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Principles and Practices of Designing Narrative Distance for Transformative Learning Experiences

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Title: Principles and Practices of Designing Narrative Distance for Transformative Learning Experiences
Language: English
Authors: Taeger, Stephan D., Yanchar, Stephen C.
Source: Educational Media International. 2019 56(2):164-181.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 18
Publication Date: 2019
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Transformative Learning, Specialists, Instructional Design, Emotional Response, Cognitive Processes, Interviews, Aesthetics, Audiences, Imagery, Story Telling, Clergy, Theater Arts, Authors, College Faculty, Artists, Films, Painting (Visual Arts), Professional Personnel
DOI: 10.1080/09523987.2019.1614322
ISSN: 0952-3987
Abstract: Narratives have a unique ability to grant listeners emotional and cognitive space in a way that encourages them to choose how they will make sense of a story. This effect, called narrative distance, also has the potential to help create transformative learning experiences. This article is a qualitative research study of experts who regularly design for narrative distance. Six experts from a variety of fields were interviewed about the principles and practices of designing for narrative distance with the purpose of discovering ways that instructional designers can better facilitate transformative learning experiences. A variety of principles and practices on how to create narrative distance are categorized under four themes: cognitive space, emotional space, invite change, and meaningful content. General comments are also given on the application of these insights to instructional design along with further suggestions for research.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2019
Accession Number: EJ1217612
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0136728152;5b101jun.19;2019Jun01.02:05;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0136728152-1">Principles and practices of designing narrative distance for transformative learning experiences </title> <p>Narratives have a unique ability to grant listeners emotional and cognitive space in a way that encourages them to choose how they will make sense of a story. This effect, called narrative distance, also has the potential to help create transformative learning experiences. This article is a qualitative research study of experts who regularly design for narrative distance. Six experts from a variety of fields were interviewed about the principles and practices of designing for narrative distance with the purpose of discovering ways that instructional designers can better facilitate transformative learning experiences. A variety of principles and practices on how to create narrative distance are categorized under four themes: cognitive space, emotional space, invite change, and meaningful content. General comments are also given on the application of these insights to instructional design along with further suggestions for research.</p> <p>Keywords: Instructional design; transformative learning experiences; narrative; aesthetics; design practice</p> <p>In recent years, instructional design has increasingly drawn upon the broad subject of narrative to inform its own principles of design. Scholars have explored narrative and its relationship to instructional design in areas such as problem solving (Jonassen & Hernandez-Serrano, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref1">13</reflink>]), aesthetics (Parrish, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref2">19</reflink>]), reframing students' stories (Goldsworthy & Honebein, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref3">10</reflink>]), narrative structure (Hokanson & Fraher, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref4">12</reflink>]), video games (Dickey, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref5">7</reflink>]), online learning (Lindgren & McDaniel, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref6">16</reflink>]), and digital learning environments (Aylett, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref7">2</reflink>]). It is not surprising that instructional design scholars have found narrative to be a rich source of insight as it is often recognized as central to understanding human experience (e.g., Bruner, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref8">5</reflink>]; Polkinghorne, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref9">20</reflink>]; Schank, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref10">21</reflink>]; Young & Saver, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref11">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>One of the potential reasons for drawing upon narrative in instructional design is its ability to invite change in people's conduct and perspective on themselves (e.g., Ackerman, Goldstein, Shapiro, & Bargh, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref12">1</reflink>]; Goldstein & Cialdini, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref13">9</reflink>]; Green & Brock, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref14">11</reflink>]; Kaufman & Libby, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref15">14</reflink>]). Among the elements of narrative that invite people to change is a phenomenon we call narrative distance. This phenomenon, as Brothers ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref16">4</reflink>]) pointed out, is discussed in many ways in a variety of different fields. For the purposes of this paper, based on Brothers' ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref17">4</reflink>]) work, we defined narrative distance "as the cognitive or emotional space afforded by indirect communication that invites listeners to make sense of content" (Taeger, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref18">22</reflink>], p. 6). For example, since a reader of a novel is not directly addressed by the author (only indirectly through the world of the narrative), the reader is granted the emotional and cognitive space to choose how they will make sense of the story (Craddock, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref19">6</reflink>]; Warner, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref20">23</reflink>]). As opposed to being told which conclusions to make, feelings to experience, or behaviors to adopt, narrative distance invites listeners to make these decisions for themselves (Craddock, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref21">6</reflink>]). Obviously, much of instruction should be direct. But, there are times when instructional designers may find it advantageous to use indirect communication in ways similar to narrative.