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The Entrepreneurial University and Academic Discourses: The Meta-Synthesis of Higher Education Articles

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Title: The Entrepreneurial University and Academic Discourses: The Meta-Synthesis of Higher Education Articles
Language: English
Authors: Uslu, Baris (ORCID 0000-0001-5941-1507), Calikoglu, Alper (ORCID 0000-0002-7526-3740), Seggie, F. Nevra (ORCID 0000-0002-0657-6284), Seggie, Steven H. (ORCID 0000-0002-9551-8923)
Source: Higher Education Quarterly. Jul 2019 73(3):285-311.
Availability: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 27
Publication Date: 2019
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Entrepreneurship, Universities, College Faculty, Commercialization, Scholarship, Income, Journal Articles
DOI: 10.1111/hequ.12198
ISSN: 0951-5224
Abstract: The innovative teaching, knowledge and technology production and societal service activities of academics are largely discussed within the entrepreneurial university discourse in Higher Education journals. Therefore, this research focuses on a meta-synthesis of Higher Education articles to better understand the concepts of the entrepreneurial university and entrepreneurial academic. After the systematic elimination based on keywords and titles, 25 articles have been selected from the top 10 Higher Education journals in the SCImago Journal Rankings. Content analysis was performed on these articles to highlight the common operational areas in entrepreneurial universities and activities of entrepreneurial academics. The meta-synthesis shows that, both for universities and academics, entrepreneurship is overwhelmingly characterised by the commercialisation of scholarly activities that enrich institutional income revenue as well as academics' personal income. However, such an approach can distance universities from their mission of public good; so Higher Education administrators should create mechanisms that would allow both to take place in a balanced way.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2019
Accession Number: EJ1221293
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0137375449;d8501jul.19;2019Jul10.04:32;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0137375449-1">The entrepreneurial university and academic discourses: The meta‐synthesis of Higher Education articles </title> <sbt id="AN0137375449-2">INTRODUCTION</sbt> <p>The innovative teaching, knowledge and technology production and societal service activities of academics are largely discussed within the entrepreneurial university discourse in Higher Education journals. Therefore, this research focuses on a meta‐synthesis of Higher Education articles to better understand the concepts of the entrepreneurial university and entrepreneurial academic. After the systematic elimination based on keywords and titles, 25 articles have been selected from the top 10 Higher Education journals in the SCImago Journal Rankings. Content analysis was performed on these articles to highlight the common operational areas in entrepreneurial universities and activities of entrepreneurial academics. The meta‐synthesis shows that, both for universities and academics, entrepreneurship is overwhelmingly characterised by the commercialisation of scholarly activities that enrich institutional income revenue as well as academics' personal income. However, such an approach can distance universities from their mission of public good; so Higher Education administrators should create mechanisms that would allow both to take place in a balanced way.</p> <p>The entrepreneurship ecosystem is largely described around universities considering their economic and social contribution to the surrounding community. As the operating core in universities, academics are inherently expected to contribute to both economic growth and social development by means of their activities in universities and their collaborations with external stakeholders (Graham, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref1">19</reflink>]). In addition to economic and social expectations in society, the collective effort of academics towards achieving universities' own development introduced the terms entrepreneurial university and entrepreneurial academics.</p> <p>With the nature of its definition, a process or an activity which develops a business venture for profit in the business world or initiates interaction with stakeholders from the economic, political and social environments for a profit‐oriented business (Gartner, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref2">17</reflink>]), the idea of entrepreneurship found a strong place in the field of business and economics. Recent review studies on the literature in these fields (Miller, Alexander, Cunnigham, & Albats, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref3">29</reflink>]; Schmitz, Urbano, Dandolini, de Souza, & Guerrero, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref4">39</reflink>]) revealed that, within the term of academic entrepreneur(ship), researchers extensively focused on economic value creation initiatives in universities and business establishment of academics. Following a similar perspective, researchers studying business and economics mostly pictured the composition of the entrepreneurial university around its role in opportunity‐driven business development and technology transfer and commercialisation (Fetters, Greene, Rice, & Butler, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref5">14</reflink>]). Therefore, the commercial needs of entrepreneurs for new materials and technologies added universities to the national innovation system via university–industry/business linkage.</p> <p>The developing connections between industrial and business organisations and universities have also gained importance in the field of science and technology policies. For example, Gibbons et al. ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref6">18</reflink>]) asserted that the disciplinary‐based knowledge production (mode 1) transformed to the application‐oriented transdisciplinary knowledge production (mode 2), and this transformation expedited the commercialisation of universities' research outcomes in modern society. Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref7">13</reflink>]) discussed universities' roles in the global knowledge economy and highlighted the importance of university–industry–government collaborations (within their triple helix model) in order to generate more innovation out of academic knowledge. Dees ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref8">9</reflink>]) then added a new aspect to universities' entrepreneurship beyond their economic contributions and developed the term 'social entrepreneurship' to refer to creative and innovative strategies designed by students, academics and practitioners in universities for the solution of different social problems.</p> <p>Despite various theoretical contributions to the concept of academic entrepreneurship in all these studies above, researchers from the fields of business, economics and policy generally emphasised certain activities of entrepreneurial universities and academics. They largely studied entrepreneurial strategies and wealth creation (e.g., Hitt, Ireland, Camp, & Sexton, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref9">22</reflink>]), corporate entrepreneurship (e.g., Sharma & Chrisman, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref10">43</reflink>]) and the role of business incubators in fostering entrepreneurship (e.g., Mian, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref11">27</reflink>]). On the other hand, researchers in the field of Higher Education have examined universities' entrepreneurial activities and academics' entrepreneurial behaviours in a broader perspective. In Higher Education journals, many researchers discussed the main activities in entrepreneurial universities to evaluate the changing internal dynamics in universities, and also how these activities shape the roles of entrepreneurial universities to serve economic and social development in society (Dill, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref12">10</reflink>]; Hakala, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref13">20</reflink>]; McClure, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref14">26</reflink>]; Powers, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref15">33</reflink>]; Provasi, Squazzoni, & Tosio, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref16">34</reflink>]; Sam & van der Sijde, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref17">38</reflink>]; Subotzky, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref18">47</reflink>]; Wardale & Lord, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref19">50</reflink>]).</p> <p>Mars and Rios‐Aguilar ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref20">24</reflink>]) combined the broad‐range principles and concepts of entrepreneurship—'economic (dis)equilibrium, creativity, innovation, economic and/or social value creation, risk‐taking and mitigation and opportunity identification and utilisation' (p. 449)—and, based on the studies in Higher Education journals, defined academic entrepreneurship as 'creating economic and/or social transformation beyond the boundaries of the academy' (p. 455). Several studies published in Higher Education journals also provided different examples related to major entrepreneurial activities in universities from various countries (Bernasconi, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref21">1</reflink>]; De Zilwa, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref22">8</reflink>]; Mazdeh, Razavi, Hesamamiri, Zahedi, & Elahi, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref23">25</reflink>]; Mok, Yu, & Ku, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref24">30</reflink>]; Sam & van der Sijde, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref25">38</reflink>]; Sharma, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref26">44</reflink>]; Yokoyama, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref27">52</reflink>]). In addition, academics' activities and behaviours were examined within the entrepreneurship perspective in various studies from Higher Education journals (Bienkowska & Klofsten, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref28">2</reflink>]; De Silva, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref29">7</reflink>]; Ditton, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref30">11</reflink>]; Duberley, Cohen, & Leeson, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref31">12</reflink>]; Hansson & Mønsted, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref32">21</reflink>]; Lee & Rhoads, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref33">23</reflink>]; Rherrad, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref34">35</reflink>]; Ryu, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref35">37</reflink>]; Sinclair, Cuthbert, & Barnacle, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref36">45</reflink>]; Wardale & Lord, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref37">50</reflink>]; Ylijoki & Henriksson, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref38">51</reflink>]). Furthermore, other important aspects of entrepreneurship in academic settings such as the reflections of growing entrepreneurial expectations on the organisational design of universities, the recruitment policies of academics, and their teaching, research and service activities were discussed in articles in Higher Education journals (De Silva, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref39">7</reflink>]; McClure, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref40">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although articles in Higher Education journals provide a good body of knowledge to explore the essence of the entrepreneurial university and academic discourse, a holistic identification of the major activities carried out both by entrepreneurial universities and academics can assist to increase our understanding of entrepreneurship in Higher Education institutions. Beyond economic outcomes of academic entrepreneurship, articles published in Higher Education journals also present noteworthy evaluations on the meaning of entrepreneurial activities for institutional change in universities and the academic profession. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to discover common entrepreneurial activities in universities and the behaviours of entrepreneurial academics and their value for professional and organisational transformation through articles in Higher Education journals. For this purpose, the research questions are:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> What are the prominent areas of entrepreneurial operations in universities?</item> <p></p> <item> What are the common activities of entrepreneurial academics?