom moral concern is given (Bloom, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref30">11</reflink>]; Reed & Aquino, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref31">33</reflink>]). Hoffman ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref32">20</reflink>]), for example, suggests that as empathy develops it moves from being limited to more immediate others to more distal others. Expanding the circle of moral regard is an important goal for character educators and a key step in taking action toward a more just society.</p> <p>Injustice is tolerated, even embraced, when outgroups can be defined as outside our moral concern. Psychological distance between self and other creates a space that can be filled with disregard or even moral antipathy (Hardy, Bhattacharjee, Reed, & Aquino, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref33">18</reflink>]). This is often done through stereotyping processes that result in disfavored groups being viewed as moral inferiors or threats (Sawaoka, Newheiser, & Dovidio, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref34">38</reflink>]).</p> <p>Sport may be an ideal location for learning to expand the circle of moral concern. It is a well-established principle of social psychology that intergroup conflict will promote in-group favoritism and out-group hostility, a process obvious in sport (Shields & Bredemeier, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref35">40</reflink>]). This "us/them" divide is augmented by the war metaphor, so it is important that coaches help expand their athletes' circle of concern by avoiding negative motivational strategies that criticize, objectify, or "other" opponents, focusing instead on a partnership-based quest for excellence. More directly, coaches can facilitate athletes' discussion and reflection on how "us/them" thinking, based on arbitrary group identifications like team membership or starting status, is generated in sport, and how parallel us/them thinking in broader society is similarly based on criteria with no moral significance.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-11">Moral identity</hd> <p>People differ in how important morality is to them. The relative importance of moral concepts to the self-schema has important implications for moral motivation (Blasi, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref36">9</reflink>]; Hardy & Carlo, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref37">19</reflink>]). The more central morality is to identify, the more the need for self-consistency will lead to actions reflective of one's moral beliefs, a theoretical tenet well supported in the empirical literature (Aquino & Kay, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref38">1</reflink>]). Of particular note, stronger moral identity has been found to predict lower tendencies to persecute or disparage out-groups (Aquino, Reed, Thau, & Freeman, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref39">2</reflink>]; Reed & Aquino, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref40">33</reflink>]). In short, "when justice and care become personally defining, rather than merely abstract moral principles, then the integrity of one's sense of identity is at stake. Hence ... looking down on people in other social groups ...and not extending moral concern to them ...would require violations of desired identity" (Hardy et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref41">18</reflink>], p. 113).</p> <p>Hardy et al. ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref42">18</reflink>]) also investigated the role of parenting in the development of moral identity, finding that democratic parenting (including autonomy supports, responsiveness, and high expectations) was associated with strengthened moral identity. Similarly, democratic coaching may be best suited to promote athletes' moral identity, as well as their civic character.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-12">Civic character</hd> <p>Berkowitz, Althof, and Jones ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref43">7</reflink>]) define civic character as "the set of dispositions and skills that motivate and enable an individual to effectively and responsibly participate in the public sphere in order to serve the common good" (p. 402). A democratic society will thrive only if young people learn to effectively participate in civic life, guided by principles of social justice and an ethic of care (Oakes, Quarts, Ryan, & Lipton, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref44">30</reflink>]). We believe that sport provides fertile ground for civic character development in the context of a democracy, offering possibilities to cultivate respect for freedom, equality, and rationality; appreciate the significance and worth of diversity and due process; and embody an ethic of participation and service.</p> <p>Dewey ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref45">15</reflink>]) envisioned schools as places where students could develop democratic dispositions by learning to employ voice and choice, and to exercise influence and responsibility in small democratic groups. Unfortunately, many schools have grown into large, bureaucratic, impersonal institutions often structured more like prisons than democracies (Noguera, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref46">29</reflink>]). Sport, on the other hand, offers emotionally intense and socially rich experiences that incorporate interpersonal and cultural engagement with adults and peers who have conflicting interests, assets, and needs (e.g., Denham, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref47">14</reflink>]; Theokas, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref48">52</reflink>]). These qualities, together with the fact it is a social institution embedded in broader society, makes sport an ideal setting for nurturing civic character (LaVoi & Power, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref49">26</reflink>]). Elsewhere, we have described overlaps in various democratic theories that can form the foundation for an informed approach to coaching for civic character (Shields & Bredemeier, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref50">43</reflink>]). Here, we briefly highlight three democratic principles that can help guide sports-based character education for social justice: human dignity, full participation, and accountability.