</p> <p>For example, suppose a team of corporate trainers is asked to develop online training modules for a human resources department. These online training modules are intended to help employees remember and implement key aspects of a company's mission and values. Since the employees are already very familiar with the company's stated values, the instructional design team decides to use narrative distance to help employees apply the organization's mission and values in new ways. In order to do this, the designers create a monthly movie, animation or short story that depicts a fictional employee improving in one of the company's values. These short stories do not contain narration or moralizing, rather the employees are given an opportunity to discover for themselves how the story demonstrates one of the company's values. Before the online training models are created, management is also asked about the specific ways they would like to see employees improve in the workplace. These suggestions are incorporated in indirect ways into the trainings. Since these potential areas of improvement are taught indirectly, employees are given the opportunity to discover ways to develop without feeling defensive towards instruction.</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-2">Narrative distance and instructional design</hd> <p>Rather than generally arguing that instructional designers need to adopt narrative distance, it is important to identify which aspects of instructional design might benefit from the affordances of narrative distance. One potential area that narrative distance may have application is creating what Wilson and Parrish ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref22">24</reflink>]) have called transformative learning experiences. They described transformative learning experiences (TLEs) as "an <emph>especially meaningful encounter that leaves a lasting impact on a person's sense of competence or place in the world"</emph> (Wilson & Parrish, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref23">24</reflink>], pp. 11–12). Thus, unlike some scholars in the subfield of adult education who discuss transformative learning in terms such as emancipation and the restructuring of one's assumptions (Brookfield, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref24">3</reflink>]; Mezirow, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref25">18</reflink>]), Wilson and Parrish ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref26">24</reflink>]) focus primarily on "exceptional instructional experiences" (p. 11).</p> <p>Narrative distance may provide one avenue for creating transformative learning experiences (Taeger, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref27">22</reflink>]). Table 1 shows how narrative distance can meet many of Wilson and Parrish's ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref28">24</reflink>], p. 12) key indicators for TLEs (Taeger, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref29">22</reflink>]). The table only shows relevant sub-indicators from Wilson and Parrish's ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref30">24</reflink>]) framework.</p> <p>Table 1. How narrative distance can lead to TLEs (Wilson & Parrish, 2011, p. 12).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Wilson and Parrish's Key Indicators</td><td>Sub Indicators</td><td>Narrative Distance</td><td>Benefit of Narrative Distance</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><italic>Personal Meaning</italic></td><td>Lasting Impression</td><td>Invites a post-instructional wrestle with learning material</td><td>Cognitive Space</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Part of the person's self-narrative</td><td>Has the same effect of inspirational media that participants can see as a transformational moment</td><td>Cognitive Space</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Mythologized by the learner</td><td>Allows students to be open to making changes related to their "identity or sense of calling" (Wilson & Parrish, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr24">2011</xref>, p. 12)</td><td>Emotional Space</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Competence</italic></td><td>Significant restructuring of subject-matter schemas</td><td>Invites students to make sense of content</td><td>Cognitive Space</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Agency, efficacy, or empowerment</td><td>Since full implications of learning can only be discovered with cognitive effort, students must choose whether to make sense of content or not</td><td>Cognitive Space</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Relationships</italic></td><td>A call to action</td><td>Students are open to moral summons that material may make</td><td>Emotional Space</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Increased capacity to understand alternative points of view</td><td>Prevents defensiveness to opposing points of view</td><td>Emotional Space</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Since other fields have long recognized the benefits associated with narrative distance (Brothers, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref31">4</reflink>]; Craddock, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref32">6</reflink>]), and since this principle can also be applied to creating transformative learning experiences, our research focused on the following questions: (a) What can be learned from practitioners in other fields about designing for narrative distance? (b) How might insights from other fields inform the process of creating transformative learning experiences?</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-3">Method</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to better understand how design principles and practices in other fields can help instructional designers create narrative distance in a way that invites transformative learning experiences. In conducting our research, we drew upon Fleming, Gaidys, and Robb's ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref33">8</reflink>]) Gadamerian-based hermeneutic approach. This method centers around five steps: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref34">1</reflink>) "Deciding upon a research question;" (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref35">2</reflink>) "Identification of preunderstandings;" (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref36">3</reflink>) "Gaining understanding through dialogue with participants;" (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref37">4</reflink>) "Gaining understanding through dialogue with the text;" (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref38">5</reflink>) "Establishing trustworthiness," (Fleming et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref39">8</reflink>] pp. 116–119). A central aspect to this method is achieving a "shared understanding...between the researcher and participant" (Fleming et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref40">8</reflink>], p. 118). This is accomplished in part when a researcher identifies their own preunderstandings and then modifies them as the research process unfolds. We did this by comparing incoming data (both from interviews and artifact analysis) with previous theoretical work (Taeger, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref41">22</reflink>]) on narrative distance. Another key aspect of Fleming et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref42">8</reflink>]) method is the hermeneutic circle. This concept manifests itself throughout the study, including as researchers transcribe interviews before subsequent interviews for the purpose of generating "feedback and further discussion" (Fleming et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref43">8</reflink>], p. 188). The hermeneutic circle plays a role as the researcher interprets parts of the interviews in light of the whole and the whole in light of the parts. Both of these techniques are described further in our method below.