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0137375449-3">CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK</hd> <p>Burton R. Clark published <emph>Creating Entrepreneurial Universities</emph> in 1998 using five universities in Europe as case studies showing their path to becoming entrepreneurial. The book provided a comprehensive framework on the organisational transformation in entrepreneurial universities. Clark ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref41">4</reflink>]) underlined the importance of collective efforts to shape the individual experience of institutional transformation. According to Clark ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref42">4</reflink>]), the concept of the entrepreneurial university resulted from the imbalance between growing demands made upon universities and the insufficiency of universities' ability to meet these extensive environmental expectations. Rhoades and Stensaker ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref43">36</reflink>]) posited that the reason behind this imbalance can be explained by the impact of three widespread fundamental developments which occurred in the 1990s: (a) the public management reforms that reorganised mainly by disinvesting Higher Education and the whole public sector; (b) the increasing demand for accountability as well as managerial control in Higher Education; and (c) the changing structure of the academic profession and student background that brought a greater number of temporary academic and non‐academic professionals as well as a large and diversified student population into Higher Education. All these developments have forced universities to pursue revenue generation by means of diversified risk‐taking actions and to act as business‐like organisations in a competitive (quasi) market environment (Clark, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref44">4</reflink>]; Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref45">13</reflink>]; Rhoades & Stensaker, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref46">36</reflink>]; Slaughter & Leslie, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref47">46</reflink>]).</p> <p>Clark's ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref48">4</reflink>]) framework of the entrepreneurial university, however, obviously goes beyond revenue generation and business‐oriented managerial behaviours. According to Clark ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref49">4</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref50">5</reflink>]), becoming an entrepreneurial university is an organisational development process which transforms the traditional university into one that is more self‐sufficient, progressive and responsive to the changing environmental demands. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref51">4</reflink>]) states that this transformation process often starts with a core group of professionals in each field of knowledge who are experts in the required product and are expected by their colleagues to participate in the decision‐making process at different levels of institutional authority. Through professional norms, responsibilities and accountability, the enhanced collegial and administrative participation in decision making then enables entrepreneurial responses to the rapidly changing and extremely demanding environmental conditions. In the end, the entrepreneurial university concept not only enables generating alternative revenue for an institution, but also building a strong, renewed and more autonomous identity as well as gaining a more trustworthy place in society (Clark, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref52">4</reflink>]). To build such an entrepreneurial change in universities, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref53">4</reflink>]) outlined five common and complementary dimensions (see Table).</p> <p>Pathways of organisational transformation in the entrepreneurial university</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td align="left"><bold>The strengthened steering core (</bold>Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref><bold>, p. 5)</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>'need for a greater managerial capacity ... to become quicker, more flexible, and especially more focused in reactions to expanding and changing demands' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 5)</p></list-item><list-item><p>'must embrace central managerial groups and academic departments' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 5) with a combination of the two—a 'centralised decentralisation'</p></list-item><list-item><p>'must operationally reconcile new managerial values with traditional academic ones' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 6) to carry the notion of entrepreneurship from centre to academic heartland, the basic departmental units</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><bold>The expanded development periphery (</bold>Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref><bold>, p. 6)</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>'a growth of units that ... reach across old university boundaries to link up with outside organisations and groups' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 6)</p></list-item><list-item><p>'professionalised outreach offices [including the incubator service of science parks] that work on knowledge transfer, industrial contact, intellectual property development, continuing education, fundraising, and even alumni affairs' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 6)</p></list-item><list-item><p>'interdisciplinary project‐oriented research centres that grow up alongside departments' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 6) as secondary, but more flexible units to group academic work</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><bold>The diversified funding base (</bold>Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref><bold>, p. 6)</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>need for 'greater financial resources, ... particularly discretionary funds,' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 6) in universities to meet the ascending cost of student and knowledge growth</p></list-item><list-item><p>'widening [the governmental support through the competitive funds of] research council(s)' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 6)</p></list-item><list-item><p>generating 'third‐stream income sources that stretch from industrial firms, local governments, and philanthropic foundations, to royalty income from intellectual property, earned income from campus services, student fees, and alumni fundraising' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 6)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><bold>The stimulated academic heartland (</bold>Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref><bold>, p. 7)</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>as 'the operating base of the university as sites of research and particularly of teaching, the basic units. and their more encompassing multidepartment faculties, continue to be the places where most academic work is done' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 7)</p></list-item><list-item><p>'For change to take hold, one department and faculty after another needs itself to become an entrepreneurial unit, reaching more strongly to the outside with new programs and relationships and promoting third‐stream income' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 7)</p></list-item><list-item><p>'need to accept that individuals as well as collegial groups will have stronger authority in a managerial line that stretches from central officials to heads of departments and research centers' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 7)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><bold>The integrated entrepreneurial culture (</bold>Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref><bold>, p. 7)</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>develop[ing] a work culture that embraces change' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 7) in the entrepreneurial university</p></list-item><list-item><p>starting the entrepreneurial culture 'as a relatively simple institutional idea about change that later becomes elaborated into a set of beliefs which, if diffused in the heartland, becomes a university wide culture' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 7)</p></list-item><list-item><p>interacting ideas and practices, 'the cultural and symbolic side of the university becomes particularly important in cultivating institutional identity and distinctive reputation' (Clark, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr4">4</xref>, p. 7)</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>As our inquiry includes exploring the comprehensive entrepreneurial transformation of universities, we used the pathways noted in Table as a conceptual basis to interpret the influence of operational areas in entrepreneurial universities and common activities of entrepreneurial academics on their entrepreneurial transformation. Furthermore, Clark ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref54">4</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref55">5</reflink>]) asserted that, throughout the pathways in Table , in the end, entrepreneurial culture can bring three certain benefits to Higher Education institutions: first, it facilitates the re‐invention of collegiality and encourages faculty to participate in the process of organisational change and transformation. Second, it fosters the autonomous and self‐reliant character of the university through diversified funding and continuous entrepreneurial change. Last, beyond supporting new science and technology ventures, throughout institution‐wide operations, it promotes establishing new foundations and knowledge coalitions to provide sustainable university achievement. Therefore, we also took the potential organisational outcomes of the entrepreneurial university transformation into consideration while interpreting and discussing the results.</p> <hd id="AN0137375449-4">METHODOLOGY</hd> <p>This research aims to analyse the concept of entrepreneurial university and entrepreneurial academics throughout scholarly articles in Higher Education journals. To analyse the related literature, researchers commonly use a systematic literature review and/or meta‐synthesis techniques. While researchers carry out systematic literature reviews to answer specific questions (e.g., what are the reflections of entrepreneurial expectations on teaching in universities?), meta‐synthesis is largely preferred to outline general approaches to the research concept(s). To answer the broader research questions, the research was designed in the meta‐synthesis pattern of qualitative research.</p> <p>Schreiber, Crooks, and Stern ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref56">40</reflink>]) define a meta‐synthesis as the 'bringing together and breaking down of findings, examining them, discovering essential features and, in some way, combining phenomena into a transformed whole' (p. 314). In line with this definition, Paterson, Thorne, Canam, and Jillings ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref57">31</reflink>]) stated that if 'primary studies are themselves constructions; then, meta‐synthesis deals with constructions of constructions' (p. 7). While researchers seek to understand and explain phenomena during a meta‐synthesis, the prime advantage of the meta‐synthesis method for researchers is 'its ability to identify common themes and build conceptual frameworks from [the related] literature' (Carlson & Palmer, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref58">3</reflink>], p. 133). Considering such an advantage, the descriptive meta‐synthesis (Finfgeld, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref59">15</reflink>]) is a suitable technique to specify common themes of entrepreneurial activities in universities and entrepreneurial behaviours of academics in this research on Higher Education literature. Another important feature here, the descriptive meta‐synthesis, provides an opportunity to evaluate the meaning of these more comprehensive themes for universities keeping in mind Clark's frame of entrepreneurial university transformation (see Table).</p> <hd id="AN0137375449-5">Selection of articles from Higher Education journals</hd> <p>The data set in this research is limited to articles focused on the entrepreneurial university/academic from Higher Education journals. The top 10 Higher Education journals were selected based on their Scientific Journal Rankings (SJR) points in SCImago Journal Rankings. When choosing these journals in 2016, only 2014 SJR points were available on the SCImago website (SJR, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref60">41</reflink>]) (see Table). These journals' recent SJR points (SJR, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref61">42</reflink>]) were also checked, and there have been no notable changes in the rankings of the selected journals (see Table). According to Tight ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref62">48</reflink>]), the selected journals are key international journals in the field of Higher Education. Thereby, it can be said that these journals are good sources to outline the general assumptions of the entrepreneurial university and entrepreneurial academics in the field of Higher Education research.