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-13">Human dignity</hd> <p>First, democracy affirms the moral equivalency and worth of each individual. "We are all equal before the law," is a common refrain in democratic discourse; clearly, the early founders of America grasped this principle only partially, but the principle itself provided a foundation for its own progressive improvement.</p> <p>In sports, this democratic principle suggests that all athletes, regardless of talent, deserve equal respect as persons. Team rules, for example, should apply to the star of the team in the same way that they apply to the bench-warmer. Opponents, too, need to be affirmed as moral equals. Just as broader society is undemocratic to the extent that people do not receive equal rights and protections, so a team educates against democratic values to the extent that some are privileged over others.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-14">Full participation</hd> <p>In a democratic community, people have both a right and a responsibility to participate in the decisions that impact on them. Democracy trusts in the collective wisdom of the people. In a well-functioning democracy, citizens come together to solve mutual problems, find and express shared values, and improve the quality of common life while valuing diverse perspective and backgrounds. Stated differently, social justice is required for the full realization of democracy so that none are excluded from their rightful participation.</p> <p>In a democratic sport team, coaches and players need to be involved in important decision-making that affects the common welfare of the team. The democratic principle of participation suggests that athletes have a right and a responsibility to have a voice in team direction, including decisions about starters and game strategy.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-15">Accountability</hd> <p>Democratic government is accountable to the people. This is the principle of popular sovereignty, the idea that authority is vested in the people and is legitimated by their informed consent. Recognizing that complex organizations require specialization and some degree of hierarchy, democracy requires that those who exercise power are accountable to those over whom power is exercised. In sports, this principle of accountability suggests that a coach's authority cannot be legitimated solely by a win/lose record; rather, the authority of the coach remains legitimate only when it is exercised in a manner that supports the health, development, and autonomy of those led. Sharing leadership and decision-making broadly (not just with team captains), can help to promote such growth and mutual accountability.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-16">Intellectual character</hd> <p>Ron Ritchhart ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref51">35</reflink>]) defines intellectual character as "the overarching conglomeration of habits of mind, patterns of thought, and general dispositions toward thinking that not only direct but also motivate one's thinking-oriented pursuits" (xxii). According to Ritchhart, a person of strong intellectual character is curious, open-minded, reflective, strategic, skeptical, and truth-seeking. We take truth-seeking to be primary and elaborate it in terms of three related dispositions that are especially relevant to education for social justice.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-17">Critical thinking</hd> <p>While there are many theories of critical thinking (Mulnix, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref52">28</reflink>]), and various strategies for enhancing it, we define it rather generically as a process of disciplined questioning and reflecting on information and truth claims, and the implicit and explicit motives behind actions, feelings, thoughts, and points of view. Critical thinking can be applied to self, others, institutions, and social norms and practices. To the extent possible, those with a honed critical thinking disposition seek to be curious, accurate, evidence-based, rational, and fair.</p> <p>The advantages of promoting critical thinking within social justice education are obvious. Developing the intellectual character trait of critical thinking can help reduce the influence of stereotypes and prejudicial forms of thought, both overt manifestations and implicit biases. A disposition for critical thinking facilitates asking probing questions that can expose and challenge interpersonal and institutional forms of discrimination.</p> <p>Within the sport realm, critical thinking is necessary to break the grip that the war-metaphor has on much of our contesting. Critical thinking is necessary to recover the "striving with" purpose to competition that is often lost behind a fog of commercialized and institutionalized self-aggrandizement. Critical thinking is needed by coaches so that they can question the conventional wisdom of authoritarian rule as the best means of maximizing performance. It is needed to ask why African Americans are underrepresented in elite swimming, why so many poor-youth see sports as their opportunity ticket, why many gay athletes feel the need to remain closeted in locker rooms, and so much more. Social justice issues should be common topics of team discussion, providing opportunities for enhancing critical thinking skills and increasing dedication to social justice concerns. But if this is to be fruitful, a disposition to break through willful ignorance will also be required.