</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-4">Participants</hd> <p>We interviewed six professionals who design narrative distance into their own work. These professionals have actual experience with designing products in their fields (see Table 2), as opposed to having just studied or taught in their respective disciplines. We interviewed professionals from the fields of film, theatre, writing, homiletics (preaching), and painting.</p> <p>Table 2. Participants.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Pseudonym</td><td>Gender</td><td>Professional Titles</td><td>Approx. Years' Experience</td><td>Highest Degree</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Robert</td><td>Male</td><td>Fiction Author, Professor</td><td>34</td><td>PhD</td></tr><tr><td>Rebecca</td><td>Female</td><td>Theatre Director, Actress, Playwright</td><td>15</td><td>Bachelors</td></tr><tr><td>Sophia</td><td>Female</td><td>Painter, Teacher</td><td>44</td><td>Bachelors</td></tr><tr><td>Matthew</td><td>Male</td><td>Film Director, Producer, Lecturer</td><td>43</td><td>Bachelors</td></tr><tr><td>Michael</td><td>Male</td><td>Theatre Director, Actor, Playwright</td><td>30</td><td>Bachelors</td></tr><tr><td>Jonathan</td><td>Male</td><td>Preacher, Professor</td><td>30</td><td>PhD</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Our criteria for choosing these fields were that they are historically known to use narrative distance for the purpose of influencing transformation on some level, in ways that seem generally consistent with Wilson and Parrish's ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref44">24</reflink>]) framework. More specifically, we interviewed professionals whose designs might become "part of [a] person's self-narrative...mythologized;" or lead to "significant restructuring ...empowerment...a call to action [or an] increased capacity to understand alternative points of view" (Wilson & Parrish, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref45">24</reflink>], p. 12).</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-5">Data collection and analysis</hd> <p>In light of Fleming et al's. ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref46">8</reflink>]) description of the hermeneutic circle, we interviewed each participant three times in order to deepen understanding. We also transcribed and analyzed previous interviews before conducting subsequent interviews. In drawing further upon Fleming's et al. ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref47">8</reflink>]) Gadamerian-based approach, we analyzed the data and adjusted preunderstandings of narrative distance by comparing the interviews with earlier research (Taeger, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref48">22</reflink>]) on narrative distance. The three interviews began with more general questions leading to more specific ones. During the first interview, we asked questions about the background of participants and the experiences they hoped their media creates. After the first interview, we analyzed artifacts that each participant created and provided for us by looking for examples of narrative distance or other related issues that we could ask the participants to reflect upon. Analyzing artifacts enabled us to triangulate our findings. These artifacts included movies, plays, essays, sermons, and paintings. During the second interview, we mainly focused on questions related to how the participants indirectly invite people to think, feel or act differently using their respective medium. During the third interview, we followed up on issues that we felt needed to be explored in more depth.</p> <p>Our process for data analysis drew upon Yanchar and Hawkley ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref49">25</reflink>]) and Fleming et al. ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref50">8</reflink>]) by getting a sense of the whole interview, identifying themes and bringing these into dialogue with preunderstandings, relating themes back to the whole and finding comments that illustrate shared understanding between ourselves and the participant. As Yanchar and Hawkley specify ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref51">25</reflink>], p. 276):</p> <p>Overall, this process entailed the following steps: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref52">1</reflink>) Gaining a sense of the whole by reading the transcripts and identifying preliminary themes; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref53">2</reflink>) Refining these preliminary themes into more formal themes – merging, splitting, deleting, adding, editing, etc.; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref54">3</reflink>) Comparing and contrasting themes to look for connections among them, while continuing to refine; (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref55">4</reflink>) Organizing themes according to metathemes and placing them into an overall thematic structure, while continuing to refine themes and metathemes; (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref56">5</reflink>) Selecting illustrative quotes from the transcripts to exemplify themes developed in steps 1–4; (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref57">6</reflink>) Considering each theme and meta-theme in light of the whole, and continuing to refine; (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref58">7</reflink>) Considering the whole in light of each theme and meta-theme, and continuing to refine; (<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref59">8</reflink>) Examining the coherence of the overall thematic interpretation and refining the overall structure.</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-6">Trustworthiness</hd> <p>The methods we used to establish trustworthiness were based upon Lincoln and Guba ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref60">15</reflink>]). We invited participants to review our analysis (member checking) in order to ensure the accuracy of interpretations by emailing our conclusions to participants. A competent peer reviewed our audit trail and findings in order to ensure appropriate standards were maintained. We also kept field notes of the interviews, a reflexive journal of major decisions and a record of our evolving preunderstandings. Furthermore, we triangulated our findings by comparing what we found in the interviews with the artifacts to give us multiple perspectives on the phenomenon. Finally, we performed negative case analysis by searching for evidence that ran contrary to our emerging themes or that added important dimension to the results as we formulated them.</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-7">Findings</hd> <p>The themes created to organize these data came from our evolving understanding of narrative distance as it relates to TLEs. This evolving understanding of narrative distance came from discussions with a colleague, maintaining a research journal, and reflection upon an author's use of narrative distance from the literature (which are hermeneutic research activities recommend by Fleming et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref61">8</reflink>]). As opposed to simply offering effective storytelling techniques, the four themes we identified represent general aspects of narrative distance that facilitate the creation of TLEs. We used these four aspects in order to organize the findings related to our research question (how to create narrative distance) under two metathemes, each containing two themes themselves (see Table 3). All four themes must exist together as a whole in order for narrative distance to be used for TLEs.