</p> <p>The distribution of articles to the selected Higher Education journalsa</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left">2014 SJR point</th><th align="center">2016 SJR point</th><th align="left">Name of journal</th><th align="center"># of articles</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">1.771</td><td align="char" char=".">1.248</td><td align="left"><italic>Review of Higher Education</italic></td><td align="char" char=".">–</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1.746</td><td align="char" char=".">1.553</td><td align="left"><italic>Journal of Higher Education</italic></td><td align="char" char=".">1</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1.466</td><td align="char" char=".">1.913</td><td align="left"><italic>Research in Higher Education</italic></td><td align="char" char=".">2</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1.392</td><td align="char" char=".">1.334</td><td align="left"><italic>Studies in Higher Education</italic></td><td align="char" char=".">2</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1.215</td><td align="char" char=".">1.103</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education Research & Development</italic></td><td align="char" char=".">3</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1.123</td><td align="char" char=".">0.608</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education Quarterly</italic></td><td align="char" char=".">2</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1.098</td><td align="char" char=".">1.486</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic></td><td align="char" char=".">13</td></tr><tr><td align="left">0.701</td><td align="char" char=".">0.659</td><td align="left"><italic>Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management</italic></td><td align="char" char=".">2</td></tr><tr><td align="left">0.698</td><td align="char" char=".">0.614</td><td align="left"><italic>Quality in Higher Education</italic></td><td align="char" char=".">–</td></tr><tr><td align="left">0.553</td><td align="char" char=".">0.572</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education Policy</italic></td><td align="char" char=".">–</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 a Those journals related to specific subjects (such as teaching, assessment and diversity) and not published in English were not included in targeted Higher Education journals.</p> <p>During the collection of articles from these selected journals, we searched for articles using the keyword 'entrepreneur'. As a result of this search, we found 156 articles in the top 10 Higher Education journals. However, an initial examination of these 156 articles showed that many articles were related either to student entrepreneurship or to entrepreneurship education. As such, we further restricted the search criteria to include articles which only contain 'entrepreneur(ship/ial) + university or entrepreneur(ship/ial) + academic/researcher/scholar/faculty' in their titles. The number of articles in the final data set was then reduced from the initial 156 articles to 25 articles (see Table). These 25 articles include a limited number of studies based on qualitative inquiry. We analysed the selected articles through their textual content to retain maximum data while complying with the logic of the meta‐synthesis approach. The methodological details and empirical results of these articles are briefly presented in the Appendix.</p> <hd id="AN0137375449-6">Analysis of the selected articles</hd> <p>After deciding on articles for the data set, in line with phenomenological inquiry (Creswell, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref63">6</reflink>]), a content analysis was conducted on the selected 25 articles. First, a researcher from the study team coded each article with nodes (keywords or phrases). The researcher then formed the complete code list related to entrepreneurial universities/academics. Another researcher from the study team used this code list to re‐code each article. Two other researchers from the study team then checked the conformity level of the two coders on all articles and calculated the inter‐coder reliability as.87 using Miles and Huberman's ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref64">28</reflink>]) formula [Consensus on data/(Consensus on data + Dissidence on data)]. According to Miles and Huberman ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref65">28</reflink>]), an inter‐coder/rater reliability of.70 and above is acceptable for internal reliability.</p> <p>After ensuring reliability, two of the researchers from the study team participated in the categorisation of codes related to the entrepreneurial university and entrepreneurial academic. They then placed the codes into four themes related to the entrepreneurial activities in universities and into four themes related to the entrepreneurial behaviours of academics. These findings are presented in the following section and in Figures and.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/D85/01jul19/hequ12198-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNHX8kSepq84v%2bvlOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="hequ12198-fig-0001.jpg" title="The major operations of entrepreneurial universities" /> </p> <p></p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/D85/01jul19/hequ12198-fig-0002.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNHX8kSepq84v%2bvlOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="hequ12198-fig-0002.jpg" title="The major activities of entrepreneurial academics" /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0137375449-9">RESULTS</hd> <p>The articles included in the analysis of the entrepreneurial university mostly indicated the economic contribution and social value creation role of entrepreneurial universities. These articles also argued that universities should empower entrepreneurial culture by developing staff's (as well as students') competitive spirit and commercial awareness and should institute essential support units for innovative activities. Furthermore, the analysis revealed four major operational areas (themes) which universities put into practice in order to fulfil their main mission: economic/social service to the community (see Figure).</p> <p>As can be seen in Figure , the most heterogenous operational area is 'Alternative Income/Resource Generation', and within this area 'Resource/Knowledge Commercialisation' is the most common way for income generation in entrepreneurial universities. Mazdeh et al. ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref66">25</reflink>]) explained the reason behind income diversification activities: 'as government funding becomes scarcer, universities are forced to ... shift [their] resources towards greater commercialization of knowledge. As a response, universities are encouraged to become more entrepreneurial' (p. 208). Entrepreneurial universities are also described by their success in obtaining external research funds including 'funds accrued from market activities, private gifts, grants and contracts, and other competitive sources' (Subotzky, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref67">47</reflink>], p. 414) and in 'the establishment of business corporations, overheads, consultancy, service to the community and even scholarships [of teaching and research as well as endowment from alumni and donators]' (Yokoyama, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref68">52</reflink>], p. 526). All these income generation efforts strongly match with Clark's transformation pathway of the diversified funding base for entrepreneurial universities. Such entrepreneurial operations seem necessary to build up a self‐steering, self‐reliant and progressive university in order to act autonomously against the increasing cost of student and knowledge growth.</p> <p>Figure also shows that 'Collaboration with External Organisations' is another operational area for entrepreneurial universities. It is obvious that universities need various partners (or customers) to increase their research commercialisation, fund acquisition, educational service sales and consultation income. Therefore, 'the increased interactions and collaboration among universities, industrial firms and governmental agencies [are essential for] more active efforts of technology transfer between universities and industry' (Dill, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref69">10</reflink>], p. 380). Clark's pathway of the expanded development periphery also states the requirement of the link between universities and outside organisations for entrepreneurial transformation. Beyond funding support and commercial opportunities, the strengthening link with external partners can also provide advantages for entrepreneurial universities to continuously update their research and teaching strategies in line with the changing demands of business, industrial and governmental sectors.</p> <p>Moreover, the findings related to 'Knowledge/Technology Production/Transfer' combined to form the third operational area of entrepreneurial universities in Figure. Knowledge/Technology Transfer Activities are the major operations in this theme, and they refer to 'the interaction between university and industry in order to achieve "third mission" objectives, and the transfer of knowledge is then seen as a means of obtaining resources' (Sam & van der Sijde, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref70">38</reflink>], p. 903). In addition to incubator services, 'another common form of industry/academia collaboration' (Mok et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref71">30</reflink>], p. 275), various units such as centres for academic research and knowledge creation, science parks or techno‐cities also help to 'brand the university as a hub for innovation and entrepreneurship' (McClure, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref72">26</reflink>], p. 536). The composition of such centres and units in universities also finds a place in Clark's entrepreneurial pathway of the expanded development periphery. The growth of 'professionalised outreach offices (including the incubator service of science parks) and interdisciplinary project‐oriented research centres [obviously expedite] knowledge transfer, industrial contact, intellectual property development, continuing education, fundraising and even alumni affairs [to support the entrepreneurial endeavours of their graduates]' (Clark, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref73">4</reflink>], p. 6).</p> <p>According to Figure , 'Innovative/Creative Property Acquisition' is the last operational area of the entrepreneurial university. Trademarks, patents and licences are especially important for universities so as to 'obtain the rights to an invention funded [internally or externally; however,] academic patenting of inventions was considered anaemic, due in large part to the cumbersome and complicated process' (Powers, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref74">33</reflink>], p. 2). To operate all bureaucratic processes, entrepreneurial 'universities have had active licensing and patenting offices to broker university developed technology and to license services, as well as units to provide technical assistance to existing companies and new businesses' (Dill, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref75">10</reflink>], pp. 370–371). The operations within the sphere of 'Innovative/Creative Property Acquisition' actually find responses within two of Clark's entrepreneurial transformation frameworks, namely, the expanded development periphery and the diversified funding base. With regard to these transformation pathways, it seems the technology transfer office (TTO) structure is an important central initiative, particularly to secure the intellectual property rights of a university's innovations.</p> <p>As the main knowledge producers, academics are expected to operate these entrepreneurial practices in universities. According to the articles we analysed, following market trends, opportunity identification, calculated risk‐taking, driving (institutional) changes, transdisciplinarity, leading/managing research units and the integration of academic and entrepreneurial values are among the characteristics of entrepreneurial academics. In addition, entrepreneurial academics execute four major activities (themes) to enhance their contribution to their universities (see Figure).