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-18">Willful ignorance</hd> <p>Those with strong intellectual character are predisposed to try to dispel ignorance, particularly within themselves. Truth-seeking is easy to affirm in the abstract, but often difficult in practice. This is not just because modern epistemologists have abandoned simple criteria for validating truth-claims; more importantly, ignorance is often self-serving. By willful ignorance (Tuana, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref53">53</reflink>]), we refer to "not knowing" that results from actively or passively hiding beneath a socially constructed blanket of ignorance that protects the knower from unpleasant or disconfirming information. Mills ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref54">27</reflink>]), among others, illustrates how this form of ignorance works in relation to racism. Most privileged Whites, for example, lack knowledge of the history and social dynamics that perpetuate systemic and institutionalized racism, and they are aided in their ignorance by media that largely ignore the issue, textbooks that focus on White culture, housing patterns that segregate both people and knowledge, and so on. As another example, athletes may remain willfully ignorant of physical harms that their sport can produce, and they are often aided in that ignorance by sport leagues and administrators who, because of their own self-interest, do not openly share relevant medical research (Sartore-Baldwin, McCullough, & Quatman-Yates, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref55">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>Because the processes of contesting are so open and visible within sports, sport can be an ideal setting to throw off the blanket of ignorance and examine how willful ignorance works. For example, if we "forget" that competition is designed to promote some form of excellence, we are likely to misread ethical violations within contesting (whether rule-bending in sport, false advertising in business, or dirty tricks in politics) as people just being "overly competitive." We need to throw off the blanket of ignorance and name such things accurately as moral corruption.</p> <p>Moral disengagement is a particular form of willful ignorance of major concern. It allows people to not experience guilt even when they behave in unethical ways because they have convinced themselves that ethical standards do not apply to particular people or situations. Violence against transgender people, for example, may be "excused" through processes of rationalization and dehumanization. Bandura ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref56">3</reflink>]) identifies eight mechanisms of moral disengagement and elaborates on their connection to inhumanities. Invariably, social injustice is tolerated when moral sensitives are distorted through mechanisms of moral disengagement. Sport research has demonstrated that people who perceive contesting as a form of partnership are much less likely to exhibit patterns of moral disengagement than athletes who conceptualize contesting through the war metaphor (Shields et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref57">46</reflink>]). This again suggests the importance of supporting true competition as a strategy for promoting social justice.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-19">Prioritizing the marginalized</hd> <p>Social justice is necessary for the liberation of intellectual character. Without recognizing that knowledge and power intersect in complex ways, the dispositions of intellectual character can easily, and invisibly, be distorted to protect the privileges of the more powerful. Long ago Hegel, then Marx, offered an epistemological insight that has now expanded far beyond its more Marxist roots and forms. While there are many variants ranging from liberation theology (e.g., Boff, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref58">12</reflink>]) to contemporary feminist standpoint theory (e.g., Harding, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref59">17</reflink>]), the fundamental idea, as we will employ it here, is that those in positions of power develop and employ knowledge in ways that reinforce their power, often without their explicit awareness. In contrast, those who are marginalized may perceive reality without the filters motivated by privilege. Despite their oppressions, the rebelling marginalized (i.e., those who have not internalized, in Freire's ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref60">16</reflink>]) terminology, the domesticating false consciousness of the dominant culture) have epistemic advantages.</p> <p>We suggest that one disposition of intellectual character is to prioritize the perspective of those least advantaged in disputes over policies and practices. Listening to the voices of the minoritized is often a starting point of wisdom, and informs a more nuanced understanding of complex intersections of oppression. A disposition to think through issues prioritizing disadvantaged perspectives, without sacrificing one's own critical thinking, is a key element of intellectual character.</p> <p>Sport offers many opportunities to promote this element of intellectual character. Coaches, for example, can facilitate discussions that ensure the perspectives of less elite athletes are given their due. Teams can discuss how distorting it is that those perceived as "winners" are given a platform to speak, while others are rendered into silence. Sports can provide powerful lenses through which to expose myths associated with the idea that sport and society are meritocracies. Prioritizing the insights of struggling oppressed groups can be a gateway to more emancipatory thinking.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-20">Performance character</hd> <p>Performance character refers to dispositions that enable an individual to accomplish their intentions and goals. Terms like perseverance, diligence, courage, resilience, optimism, initiative, and loyalty are associated with performance character. Such qualities relate to ​the​ exercise of will (Baumeister & Tierney, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref61">4</reflink>]) and reflect honed skills in self-management. Unlike the other dimensions of character, which tend to reflect more intrinsic values, having strong performance character is good only if it serves worthy ends. A person could be courageous while victimizing others or persistent in hiding the truth.