</p> <p>Table 3. Narrative distance for TLEs metathemes and themes.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td>Metatheme 1: Space</td></tr><tr><td> Theme 1: Cognitive Space</td></tr><tr><td> Theme 2: Emotional Space</td></tr><tr><td>Metatheme 2: Transformation</td></tr><tr><td> Theme 3: Invite Change</td></tr><tr><td> Theme 4: Meaningful Content</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>The quotes included in the following sections were chosen based on their insightfulness and lucidity in describing how to design for TLEs using narrative distance. As opposed to creating learning activities that give students a chance to discover information for themselves, these quotes focus on designing the learning content itself in a way that creates narrative distance. Pseudonyms were used for the participants. Some quotes were modified slightly in order to improve clarity. Despite these changes, the intent of each quote was preserved as suggested by each participant's approval during member checks. Also, some minor changes were by made by omitting part words, repetition, ellipses, etc., after member checks because of requests made by participants.</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-8">Metatheme 1: space</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0136728152-9">Theme 1: cognitive space</hd> <p>This theme emphasizes how a particular medium can allow an audience space to interpret content for themselves. As opposed to directly stating the message or theme of a narrative, when designers create cognitive space, they find ways to indirectly communicate.</p> <p>In some way, all the participants mentioned the importance of using concrete material such as stories or imagery in creating cognitive space. Michael, a theatre director, described how abstract moralizing is not necessary when telling stories: "Don't teach me a lesson. Tell me a story, and if there's a lesson in it, that'll seep in." Rebecca, also a theatre director, explained that effective stories naturally bring out messages: "when you tell a well-written story well, the messages and themes are self-evident." In a similar way, Jonathan, a preacher, shared why he uses stories in his sermons: "that gives them room to evaluate the issue on their own, as opposed to just having to accept my evaluation of the issue."</p> <p>In order to highlight a message in a play, Rebecca explained how emphasizing certain aspects of a scene helps convey a message: "you should ... come up with the why of the scene... and choose lines that are more important, and within lines, words that are more important, and you color the words to convey the message behind it." Not only can highlighting certain lines and words help communicate a message, Matthew, a film director, suggested that film expresses meaning through the behavior of characters: "typically what you're doing in a given scene is you're setting the interaction of the characters up in such a way that their behavior communicates the meaning." Jonathan explained how different kinds of concrete material designed to give cognitive space can be tied together during a sermon: INTERVIEWER:how do you get people to think without telling them what to think?JONATHAN:I really do think most of this comes down to imagery... I think of the imagery, the figurative language, the storytelling, the metaphors, etc. as the primary stuff of the sermon, and then think of the direct discourse as the supporting commentary that helps weave it together.</p> <p>Beyond concrete content (as opposed to abstract principles) and highlighting parts of a scene, Michael mentioned how the "fourth wall" (the imaginary wall between an audience and the characters on stage) creates cognitive space when he said: "It allows you to think about it in whatever way you want to think about it, because nobody is turning to you and saying, 'Did you get that?'" Jonathan, on the other hand, described how preachers, who do not have the advantage of the fourth wall, can still help hearers to draw their own conclusions: "I only use stories that I think have a point of identification with my hearers... Now I don't have to go 'now pretend you are Jonathan,' because that just breaks down the walls and lets nobody's imagination engage." Likewise, Robert, a fiction author, explained how the use of cognitive space does not necessarily have to imply that the absence of an author who is guiding the reader's thoughts: "they could be playing with the reader and extrapolating other meanings that the reader might not think of. So I think it's more complicated than whether the author intervenes or doesn't intervene." Although all the participants talk about cognitive space on some level, Sophia, a painter, suggested that viewers also want to be directed to what symbols represent: "a lot of people like to be directed to what it means, they want to know what it means." In addition, Sophia said</p> <p>when you open it up to give them freedom on their own, probably less percent will discover it. Less percent of your viewer will discover the symbolisms in it, but there will be some that will do it ... on their own.</p> <p>When questioned about this, Sophia said, "It depends on what they are seeking in the visual, how long they spend looking at it too, that is interesting because the longer they look at it the more they are going to see the symbolisms."</p> <p>Besides discussing the ways that various storytellers create narrative distance, many of the participants commented on the role of technology in storytelling. Matthew suggested that limiting the use of high fidelity technology may also help create cognitive space. In contrasting a novel with a movie, he said: "if you read a novel ... you're going to manufacture the images and the meaning of the story."</p> <p>Robert offered a particularly poignant way of helping his readers interpret his writing for themselves when he suggested creating stories that contain some sort of moral ambiguity. Describing one of his fictional characters, he said: "I want readers to have empathy for her situation... but I want her to do enough things that they would think, 'Oh, that is wrong.' ... That they can't just say, 'Oh, I agree with her completely.'" In the same vein, when discussing how an author can purposely leave some moral ambiguities unanswered, Robert said: "to me, the muscle that solves a moral or ethical dilemma is more important than the cognitive answer you get from it."</p> <p>When asking participants about how to invite an audience to think, both Matthew and Michael maintained that emotional experience is what carries thought or meaning. Michael phrased his goal as a theatre artist in the following way: "to make you feel something. And the dichotomy of that is your feelings make you think about stuff." Matthew similarly explained, "as you work through the film, it's the emotion that's carrying the meaning rather than something that's going on intellectually in your head."