</p> <p>As shown in Figure , the major activities that academics are expected to fulfil are parallel with the operational areas of entrepreneurial universities. Entrepreneurial academics firstly carry out various activities to bring alternative resource/income to their universities. For example, these academics 'have framed market activities that include the creation of faculty‐led start‐up ventures in the life sciences as illustrations of academic entrepreneurship' (Mars & Rios‐Aguilar, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref76">24</reflink>], p. 446), 'commercialisation of research results, particularity in science and engineering' (Bienkowska & Klofsten, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref77">2</reflink>], p. 209), consulting activities, the increase in external funding and teaching‐related entrepreneurial activities. Such efforts allow them 'to create research groups, and externally funded research becomes a basis for forming groups of young researchers, [mostly graduate students]' (Hansson & Mønsted, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref78">21</reflink>], p. 667). However, unlike Clark's transformation pathway of the integrated entrepreneurial culture, the individualistic approach of academics to obtain better resources for themselves or their own group can undermine the collegiality spirit, especially in highly competitive disciplines of hard and applied science.</p> <p>Entrepreneurial academics 'could even pursue research for personal revenue, using knowledge as a private good to be sold on the market through private arrangements' (Provasi et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref79">34</reflink>], p. 811). For this reason, they possibly convert themselves into academic entrepreneurs and prefer to spend their time 'to spin out their own companies [instead of] to spend [time] on teaching and administration duties' (Duberley et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref80">12</reflink>], p. 484). Lee and Rhoads ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref81">23</reflink>]) confirmed this situation with their results: 'The amount of supplemental income earned by [entrepreneurial] activities is positively associated with research productivity (i.e., publishing books and articles), but negatively associated with teaching activities (i.e., hours per week actually teaching) and teaching commitment' (p. 743). Further, the willingness to increase their personal income may lead to the unintended consequence of top scientists leaving the universities at the peak of their careers to work on their companies. Hence, universities mostly offer these employer‐academics an inclusive contract including flexible work hours, more personnel, extra support, etc. in order to benefit from their knowledge expertise and entrepreneurship experience, as well as from their external network.</p> <p>As is observed in Figure , establishing relations with external organisations appears as another prominent activity of entrepreneurial academics. Ryu ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref82">37</reflink>]) provided an expressive example: 'The College of Engineering professors conduct mostly (over 70 percent of their projects) applied and development research projects upon the request of environmental, social welfare and other industry‐related organizations' (p. 19). Entrepreneurial academics also see 'conducting seminars and training sessions for industry[/business]' (De Silva, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref83">7</reflink>], p. 2171) as opportunities to empower their connections with external organisations. Such external networking activities of academics are highly valuable within the scope of Clark's pathways of the expanded development periphery. However, the organised activities of academics to develop external networking and collaboration will be more rewarding for universities to achieve their entrepreneurial mission as a whole.</p> <p>Additionally, the cooperation between academics and external partners supports 'Knowledge/Technology Production/Transfer' attempts of entrepreneurial academics, and this is one of the entrepreneurial activities underlined in Figure. For example, 'finishing an article or presenting a paper at a conference is regarded as an obvious sign of success' (Hakala, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref84">20</reflink>], p. 183) for entrepreneurial academics, and 'a willingness to share information ... accept[ing] speaker invitations [can create] the opportunity for further, deeper and more innovative work' (Wardale & Lord, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref85">50</reflink>], p. 1076). For greater achievements in the universities' operational area of technology/knowledge transfer, these academics 'can [also] take roles ... in assisting new firm formation in incubator facilities [such as science parks or techno‐cities]' (Sam & van der Sijde, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref86">38</reflink>], p. 902). With knowledge production and technology transfer activities, academics obviously contribute to the entrepreneurial transformation of their universities in the sense of Clark's pathway of the expanded development periphery. As Clark ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref87">4</reflink>], p. 142) exemplified within his pathway of the stimulated academic heartland, knowledge and technology transfer activities in practical disciplines can also incentivise basic theoretical disciplines to find new ways for transferable knowledge production such as policy analysis or multimedia explorations.</p> <p>From Figure , we can see that entrepreneurial academics also participate in 'Innovative/Creative Property Acquisition' activities. While 'entrepreneurial terminology [of] academic behaviors and activities ... include ... intellectual property protection' (Sam & van der Sijde, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref88">38</reflink>], p. 897), 'patenting/licensing [success is counted] as indicators' (Mazdeh et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref89">25</reflink>], p. 209) for the entrepreneurship level of academics. Therewith, TTOs became a very critical university unit for entrepreneurial academics 'to file the patents and commercialise' (Provasi et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref90">34</reflink>], p. 818) their innovative products collaborating with the university. The joint effort of academics and their universities for intellectual property acquisition keeps a distinct place within Clark's entrepreneurial pathway of the diversified funding base. Considering Clark's pathway of the expanded development periphery, such an internal collaboration in entrepreneurial universities is also essential for the outreach activities with regard to knowledge and technology transfer.</p> <p>When we evaluate the findings together, it is obvious that the major operational areas in entrepreneurial universities come to exist around the major activities of entrepreneurial academics. Both the activities of entrepreneurial academics and the entrepreneurial operations in universities cluster in the scope of income diversification and external outreach as two important pathways outlined by Clark ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref91">4</reflink>]). This situation is reminiscent of a basic business principle that companies need customers to sell products. Although their income generation and external networking efforts provide some clues about the changing balance of academic life with regard to collegial or individual entrepreneurialism, there is no clear direction related to the formation of 'centralised decentralisation' in management as the main concept in Clark's entrepreneurial pathway of the strengthened steering core. The reason for this missing part, as Clark ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref92">4</reflink>]) underlined, is possibly the uniqueness of the entrepreneurial transformation experience for each university within their own environmental conditions.</p> <hd id="AN0137375449-10">CONCLUSION</hd> <p>This research presents a meta‐synthesis of articles published in high‐impact Higher Education journals to better understand the concept of entrepreneurship in academic settings. The research focuses on the analysis of 25 articles related to academic entrepreneurship as a combination of the discourses on entrepreneurial universities and entrepreneurial academics. These articles include different university examples from various countries (e.g., Australia (De Zilwa, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref93">8</reflink>]; Sharma, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref94">44</reflink>]), Canada (Rherrad, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref95">35</reflink>]), Chile (Bernasconi, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref96">1</reflink>]), Japan (Yokoyama, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref97">52</reflink>]), Iran (Mazdeh et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref98">25</reflink>]), Korea (Ryu, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref99">37</reflink>]), Taiwan (Mok et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref100">30</reflink>]), the United Kingdom (Yokoyama, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref101">52</reflink>]), the United States (Dill, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref102">10</reflink>]; Sharma, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref103">44</reflink>])) and the comparison of European cases (Provasi et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref104">34</reflink>]) related to academic entrepreneurs. Thereby, this meta‐synthesis provides a good basis for a holistic evaluation on the common operational areas and academic activities in these examples of entrepreneurial universities and their organisational transformation.</p> <p>In the selected articles, scholars largely agreed that the 'entrepreneurial university' discourse emerged as the outcome of universities' income generation effort to avoid the negative effects of public budget cuts (De Zilwa, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref105">8</reflink>]; Dill, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref106">10</reflink>]; Mars & Rios‐Aguilar, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref107">24</reflink>]; Sam & van der Sijde, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref108">38</reflink>]; Sharma, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref109">44</reflink>]; Yokoyama, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref110">52</reflink>]). Researchers in the field of Higher Education then asserted that the understanding of the 'entrepreneurial university' evolved to serve the community via economic and/or social value creation (Bernasconi, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref111">1</reflink>]; Hakala, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref112">20</reflink>]; Mars & Rios‐Aguilar, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref113">24</reflink>]; Mok et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref114">30</reflink>]; Sam & van der Sijde, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref115">38</reflink>]; Sharma, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref116">44</reflink>]; Subotzky, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref117">47</reflink>]; Yokoyama, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref118">52</reflink>]). Based on these results, the entrepreneurial university is the university that trains highly qualified graduates with an entrepreneurial spirit, produces practical knowledge with commercial purposes, transfers innovative technologies to industry and contributes to the social development of the community through their services.</p> <p>However, the definition above introduced a salient conflict between the approaches of entrepreneurial universities and universities' social mission. Although Subotzky ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref119">47</reflink>]) and Mars and Rios‐Aguilar ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref120">24</reflink>]) highlighted the importance of social entrepreneurship, most Higher Education researchers only referred to social services (e.g., lifelong learning programmes or cultural events) as opportunities for entrepreneurial universities to generate more income. This understanding leads to serious questions about the larger public purposes for entrepreneurial universities since Clark ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref121">5</reflink>]) evaluated the entrepreneurial university modelling as an opportunity for universities 'to learn anew how to build ... a strong university identity ... seek[ing] a role of its own in regional, national and international arenas [and to] utilize a rugged identity as a foundation for renewed trust between the individual university and society' (p. 23). Many studies confirmed that market‐oriented techniques as a part of entrepreneurial activities cause universities to make advances toward private entities (Mars & Rios‐Aguilar, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref122">24</reflink>]; Provasi et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref123">34</reflink>]; Ryu, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref124">37</reflink>]; Sam & van der Sijde, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref125">38</reflink>]; Subotzky, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref126">47</reflink>]). University managers might develop special evaluation and rewarding strategies for community engagement activities to promote the social service mission as a complementary part of universities' entrepreneurial efforts.