</p> <p>While performance character is not intrinsically good, it is necessary to make the other dimensions of character effective. A belief in justice is of little value if it isn't combined with persistence and resilience. The disposition to become engaged civically loses its efficacy without dedication and loyalty to democratic principles.</p> <p>A high level of performance character reflects what Ron Berger ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref62">6</reflink>]) calls an <emph>ethic of excellence</emph>. Those with well-developed performance character take pride in what they do and seek to make it the best that it can be. Those with strong performance character try diligently to do their best in domains of activity important to them; they work hard, pay attention to detail, persist through problems, seek to overcome challenges, and maintain a grounded optimism. These, of course, are all qualities needed by social justice activists.</p> <p>The sport realm provides an ideal setting for developing performance character, and it is probably the character dimension that coaches are most comfortable discussing and encouraging. However, as with the other dimensions of character, it is important for coaches to recognize that these aspects of character are best developed within a team that has a competitive (as distinct from decompetitive) and democratic character. When the team as a whole values excellence and pursues it with diligence, the development of participants' individual character is most likely to occur.</p> <hd id="AN0136521615-21">Conclusion: Social justice is character education</hd> <p>We have suggested that character education in competitive and democratic sport team contexts can promote social justice by impacting the development of athletes' character. In doing so, we have begun to build a case for the claim that when teams engage in social justice work on their own team and in broader community contexts, athletes are given opportunities to strengthen their character.</p> <p>The values and dispositions that we want to nurture in our athletes need to be reflected in the shared norms of the team. A team with mutual expectation for just and caring behaviors is an ideal setting for promoting moral character. Civic character is likely encouraged on a team that embodies democratic rights and responsibilities and community engagement. Teams that cultivate critical thinking and reflection into their everyday life provide a context for intellectual character development. And performance character is likely augmented on a team with a culture of excellence. Social justice work is well served by just and caring behaviors, shared rights and responsibilities, critical thinking and reflection, and performance excellence.</p> <p>Neither social justice nor character education, however, occur without intentional and sustained effort. Athletes and coaches need to be given the opportunity to address their own privilege, internalized oppression, and implicit biases. They need to develop dispositions to recognize and confront discrimination against the minoritized; listen to the oppressed; empathize with the marginalized; and take action, individually and collectively, to change things for the better. Sport is fertile ground for such experiential education. It can provide participants numerous opportunities to engage in social justice work that addresses, among other things, the tendency of sport to conform to, reify, and institutionalize the power relations of the broader culture.</p> <p>Character education can promote both the process and outcome of social justice, and social justice work helps to promote the qualities of character that sustain social justice efforts. It is within the dynamic relations of praxis – action and reflection aimed at the constructive transformation of social life, both within and beyond the bounds of sport – that athletes' moral, civic, intellectual, and performance character are enhanced, leading to continually expanding work for social justice.</p> <ref id="AN0136521615-22"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref38" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Aquino, K., & Kay, A. (2018). A social cognitive model of moral identity. In K. Gray, J. Graham, K. Gray, & J. 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Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/character/brochure.html</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Brenda Light Bredemeier and David Light Shields</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref60"></nolink>
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  Data: Social Justice, Character Education, and Sport: A Position Statement
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  Data: In this article, we suggest that character education in sport contexts can promote social justice. After defining key terms, we suggest that rethinking competition and the nature of team relationships is required to build a team culture responsive to concerns for social justice. The character of the team provides a nexus within which to develop individual character, which is elaborated in terms of four types of character: moral, civic, intellectual, and performance character. To promote commitment to social justice, character educators can focus on three elements of moral character: moral reasoning, the circle of moral regard, and moral identity. Within civic character, three themes are elaborated: human dignity, full participation, and accountability. The dimensions of critical thinking, willful ignorance, and prioritizing the marginalized are discussed in relation to intellectual character. Performance character is discussed in relation to an ethic of excellence. Finally, conclusions for character educators are elaborated.
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