</p> <p>In addition to using emotion to indirectly invoke thought or create meaning, Jonathan described how the unique way some sermons end can also allow for cognitive space: "we could start with the particulars, and you move through storytelling ... to a point where you sort of stop and you leave the hearers to decide what to do with it on their own." In a similar way, Sophia explained how she also puts responsibility on the viewer of her paintings: "I try to intrigue them by saying, you know, 'There's things in these paintings that you can find on your own. Your own symbolisms.' And then I leave it there, and then they'll come up with them."</p> <p>It should be noted that Rebecca stated multiple times that she valued a certain directness in stories. For example, she said:</p> <p>...audiences respond to truth. To direct truth. Everyone responds. If you're just telling the truth, they won't feel [pause] lectured. It's when you sidestep around it, and you say, "This is what we're trying to say, but we're going to say it in this way that we kind of hope leads to that." And it's indirect. If you don't directly just tell the message, directly tell the truth, you lose it.</p> <p>Interestingly, Rebecca also affirmed the value of one identifying their own messages or themes in a play.</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-10">Theme 2: emotional space</hd> <p>Whereas cognitive space allows a listener to create meaning, emotional space permits the listener to choose how they will experience the material. In other words, the content presented does not seek to manipulate or force the listener to feel something. Instead, when emotional space is present, the listener feels respected, valued, safe, and understood.</p> <p>In regards to emotional space, one idea that participants talked about repeatedly was authenticity. Michael suggested that material that is inauthentic is manipulative: INTERVIEWER:What happens for the listener when something appears to be inauthentic? When they're watching a show and they go, "Oh, that didn't seem real."MICHAEL:Well the word that most people use is "manipulative." You're just trying to manipulate me... if we try to take shortcuts ... then it's the same thing as just using a lot of violins in a musical soundtrack. Sweeping violins to create an emotion that's not really being represented.</p> <p>In this sense, emotional space is violated because listeners do not feel valued or respected. Matthew explained that inauthentic emotion often appears in a film where human conflict is simplified: "...the inauthentic emotion comes largely because human conflict gets... or conflict in the story gets simplified." In the same vein, Matthew identified another way that stories become simplistic: "the expression of emotion comes through dialogue rather than through the construction of behavior and action. And those are films that tend to make emotion and dialogue pretty simplistic."</p> <p>In order to prevent manipulation, which can infringe on emotional space, Michael suggested that playwrights should put priority on character over the story itself, otherwise you get: "[a] character who has been fleshed out [who] suddenly does something that you don't believe that they would do to serve the story."</p> <p>Not only will manipulation violate emotional space, Rebecca warned how the excess use of technology can be emotionally repelling. Speaking of one play she observed, Rebecca said:</p> <p>the director didn't trust the show... so they brought in these big screens and gave everybody 3D glasses... And they turned it into ... this technical spectacle because they didn't trust the show. They said, 'Oh, we've got to make this bigger and better, and more interesting, and more exciting." And... it cheapened it terribly.</p> <p>Both Robert and Matthew explained how emotional space can be violated when they spoke of moments in a story or film where the emotion is "unearned." Robert described how some readers reacted to such a moment in one of his own pieces when they said that Robert was making too many judgments through his writing: "I was making judgments that they felt were excessive... so there was emotion there that I hadn't earned." Also, speaking of unearned emotion, Matthew said, "one definition from one film critic I heard ... is that sentimentality is unearned emotion... it comes from a lack of recognition ... of how complex people are." Robert suggested that writers can prevent unearned emotion through the kind of language they use: "You can communicate in a kind of stripped down, denotative... no tricky connotation in your words... if you cloud the writing up with too many adjectives and other things like that, it has unearned emotion." As noted above, Michael emphasized the importance of character over story, Matthew also said that filmmakers can prevent unearned emotion through the actual structure of the story: "this again comes back to the question of structure. Both individual scenes and how the scenes add up across the whole arc of the film." Speaking of a related topic, Jonathan explained how preachers can use structure to slowly move into a sensitive topic and thus create emotional space:</p> <p>When Craddock [a homiletician] and others in preaching talk about distance, it is usually around troubling matters and issues that you are afraid that if you draw too close too quickly, people's defenses just go up and they won't listen. So, you got to create distance first and then slowly let them in.</p> <p>In addition to avoiding unearned emotion, Michael offered another way to create emotional space when he said that characters who are experiencing emotion in a story should appear as if they are trying to control their emotions:</p> <p>what moves us is when we see someone trying not to be moved. If you lay it all out, there's nothing left for me... something happens to this character, they start to feel it, and then they pull it back; you get to fill in the rest if you empathize.</p> <p>Sophia described a similar phenomenon (in its opposite form) when she spoke of paintings that are excessively detailed: "You may love every eyelash or love a very tight edge on everything, but ... for me it takes away the emotion. It doesn't allow that feeling of the personal viewer to come into it. It stops you."</p> <p>Sophia also suggested that offensive or degrading content can also infringe on emotional space: "Many people like to have those dramatic things and those horrifying things. That does not uplift me... when something is overdone and they're there just showing all the garbage and the blood and the horror, that's just too much." However, she suggested that difficult topics can still be depicted indirectly through what she called "symbolisms." She described one painting that portrayed a religious figure who was bleeding: "I put him in a red-type clothing. I did not show dripping blood... but I showed agony, but I didn't show it in a way that it would hurt someone's feelings." It should be noted that Robert and Matthew (as noted below) argued that provoking people on some level can invite participants to reconsider an issue as well.