</p> <p>This research also reveals that universities rely on academics' individual and collaborative efforts to fulfil their entrepreneurship mission. The major activities of entrepreneurial academics are generally associated with alternative income generation and intellectual property acquisition. Duberley et al. ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref127">12</reflink>]) even defined entrepreneurial academics with their roles in establishing spin‐off companies while Provasi et al. ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref128">34</reflink>]) used the number of patents/licences as a main criterion to define entrepreneurial academics. Herewith, the entrepreneurial academic can be described as an academic who enriches the income revenue of his/her institution as well as his/her personal income via scholarly business combining the commercialisation of research, consultation and external teaching services. However, as the response to the important question in the study of Rhoades and Stensaker ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref129">36</reflink>]), 'does individualistic entrepreneurial push of universities move them towards ... the various public, community‐enhancing, nation‐building and larger social democratic purposes of higher education?' (p. 138), it does not seem such an individualistic and competitive approach among entrepreneurial academics contributes to the composition of high public profile universities.</p> <p>Furthermore, the results show that research collaboration with industry, as well as the establishment of close relationships with other external bodies, plays a vital role for both entrepreneurial faculty and institutions. Although several studies demonstrated that faculty's entrepreneurial activities negatively influence their teaching engagement (Lee & Rhoads, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref130">23</reflink>]; Provasi et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref131">34</reflink>]), their collaboration with external actors can create various opportunities such as updating their courses for recent expectations in the industry/business environment, bringing extra internship opportunities for their students or obtaining contracts for their research team that includes students as well. Therefore, modern universities tend to take scientific skills and external networks together into consideration during the appointments or promotions of academics. This tendency led to a highly challenging academic recruitment market, especially for young researchers trying to find a place in modern entrepreneurial universities (Fumasoli & Kehm, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref132">16</reflink>]).</p> <p>Similarly, productive connections between a researcher and external partners are evaluated as an integral part of the researcher's academic capital (Provasi et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref133">34</reflink>]; Slaughter & Leslie, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref134">46</reflink>]; Ylijoki & Henriksson, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref135">51</reflink>]). With the interrelationship of academic capitalism and entrepreneurial university approaches, university managers largely develop investment strategies to establish the necessary facilities for academics' entrepreneurial activities (Fetters et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref136">14</reflink>]; Uslu, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref137">49</reflink>]). These large investments, such as TTOs, research offices, multidisciplinary research hubs, techno‐cities and start‐up incubators, caused a change in the culture of publish or perish to provide or perish in universities (Polster, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref138">32</reflink>]). By means of infrastructural and superstructural investments for entrepreneurial activities, university managers particularly benefit from the growing networks of researchers in hard disciplines such as science and engineering to enhance the production of practical knowledge. However, they should also constitute institutional policies to bring academics from soft disciplines and external actors together in order to increase their research achievements with comprehensive social projects.</p> <p>Although this study contains different examples of entrepreneurial universities on a global scale, the Higher Education literature goes beyond the selected journals. Therefore, the analysis of 'entrepreneurial university and entrepreneurial academic' discourses can be expanded throughout various Higher Education articles and journals. Researchers could also carry out further studies to compare the prominent parts of the academic entrepreneurship approach in Higher Education literature with other scientific areas, especially with the field of research policy and management. In addition, considering Clark's transformation pathway of the strengthened steering core, there is an obvious need for more empirical studies to understand what type of managerial compositions, practices and strategies assist to generate adaptive and flexible structures in entrepreneurial university organisations.</p> <hd id="AN0137375449-11">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</hd> <p>This article was generated by elaborating the paper Baris Uslu and Fatma Nevra Seggie presented at the 4th International Conference on Academic Profession in Knowledge Society, 20–22 April 2016, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.</p> <p>APPENDIX KEY FINDINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THE DATA SET</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left">Author (year)</th><th align="left">Title</th><th align="left">Journal</th><th align="left">Context</th><th align="left">Purpose of study/research questions</th><th align="left">Methods/data sources</th><th align="left">Major findings</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">Dill (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr10">10</xref>)</td><td align="left">University–industry entrepreneurship: The organization and the management of American university technology transfer units</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>29</italic>(4), 369–384</td><td align="left">'The organization and management of [industry–university relationships in the US context]' (p. 369)</td><td align="left">'Reports on a national survey of university technology transfer units in the United States, [specifically focused on]' (p. 370): <list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'the incidence of these units in the American higher education system' (p. 370),</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'characteristics of their organization' (p. 370),</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'funding and management' (p. 370),</p></list-item><list-item><p>(4) 'as well as the relationship between measures of organization and management and perceived unit performance' (p. 370)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Quantitative (telephone survey)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Licensing and patenting units, and small business development centers [are] the most numerous tech transfer mechanisms' (p. 376)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Perceived performance was not simply a function of unit size or budget' (p. 377)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) '[Manager's] years of experience in the relevant field of expertise [is] correlated with perceived unit performance' (p. 378)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(4) 'Strong relationships between perceived unit performance and the frequency of the manager's communication with other members of the unit, and with members of the local business/industry community' (p. 379)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Ryu (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr37">36</xref>)</td><td align="left">A muted voice in academe: The Korean version of entrepreneurial scholarship</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>35</italic>(1), 9–26</td><td align="left">'Development for the Korean university and its scholarship [in the phase of country's] social democratization and global economic competition' (p. 9)</td><td align="left">'What Korean universities and their professors are doing to meet the aforementioned demands for knowledge creation and dissemination[?]' (p. 10)</td><td align="left">Qualitative (interviews)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'While the distinction between teaching and research is clear, service is perceived as a catch‐all phase for activities outside the conventional teaching and research' (p. 18)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'The initiators and performers of service activities have been individual professors, typically by doing sponsored research, lecturing, and consulting' (p. 15)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'The prominence of different types of academic practice varies according to discipline' (p. 19)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(4) 'The entire system of departments, divisions, and research units is reconfigured on the basis of demographics, local economic demand, and technological needs' (p. 22)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(5) 'The faculty reward system is another related issue. The criteria for faculty evaluation for promotion at [the university] depend significantly upon research productivity' (p. 20)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Subotzky (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr47">46</xref>)</td><td align="left">Alternatives to the entrepreneurial university: New modes of knowledge production in community service programs</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>38</italic>(4), 401–440</td><td align="left">'Focusing on South African case, higher education's contribution to equity, community development, and the public good ... within the dominant neo‐liberal global consensus, this primarily serving the market and private good' (p. 401)</td><td align="left">'The contribution of higher education toward equitable social renewal through the lens of the three sets of inter‐related issues' (p. 402): <list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'changing global conditions and the tensions within this between high‐tech development and basic reconstruction and development' (p. 402),</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'the impact of this on higher education and, in particular, the relationship between teaching, research and community service (outreach)' (p. 402),</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'the unique potential of community service partnerships and community service learning and the patterns of knowledge production within these to contribute toward basic reconstruction and development' (p. 402)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Discussion (literature‐based)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Knowledge production in [higher education–community] partnerships closely resembles so‐called "mode 2", applications‐driven knowledge production' (p. 401)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Potentially, however, the partnership model integrates and mutually enhances experiential learning, relevant research and community development' (p. 401)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Lee and Rhoads (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr23">23</xref>)</td><td align="left">Faculty entrepreneurialism and the challenge to undergraduate education at research universities</td><td align="left"><italic>Research in Higher Education</italic>, <italic>45</italic>(7), 739–760</td><td align="left">'The complex relationships between faculty entrepreneurialism and teaching [commitment] ... with respect to disciplinary fields and forms of entrepreneurial activities' (p. 739)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'How do entrepreneurial activities differ by disciplinary field?' (p. 745)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Is there a difference between entrepreneurial and non‐entrepreneurial faculty when it comes to their commitment to teaching?' (p. 745)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'To what extent do faculty entrepreneurial behaviours relate to their teaching commitment?' (p. 745)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Quantitative (national survey)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Entrepreneurial activities tend to take place most often among faculty in these Hard fields (i.e., Biology, Engineering, and Physical Sciences)' (p. 748)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Faculty in the Applied fields (i.e., Engineering, Education, Business, and Health Sciences) tend to participate in more consulting than faculty in the Pure fields (i.e., Humanities, Math, English, and Biology)' (p. 748)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'Faculty who use funding toward their research are somewhat less committed to teaching than faculty who do not' (p. 750)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(4) 'Large research institutions that generate and expend the most research dollars are especially prone to neglecting undergraduate instruction' (p. 753)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(5) 'Faculty in the Fine Arts and Humanities do engage in entrepreneurial activity, but not necessarily in the same ways as Engineering faculty do' (p. 754)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Powers (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr33">32</xref>)</td><td align="left">R&D funding sources and university technology transfer: What is stimulating universities to be more entrepreneurial?