</p> <p>Using the fourth wall is another way to invite emotional space. Although Matthew explained that there are advantages in sometimes breaking the fourth wall, he also explained how the fourth wall can create a protection for the viewer: "the value of the fourth wall is protective. It allows the viewer to enter without real emotional risk into the experience of the movie." Michael said the fourth wall allows the viewer to choose how they will react: "It allows you as an audience member to examine it to any extent that you want. And if you're not embarrassed about demonstrating your emotions, feeling it any way you want."</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-11">Metatheme 2: transformation</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0136728152-12">Theme 3: invite change</hd> <p>At the same time that an audience is granted cognitive and emotional space, for narrative distance to be used for TLEs, the audience must also be invited to change. This theme suggests ways that those involved in the arts invite their audience to think, feel, or behave differently.</p> <p>Michael suggested that the primary way he invites his audience to change is to help them feel or experience something: "Some people think that people... will be motivated to change based on what they think. I don't think that's true. I think people are more motivated to change based on how they feel." Rebecca had a similar viewpoint: "most of the things that you learn in theater aren't informational... it changes you and change only really happens on an emotional level. The information by itself doesn't have the power to change you." When Michael was asked how a play can help someone to feel or experience something, he responded by saying:</p> <p>I can't get you to internalize [an] abstraction to a point where you would turn it into something that you would act upon ... unless you're invested in some way. And the only way to get you invested with some idea is to see a practical representation of what that idea can do to you as a human being.</p> <p>Beyond just becoming invested in a concrete example of an idea as a way to create an emotional response (and thus invite change), Rebecca further suggested that the audience must be invested in the characters of a story: "if you care about characters then you will be affected by what they do."</p> <p>In addition to creating an emotional response as a way to invite transformation, Robert said a reader changes as a character changes in a story: "in a novel, the character is the one who changes and the reader changes vicariously with that character." Jonathan explained that a similar kind of shift can also happen as a sermon goes from stating a problem to a solution: "for me, every sermon needs a hinge. Which means you've got to give people a chance to turn. And the turn conceptually is from the ... problem to the answer."</p> <p>Not only can character change or a shift in the sermon invite transformation, but the very content of the narrative itself can also be used to invite people to see differently. When speaking of documentary films that are meant to provoke people, Matthew said, "you specifically build into the film interviews and comments that will provoke people and get them talking." Similarly, Robert spoke of an author who seeks to disturb his audience: "he's crossing boundaries in order to disturb someone. And it will either make them mad, or it will make them see the issue in a different way."</p> <p>Robert suggested an audience can be invited to think differently when an author uses a story to reveal reality in a certain way. Speaking of another writer who tries to empower young women who read romance novels, Robert said that this author:</p> <p>lead[s] them through a process of showing what she believes is reality, that people who let their heads get clouded with emotions make more mistakes than people whose heads are not clouded with emotions. And so it feels empirical to her... a truth of the universe.</p> <p>Not only can the world itself be revealed a certain way, Jonathan suggested that listeners themselves can be defined in a certain way in order to invite transformation. He said,</p> <p>Being defined a certain way I think inspires action better... instead of saying, "We all could be the kind of church that does so-and-so," ... instead I say, "We are church, and that means that we do so-and-so." I name it in a declarative statement instead of an imperative... So it's indirect.</p> <p>This method indirectly invites the audience to reconsider their very identity. Sophia explained how paintings connected to one's heritage can do something similar: "if they look at an image that's their heritage, what that does they see the identity of that person and also relate with their own identity of who they are." Robert said that certain characters can be created in a way to help influence an audience to realize what kind of identity they would <emph>not</emph> like to possess. Referring to Mr. Collins from Jane Austin's Pride and Prejudice, Robert said: "he's a laughable character... And I think that's tactically and very intelligently used to help a reader say, 'I don't want to be like that.'"</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-13">Theme 4: meaningful content</hd> <p>Even if all the other aspects of narrative distance for TLEs are present, if the content is not meaningful to a listener there will be no desire to make sense of the material presented or to make changes. In this section, meaningful content refers to material that audience members care about or with which they identify.</p> <p>Rebecca described what happens when an audience member sees themselves in a play: "seeing people in situations that can apply to them, they will say, 'when I saw you do that, it helped me realize what to do.'" Michael said that when we engage with a narrative, we are hoping, whether we realize it or not, to see ourselves in the story: "we're hoping that we are going to be able to liken this thing unto ourselves; that something in there is going to happen, where I can look at these people and go, '...I know exactly how he feels."' Jonathan suggested that it's important to specifically pinpoint who the audience should identify with and then to maintain that point of view throughout a sermon:</p> <p>Where are you going to ask them to identify, and then are you going to be able to keep that point of view throughout? So don't flip side and go, "Now some of you are like the dad." You've just lost almost everybody.</p> <p>Matthew spoke of learning a similar principle at a film festival, "A good film story is about one person... because if it's only about one person that gets you to identify emotionally, much more intensively."</p> <p>According to Rebecca, the characters of a story have to be important to the audience: "If the relationship between the character and whom she's talking to was important to you, what she was saying would be important to you." One way that Rebecca suggested that an audience can care more about a character is to watch them struggle for an objective: "As they try harder and harder and harder to resolve their whatever problem was you root for them more as they say and do things that make you like them more. Then, you care more about what they are doing." In addition to caring about a character, Sophia discussed the power of a painting that is connected to someone's heritage: "I take those people and I set them up to represent their heritage, and it changes their lives... the acquaintance to their history changes their lives, because they realize who they are."