</td><td align="left"><italic>Research in Higher Education</italic>, <italic>45</italic>(1), 1–23</td><td align="left">'Academic commercialization [through R&D investments and] technology transfer activities, [as] the process by which university research is commercialized into a marketable process or product' (p. 3)</td><td align="left">'What impact, if any, do particular R&D resources have on small and large company licensing?' (p. 5)</td><td align="left">Quantitative (multiyear survey)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Institutions with larger amounts of federal R&D support outperformed institutions less well endowed with resources of this type' (p. 14)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Sharma (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr44">43</xref>)</td><td align="left">Performance‐based funding in the entrepreneurial North American and Australian universities</td><td align="left"><italic>Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management</italic>, <italic>26</italic>(1), 109–118</td><td align="left">'[Through] performance‐based funding experience in the selected North American universities, assist[ing] Australian universities to enhance their resource planning while encouraging entrepreneurship' (p. 110)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'To understand better the notion of performance‐based funding in higher education with particular focus on North America and Australia' (p. 110)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'To explore links between the notion of the entrepreneurial university and resource planning' (p. 110)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Literature review (secondary data)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Americans appear to be dismantling performance‐based funding systems, Australians appear to be moving towards such funding regimes' (p. 117)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'The collegial spirit requires stronger cooperation between central senior management and the academic staff ... Transparency in resource allocation is also an important concept' (p. 117)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'Planners, institutional researchers, and the finance office staff are critical in developing and maintaining decision support systems' (p. 117)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Bernasconi (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr1">1</xref>)</td><td align="left">University entrepreneurship in a developing country: The case of the P. Universidad Católica de Chile, 1985–2000</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>50</italic>(2), 247–274</td><td align="left">'The [entrepreneurial] transformation of a [case] university [from a developing country] under the pressure of privatization' (p. 248)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Describe the transformation of a Chilean university under the pressure of privatization' (p. 248)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'How such academic development [of the case university] could have occurred as the State withdrew and the market took hold of Chilean higher education?' (p. 247)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Qualitative (institutional case)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Orientation to the market can be more a means for survival and growth under the pressure of privatization, than a result of a "Triple Helix" strategy of universities, government, and industry to generate innovation out of academic knowledge' (p. 247)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'While in the industrialized world, higher education entrepreneurship is associated with knowledge production for economic development ("Mode 2"); entrepreneurial universities in the context of developing countries may just be finding their way to the academic, disciplinary mode of research' (p. 247)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">De Zilwa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr8">8</xref>)</td><td align="left">Using entrepreneurial activities as a means of survival: Investigating the processes used by Australian universities to diversify their revenue streams</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>50</italic>(3), 387–411</td><td align="left">'The [entrepreneurial] actions taken by Australian universities to diversify their revenue streams in order to generate more independent (non‐government) income' (p. 387)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Chart the decline in public funding of Australian universities' (p. 388)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Discuss how [Australian universities] have used an aspect of entrepreneurialism as a pathway towards marketization' (p. 388)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'Demonstrate how various types of Australian universities have diversified their revenue streams' (p. 388)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Literature review (secondary data)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Some Australian universities have used isomorphic tactics in their attempts to diversify their revenue streams' (p. 387)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Unitechs (Universities of Technology) and New Universities are over‐reliant upon income earned from overseas student fees, whilst earning comparatively small amounts of revenue from Royalties, Trademarks and Licences, Consultancy, Contract Research and Investments' (p. 387)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'if Australian universities seek to enhance their success competing in global research, staff and student markets then they need to augment efforts to diversify revenue streams with structural and cultural changes ... to become more flexible network enterprises' (p. 387)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Yokoyama (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr52">51</xref>)</td><td align="left">Entrepreneurialism in Japanese and UK universities: Governance, management, leadership, and funding</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>52</italic>(3), 523–555</td><td align="left">'Organisational change in Japanese and UK universities which are engaged in entrepreneurial activities, focus[ing] on recent changes in governance, management, leadership, and funding in these universities' (p. 523)</td><td align="left">'Explore Clark's and Sporn's empirical studies <list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) by giving new insights into the studies of governance, management, leadership, and funding ...</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) by highlighting a comparative perspective on the change in organisational culture in Japan and the UK' (p. 524)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Qualitative (international cases)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'There are convergent trends between Japanese and UK universities with regard to increasing entrepreneurial activities' (p. 523)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'However, the application of particular institutional strategies, entrepreneurial culture, and the way in which an institution relates itself to the private sector significantly differs among institutions' (p. 523)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) '[The] differences [between Japan and the UK universities] are related to different institutional history and characteristics ... as well as different government policies between Japan and the UK' (p. 523)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Duberley et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr12">12</xref>)</td><td align="left">Entrepreneurial academics: Developing scientific careers in changing university settings</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education Quarterly</italic>, <italic>61</italic>(4), 479–497</td><td align="left">'The impact of entrepreneurial initiatives within universities on scientific careers [through] the career accounts of university‐based bioscientists involved in a government‐sponsored entrepreneurship training initiative' (p. 479)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'What are the implications of academic entrepreneurship for individual scientists' conceptions of their careers?' (p. 483)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'What does entrepreneurialism mean to the scientists in this study?' (p. 483)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'To what extent is it reconcilable with their scientific aspirations?' (p. 483)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Qualitative (interviews)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'There is an urgent need for universities to consider career management and reward systems in the light of current policy initiatives' (p. 495)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Universities risk losing some of their strongest scientists at a point in their career when they are most able to have an impact as leaders of research teams and in providing guidance and training for less experienced researchers' (p. 495)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) '[Universities] also risk losing younger scientists who opt for alternative career routes, such as technology transfer, rather than face the uncertainty of short‐term postdoctoral research contracts' (p. 495)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Hansson and Mønsted (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr21">21</xref>)</td><td align="left">Research leadership as entrepreneurial organizing for research</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>55</italic>(6), 651–670)</td><td align="left">'A special form of creating new knowledge production in the university by means of organizational entrepreneurship [through] two cases on the construction of new research groups' (p. 651)</td><td align="left">'[To] cover the opening of new research perspectives, the emergence of new forms of networking and organizing, and the initiation of new types of collaboration with industry and public sector institutions' (p. 652)</td><td align="left">Qualitative (interviews)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Externally funded research becomes a basis for forming groups of young researchers, who can also develop new teaching programmes' (p. 667)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'The need for special qualities for research leadership, such as' (p. 667):</p><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>'Personal qualities (scientific capital and charisma) in order to create respect and formulate research programs' (p. 667);</p></list-item><list-item><p>'The ability to be a broker between networks in teaching and research and not the least in the outside world' (p. 667);</p></list-item><list-item><p>'To be able to use the external contacts and dissemination of research for access to further research' (p. 667);</p></list-item><list-item><p>'To be able to use rules and negotiate in the bureaucracy and develop organizational openings in a creative way' (p. 667); and</p></list-item><list-item><p>'To create an environment of self‐management in a collective organized research group to mobilize young researchers to take their own