</p> <p>Not only should the characters be important to the audience, according to Jonathan, the preacher should be asking questions in the sermon that the audience will want answered. When speaking of the opposite of being boring, Jonathan said: "The opposite for preaching ... is not entertaining, but being engaging. And that requires you to know where your people are so that they find that you're asking the questions they ask."</p> <p>In a counterintuitive way, Michael emphasized how the specifics of a story help it to be generalized to the audience:</p> <p>here's the dichotomy, the paradox of telling stories. The more precise the details, the more universal your audience can be... when you get really, really specific, you talked about a certain place, and weather, and smells, and things like that, even if the people listening have never been to that place, it's real enough that they can attach something from their life to that.</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-14">Discussion</hd> <p>Utilizing Fleming et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref62">8</reflink>]) hermeneutic approach, this study was designed to see what insights from other fields that use narrative distance could be applied to instructional design for the purpose of creating what Wilson and Parrish's ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref63">24</reflink>]) call transformative learning experiences. The participants revealed many methods, techniques and principles for creating a narrative distance that have application for instructional design. Table 4 helps summarize key ideas taken from quotes under each theme. These principles and practices, when kept in balance with each other, can be applied to instructional design in order to create narrative distance.</p> <p>Table 4. Principles and practice of designing for narrative distance.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Theme</td><td>Design Principle or Practice</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Cognitive Space</td><td>Use concrete material without abstract moralizing Emphasize certain lines or words Use the behavior of characters to communicate meaning Tie concrete material together with supporting commentary Create a "fourth wall" Refrain from directly inviting learners to identify Guide learners' thoughts with supporting commentary Appropriately limit technology Use moral ambiguity Use emotional experience to convey meaning Conclude in a way that invites learners to make sense of material for themselves</td></tr><tr><td>Emotional space</td><td>Use authentic material Do not try to create emotion that is not really represented Avoid simplifying human conflict Avoid expressing emotion through dialogue Do not change how a character would act in order to serve the story Avoid using technology in a way that cheapens material Avoid unearned emotion Use denotative words as opposed to connotative Move slowly into sensitive topics Characters should appear as if they are trying to restrain emotions Use symbolism for sensitive topics Create a "fourth wall"</td></tr><tr><td>Invite Change</td><td>Create an emotional experience Create investment in a meaningful representation of an idea or in characters Help learners change vicariously along with characters Move from problem to answer Provoke people in a way that invites them to think or see things differently Use a story to reveal the nature of reality Define the learner in a way that connects them to a larger narrative Connect learner to heritage Use characters to indirectly show learners how they should not behave</td></tr><tr><td>Meaningful Content</td><td>Create Identification Do not change the character with whom learners are intended to identify Help learners care for characters Create characters who struggle for an objective Connect people to their heritage Ask questions that the students are asking Use details</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Although discussed somewhat in earlier theoretical work (Taeger, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref64">22</reflink>]) on narrative distance, the importance of creating "loose edges" (a term Sophia used) was deepened and clarified. By "loose edges" we mean instructional content that avoids abstract moralizing or allows the learner room for interpretation. When trying to create TLEs, it might be tempting to show learners directly how they should be transformed (Craddock, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref65">6</reflink>]), but participants in this study emphasized the value of presenting concrete examples without overt exhortations. Of course, "loose edges" cannot be an excuse for sloppy design practices. Rather, instructional designers can identify strategic places to invite learners to make their own discoveries using concrete illustrations.</p> <p>Going through the process of this study also changed our preunderstandings by helping us to realize which aspects of narrative distance are essential for creating TLEs. On the one hand, instructional content could be shared in a way that allows students to make their own discoveries without that content necessarily inviting those students to make transformational changes. Therefore, when one is using narrative distance to create TLEs, designers should include methods that invite transformation (theme 3) in areas that are meaningful (theme 4) to the learner. In this way, using narrative distance for transformation becomes a balancing act. Without the use of techniques that create space (metatheme 1) learners might become defensive or feel manipulated. Without the use of methods that invite transformation (metatheme 2) learners will not be guided to meet learning objectives related to TLEs.</p> <p>Compared with previous theoretical work (Taeger, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref66">22</reflink>]), the issue of authenticity gained importance in regards to creating narrative distance. This finding is line with McDonald ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref67">17</reflink>]) who interviewed filmmakers looking for applications to instructional design and also emphasized the importance of authentic storytelling. As some of the participants suggested, violations of authenticity (or realism) can lead to listeners feeling manipulated. Therefore, when designers are trying to create TLEs, instructional content should reflect the realities and complexities of life, otherwise, it may be hard for learners to open up emotionally in ways that could lead to transformation.</p> <p>A central aspect of a narrative spoken of or implied by the participants is the power of vicarious experience. Kaufman and Libby ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref68">14</reflink>]) have shown that when readers begin to experience what characters do in a story, the reader's behavior will begin to reflect that of the characters. This principle has a unique application for instructional design intended to create TLEs. After deciding which cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes are desired, instructional designers can use characters in instructional stories, examples, or anecdotes to indirectly influence learners by having these characters demonstrate the intended changes. By itself, this would not necessarily be a new instructional practice. However, by combining this technique with the other principles discussed in this study, designers can access the unique affordances of narrative distance.</p> <p>Some participants emphasized the importance of context in creating narrative distance. In other words, in order to create impactful moments, listeners need to go through a process that makes contextual "deposits" that eventually lead to a later emotional payoff. This is inherent in narrative itself; effective stories invite us to take a journey. Although Hokanson and Fraher ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref69">12</reflink>]) have explored the narrative structure and its relationship to instructional design, this study shows how narrative structure also creates narrative distance since learners are granted time to invest in the complexities, issues, and characters associated with a given topic.</p> <p>In light of potential further research avenues, this study focused mainly on what designers can do to create narrative distance for TLEs, but it may be helpful to see which of these methods work most effectively by performing qualitative studies on students who experience narrative distance during instruction. In addition, since the design of narrative distance often implies the creation or collecting of instructional stories and illustrations, practical design suggestions on how to create these in cost effective and time efficient ways may also be useful.</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-15">Conclusion</hd> <p>If instructional designers are going to take full advantage of the affordances offered by narrative, the indirect nature of story cannot be ignored. This study suggested how professionals in a variety fields use the indirect nature of narrative to create powerful experiences in a way that can be applied to TLEs. This effect can be created as designers use these techniques to produce a balance between allowing the learner space to interpret and inviting the student to change in meaningful ways.</p> <hd id="AN0136728152-16">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.</p> <ref id="AN0136728152-17"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref12" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Ackerman, J. M., Goldstein, N. J., Shapiro, J. R., & Bargh, J. A. (2009). You wear me out: The vicarious depletion of self-control. Psychological Science, 20, 326 – 332.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref7" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Aylett, R. S. (2006). And they both lived happily ever after? Digital stories and learning. In G. Dettori, T. Giannetti, A. Paiva, & A. Vaz (Eds.), Technology-mediated narrative environments for learning (pp. 5 – 25). 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New York, NY : Charles Scribner & Sons.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Taeger, S. D. (2018). Using narrative distance to invite transformative learning experiences (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Warner, C. T. (2001). Bonds that make us free: Healing our relationships, coming to ourselves. Salt Lake City, UT : Shadow Mountain.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wilson, B. G., & Parrish, P. E. (2011). Transformative learning experience: Aim higher, gain more. Educational Technology, 51, 10 – 15.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Yanchar, S. C., & Hawkley, M. (2014). "There's got to be a better way to do this": A qualitative investigation of informal learning among instructional designers. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62, 271 – 291.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Young, K., & Saver, J. L. (2001). The neurology of narrative. 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  Data: Principles and Practices of Designing Narrative Distance for Transformative Learning Experiences
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Educational+Media+International%22"><i>Educational Media International</i></searchLink>. 2019 56(2):164-181.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: 10.1080/09523987.2019.1614322
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  Data: 0952-3987
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  Data: Narratives have a unique ability to grant listeners emotional and cognitive space in a way that encourages them to choose how they will make sense of a story. This effect, called narrative distance, also has the potential to help create transformative learning experiences. This article is a qualitative research study of experts who regularly design for narrative distance. Six experts from a variety of fields were interviewed about the principles and practices of designing for narrative distance with the purpose of discovering ways that instructional designers can better facilitate transformative learning experiences. A variety of principles and practices on how to create narrative distance are categorized under four themes: cognitive space, emotional space, invite change, and meaningful content. General comments are also given on the application of these insights to instructional design along with further suggestions for research.
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  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1217612
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1217612
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/09523987.2019.1614322
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 18
        StartPage: 164
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Transformative Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Specialists
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Instructional Design
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Emotional Response
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cognitive Processes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interviews
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Aesthetics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Audiences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Imagery
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Story Telling
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Clergy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Theater Arts
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Authors
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Faculty
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Artists
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Films
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Painting (Visual Arts)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Professional Personnel
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Principles and Practices of Designing Narrative Distance for Transformative Learning Experiences
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Taeger, Stephan D.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Yanchar, Stephen C.
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2019
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0952-3987
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 56
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Educational Media International
              Type: main
ResultId 1