initiatives' (p. 667)</p></list-item></list></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Rherrad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr35">34</xref>)</td><td align="left">Effect of entrepreneurial behaviour on researchers' knowledge production: Evidence from Canadian universities</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education Quarterly</italic>, <italic>63</italic>(2), 160–176</td><td align="left">'The differences in knowledge production between academic researchers [in the Canadian higher education context]' (p. 160)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'What factors explain differences in knowledge production between Canadian researchers in natural sciences and engineering?' (p. 160)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) What are the 'differences in knowledge production between entrepreneurial and non‐entrepreneurial researchers?' (p. 160)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Quantitative (telephone survey)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Funding, time devoted to teaching activities, research team and individual attributes have a similar but differentiated impact on knowledge production of entrepreneurial and non‐entrepreneurial researchers' (p. 160)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'There are some unbalanced effects of the variables co‐operation, time devoted to research activities, academic fields and university size on the knowledge production of Canadian researchers on natural science and engineering' (p. 160)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Hakala (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr20">20</xref>)</td><td align="left">The future of the academic calling? Junior researchers in the entrepreneurial university</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>57</italic>(2), 173–190</td><td align="left">'The entrepreneurial orientation of today's university [and] ... the identity work of the junior researchers' (p. 173)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'What motivates junior researchers to engage in academic work?' (p. 173)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'What questions are central for their academic identities?' (p. 173)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Qualitative (interviews)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) '[Junior researchers] persist of the traditional ideals, for instance, among the senior researchers in their units and in other departments in related fields' (p. 186)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Traditional academic framework has a strong resonance with some important aspects of the junior researchers' experience' (p. 186)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) '[While junior researchers do] not wish to leave academia after finishing the PhD—they feel forced to do it [because] academic positions are not available, and continuing to work on temporary contracts was considered too demanding and insecure' (p. 187)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Ditton (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr11">11</xref>)</td><td align="left">How social relationships influence academic health in the 'enterprise university': An insight into productivity of knowledge workers</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education Research & Development</italic>, <italic>28</italic>(2), 151–164</td><td align="left">Academic's mental health and the influence of social relationships in the Australian 'competitive corporate academic environment and ... entrepreneurial university context' (p. 151)</td><td align="left">To explore details as to the influencing factors of academics' 'health, and how to improve it, in order to target workplace health interventions' (p. 152) <list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'What factors influence employee health?' (p. 152)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'If you [the interviewee] had the opportunity to advise the organisation on improving employee health, what would you suggest?' (p. 152)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Qualitative (interviews)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) Academics' 'mental health is adversely affected by social relationships that result from historically based bargains' (p. 151)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Changes from collegial‐based governance to corporate style managerialism' cause tension in the nature of Higher Education (p. 154)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) Employee 'health has become an organisational priority' for Higher Education institutions (p. 159)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Mars and Rios‐Aguilar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr24">24</xref>)</td><td align="left">Academic entrepreneurship (re)defined: Significance and implications for the scholarship of higher education</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>59</italic>(4), 441–460</td><td align="left">'Understanding the implications of enhanced interactions between the academy and the private marketplace' (p. 441) through researchers' conceptualization in academic entrepreneurship literature</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'What are the patterns and trends associated with the use of conceptual and theoretical principles and frameworks of entrepreneurship within our sample of the higher education literature?' (p. 446)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'What are the contributions and limitations associated with the application of conceptual and theoretical principles and frameworks of entrepreneurship within our sample of the higher education literature?' (p. 446)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Qualitative (literature‐based analysis)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'The absence of sound conceptual and theoretical articulation detracts from the meaning and usefulness of entrepreneurial frameworks to the study of market and market‐like behaviours, activities, and trends across higher education organizations and environments' (p. 453)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'The narrow interpretation of the economic and managerial frameworks of entrepreneurship has made higher education scholars blind to the merits of entrepreneurship as a conceptual and theoretical approach to the analysis of innovative, but non‐marketed oriented activities and behaviours of those within the post‐secondary academy that both shape and are shaped by endogenous and exogenous social, political, and economic forces and conditions' (p. 453)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Bienkowska and Klofsten (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr2">2</xref>)</td><td align="left">Creating entrepreneurial networks: Academic entrepreneurship, mobility and collaboration during PhD education</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>64</italic>(2), 207–222</td><td align="left">'Network building experiences of PhD students [through entrepreneurial activities]' (p. 207)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'What are PhD students' attitudes toward commercialisation and entrepreneurship and how supportive is the university context in this regard?' (p. 208)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Are mobile PhD students (that spend an extended period of time at a workplace outside their daily workplace at the university, for example a research lab or a private firm) more positive toward entrepreneurship and commercialisation than other PhD students?' (p. 208)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'Are PhD students involved in collaborative project with organisations outside their university more positive towards entrepreneurship and commercialisation than other PhD students?' (p. 208)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Quantitative (web‐based survey)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Majority of PhD students are engaged in collaborations with external organisations, though quite few (one quarter) have spent a part of their PhD education outside their home university' (p. 207)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'PhD students from all faculties are on average interested in commercialisation and in favour of it' (p. 207)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'However, PhD students from the faculty of Health Sciences state that it is difficult for them to combine research and commercialisation' (p. 207)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(4) 'Furthermore, interest in commercialisation of research results is relatively lowest amongst those PhD students who are undertaking mobility placements at other universities, thus pointing to an experienced incompatibility of research and academic entrepreneurship' (p. 207)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Provasi et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr34">33</xref>)</td><td align="left">Did they sell their soul to the devil? Some comparative case‐studies on academic entrepreneurs in the life sciences in Europe</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>64</italic>(6), 805–829</td><td align="left">Experiences of 'academic entrepreneurs in life sciences ... in the selected European institutional cases' (p. 805)</td><td align="left">To investigate, if 'institutional situations, both nationally and locally (university), can affect entrepreneurial scientists to be either business‐oriented or academy‐oriented' (p. 808)</td><td align="left">Qualitative (interviews)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'The entrepreneurial force of the university as an institutional system and, the presence of a private sector that institutionalises innovation in an organised and structural form that can guarantee a science and industry relationship capable of generating positive social consequences' (p. 823)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'The entrepreneurial motivation of our interviewees, as well as their achievements, did not take place in an institutional vacuum. Individual motivation is always moulded by incentives and social rewards' (p. 823)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'Institutional contexts largely influence the way academic entrepreneurs perceive and accomplish their mission' (p. 825)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Mok et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr30">29</xref>)</td><td align="left">After massification: The quest for entrepreneurial universities and technological advancement in Taiwan</td><td align="left"><italic>Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management</italic>, <italic>35</italic>(3), 264–279</td><td align="left">'Global and regional competitiveness [of Taiwan's universities] through advancing research, development and innovation against the context of massification of higher education' (p. 264)</td><td align="left">'How universities in Taiwan have attempted to enhance their global and regional competitiveness through advancing research, development and innovation against the context of massification of higher education?' (p. 264)</td><td align="left">Literature review (secondary data)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'The success of Taiwan's structural changes from being labour‐intensive to the use of capital and technology by Taiwan's economy since the 1980s heavily relied upon the development of research as well as a better educational system, which played a crucial role in sustaining the flow of this development' (p. 276)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Mazdeh et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr25">25</xref>)</td><td align="left">An empirical investigation of entrepreneurship intensity in Iranian state universities</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>65</italic>(2), 207–226</td><td align="left">'Evaluation framework for determining the performance of entrepreneurship development initiatives in universities' (p. 207)</td><td align="left">'To evaluate the entrepreneurship intensity (EI) of Iranian state universities' (p. 207)</td><td align="left">Quantitative (questionnaire)</td><td align="left">For better entrepreneurial performance, universities should concentrate: <list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'faculty members with entrepreneurial experience,</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) strategic planning,</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) financial budgets,</p></list-item><list-item><p>(4) research development centres,</p></list-item><list-item><p>(5) companies set up by alumni,</p></list-item><list-item><p>(6) conferences, seminars, or workshops, and</p></list-item><list-item><p>(7) academic, scientific, and applied studies' (p. 224)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Sam and van der Sijde (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr38">37</xref>)</td><td align="left">Understanding the concept of the entrepreneurial university from the perspective of higher education models</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education</italic>, <italic>68</italic>(6), 891–908</td><td align="left">Developments related to the entrepreneurial university in the 'Humboldtian, Napoleonic, Anglo‐Saxon and Anglo‐American models' and the third mission of the university (p. 891)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) To provide 'a review of the four models [and] ... the new challenges to higher education' (p. 893)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) To discuss 'how these challenges have their roles in the models of higher education' (p. 893)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Discussion (literature‐based)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'The ever‐increasing demands for higher education in the knowledge‐based society have changed the objectives of universities considerably to become the centres of knowledge creation, lifelong education and service providers and to incorporate the third mission for socio‐economic contribution' (p. 903)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'The higher education models are undoubtedly affected to adapt to the new situation by moving toward the Anglo‐American model, in which no boundary among the three European models are strictly defined' (p. 903)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Sinclair et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr45">44</xref>)</td><td align="left">The entrepreneurial subjectivity of successful researchers</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education Research & Development</italic>, <italic>33</italic>(5), 1007–1019</td><td align="left">The 'kind of doctoral experiences positively influenc[ing] researcher development, and other attributes ... contribut[ing] to a successful research career' (p. 1007)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'What role, if any, does the doctoral experience play in encouraging and enabling PhD graduates to become active academic researchers?' (p. 1009)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'What are the dispositions and motivations of productive researchers?' (p. 1009)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Quantitative (survey)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Successful researchers were also found to be able to acknowledge the importance of their "soft skills", and to have flexible, responsive and adaptive dispositions' (p. 1007)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Wardale and Lord (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr50">49</xref>)</td><td align="left">Bridging the gap: The challenges of employing entrepreneurial processes within university settings</td><td align="left"><italic>Higher Education Research & Development</italic>, <italic>35</italic>(5), 1068–1082</td><td align="left">Facing the challenges of academic staff in the new corporate university context 'through the lenses of social capital and the entrepreneurial process' (p. 1068)</td><td align="left">To 'discuss the tension felt being perceived as successful academics by peers, at one level, but at another, not necessarily recognised or rewarded at the organisational level' (p. 1069)</td><td align="left">Discussion (experienced‐based)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'The level of university bureaucracy and risk aversion resulted in a lack of responsiveness to industry demands' (p. 1069)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) Tensions exist 'between various organisational activities and their rewards' (p. 1069)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">McClure (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr26">26</xref>)</td><td align="left">Building the innovative and entrepreneurial university: An institutional case study of administrative academic capitalism</td><td align="left"><italic>Journal of Higher Education</italic>, <italic>87</italic>(4), 516–543</td><td align="left">'The roles of executive and managerial administrators in bringing a strategic priority of innovation and entrepreneurship to fruition' (p. 516)</td><td align="left">'Through which processes did innovation and entrepreneurship become a strategic priority at Garfield State University?' (p. 526)</td><td align="left">Qualitative (interviews)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'An institutional orientation to knowledge privatization and profit taking was largely an administrator‐driven project' (p. 516)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2) 'Efforts to promote innovation and entrepreneurship engendered some conflict with faculty members, demonstrating the possible consequences of extended managerial control over processes of production in the academy' (p. 516)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">De Silva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr7">7</xref>)</td><td align="left">Academic entrepreneurship and traditional academic duties: Synergy or rivalry?</td><td align="left"><italic>Studies in Higher Education</italic>, <italic>41</italic>(12), 2169–2183</td><td align="left">'The influence of academic entrepreneurship on traditional academic duties carried out in a resource‐constrained environment' (p. 2169)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'Is there funding synergy or rivalry between academic entrepreneurship and traditional academic duties?' (p. 2172)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'Is there knowledge and skill synergy or rivalry between academic entrepreneurship and traditional academic duties?' (p. 2173)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(4) 'Is there networking synergy or rivalry between academic entrepreneurship and traditional academic duties?' (p. 2173)</p></list-item></list></td><td align="left">Mixed (web‐based survey and interviews)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'There are funding, resource, knowledge and skill and networking synergies between academic entrepreneurship and traditional academic duties' (p. 2169)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(2)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(3) 'Academic entrepreneurs manage their engagement in multiple activities through symbiotic relationships with other academics' (p. 2169)</p></list-item><list-item><p>(4) 'While academic entrepreneurs are the initiators who secure entrepreneurial opportunities, other academics support them as they capitalise on these opportunities' (p. 2169)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Ylijoki and Henriksson (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr51">50</xref>)</td><td align="left">Tribal, proletarian and entrepreneurial career stories: Junior academics as a case in point</td><td align="left"><italic>Studies in Higher Education</italic>, <italic>42</italic>(7), 1292–1308</td><td align="left">'The career‐building of junior academics in the current higher education environment, which is characterised by short‐term employment conditions' (p. 1292)</td><td align="left">'How Finnish junior academics make sense of their careers?' (p. 1293)</td><td align="left">Qualitative (focus‐group interviews)</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>(1) 'There are radically different ways to make sense of an academic career among the Finnish early career social scientists' (p. 1304)</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ref id="AN0137375449-12"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref21" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> * Bernasconi, A. (2005). University entrepreneurship in a developing country: The case of the P. Universidad Católica de Chile, 1985–2000. Higher Education, 50 (2), 247 – 274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-004-6353-1</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref28" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> * Bienkowska, D., & Klofsten, M. (2012). Creating entrepreneurial networks: Academic entrepreneurship, mobility and collaboration during PhD education. 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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: The Entrepreneurial University and Academic Discourses: The Meta-Synthesis of Higher Education Articles
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  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Uslu%2C+Baris%22">Uslu, Baris</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5941-1507">0000-0001-5941-1507</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Calikoglu%2C+Alper%22">Calikoglu, Alper</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7526-3740">0000-0002-7526-3740</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Seggie%2C+F%2E+Nevra%22">Seggie, F. Nevra</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0657-6284">0000-0002-0657-6284</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Seggie%2C+Steven+H%2E%22">Seggie, Steven H.</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9551-8923">0000-0002-9551-8923</externalLink>)
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  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Higher+Education+Quarterly%22"><i>Higher Education Quarterly</i></searchLink>. Jul 2019 73(3):285-311.
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  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 27
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2019
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Entrepreneurship%22">Entrepreneurship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Universities%22">Universities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Faculty%22">College Faculty</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Commercialization%22">Commercialization</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Scholarship%22">Scholarship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Income%22">Income</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Journal+Articles%22">Journal Articles</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1111/hequ.12198
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0951-5224
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The innovative teaching, knowledge and technology production and societal service activities of academics are largely discussed within the entrepreneurial university discourse in Higher Education journals. Therefore, this research focuses on a meta-synthesis of Higher Education articles to better understand the concepts of the entrepreneurial university and entrepreneurial academic. After the systematic elimination based on keywords and titles, 25 articles have been selected from the top 10 Higher Education journals in the SCImago Journal Rankings. Content analysis was performed on these articles to highlight the common operational areas in entrepreneurial universities and activities of entrepreneurial academics. The meta-synthesis shows that, both for universities and academics, entrepreneurship is overwhelmingly characterised by the commercialisation of scholarly activities that enrich institutional income revenue as well as academics' personal income. However, such an approach can distance universities from their mission of public good; so Higher Education administrators should create mechanisms that would allow both to take place in a balanced way.
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  Group: Date
  Data: 2019
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1221293
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        Value: 10.1111/hequ.12198
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 27
        StartPage: 285
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Entrepreneurship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Universities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Faculty
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Commercialization
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Scholarship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Income
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Journal Articles
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: The Entrepreneurial University and Academic Discourses: The Meta-Synthesis of Higher Education Articles
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            NameFull: Uslu, Baris
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Calikoglu, Alper
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Seggie, F. Nevra
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Seggie, Steven H.
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 07
              Type: published
              Y: 2019
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0951-5224
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 73
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Higher Education Quarterly
              Type: main
ResultId 1