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Outcomes of International Student Mobility Programs: A Systematic Review and Agenda for Future Research

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Title: Outcomes of International Student Mobility Programs: A Systematic Review and Agenda for Future Research
Language: English
Authors: Roy, Achinto (ORCID 0000-0003-0167-1300), Newman, Alexander, Ellenberger, Tori, Pyman, Amanda
Source: Studies in Higher Education. 2019 44(9):1630-1644.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2019
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Evaluative
Information Analyses
Descriptors: Outcomes of Education, Student Mobility, Program Effectiveness, Foreign Students, Study Abroad, Program Length, Educational Benefits, Research Design, Student Exchange Programs, Student Volunteers, Second Language Learning, Internship Programs, Student Employment, Job Placement, Journal Articles, Cultural Awareness, Student Development, Career Development, Employment Potential, Intercultural Communication, Foreign Countries
Geographic Terms: United States, Europe, Taiwan, Australia, Germany, Finland, Italy, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom
DOI: 10.1080/03075079.2018.1458222
ISSN: 0307-5079
Abstract: Scholarly studies of international student mobility programs have increased during the last two decades, particularly following the Bologna Declaration. Nevertheless, a systematic review of international student mobility programs and the outcomes and benefits derived from participation in such programs has not been undertaken. This paper provides a comprehensive review of studies examining the various outcomes of student participation in short-term international mobility programs and identifies under-researched areas such as employment and career outcomes. A future research agenda based on the review is outlined, along with recommendations for improving research designs in order to increase our understanding of the short- and long-term outcomes of international student mobility programs.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2019
Accession Number: EJ1224360
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0137944978;she01sep.19;2019Aug09.04:30;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0137944978-1">Outcomes of international student mobility programs: a systematic review and agenda for future research </title> <p>Scholarly studies of international student mobility programs have increased during the last two decades, particularly following the Bologna Declaration. Nevertheless, a systematic review of international student mobility programs and the outcomes and benefits derived from participation in such programs has not been undertaken. This paper provides a comprehensive review of studies examining the various outcomes of student participation in short-term international mobility programs and identifies under-researched areas such as employment and career outcomes. A future research agenda based on the review is outlined, along with recommendations for improving research designs in order to increase our understanding of the short- and long-term outcomes of international student mobility programs.</p> <p>Keywords: International student mobility; student exchange; short-term study abroad; cultural outcomes; personal outcomes; employment and career outcomes; benefits</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Over the past two decades, in an increasingly globalized and connected world, short-term international student mobility has been promoted by national governments and higher education institutions as a means of enhancing students' cultural awareness and competence (Chieffo and Griffiths [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref1">12</reflink>]; Kokko [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref2">38</reflink>]; Kuehn et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref3">42</reflink>]; Behrnd and Porzelt [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref4">6</reflink>]; Bohman and Borglin [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref5">8</reflink>]; Cleak, Anand, and Das [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref6">14</reflink>]; Winslade [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref7">79</reflink>]). Educators have recognized the importance of extending the classroom beyond a conventional campus setting to one that enables the students to interact with people from different cultures. An interest in cross-cultural awareness and other drivers has led to a significant increase in the number of university students spending part of their academic education overseas (Varela and Gatlin-Watts [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref8">77</reflink>]).</p> <p>Researchers have highlighted numerous benefits of undertaking short-term mobility programs. Such benefits include cultural, personal, and employment/career outcomes (Dedee and Stewart [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref9">19</reflink>]; Orahood, Kruze, and Pearson [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref10">58</reflink>]; Teichler and Janson [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref11">73</reflink>]; Norris and Gillespie [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref12">56</reflink>]; Crossman and Clarke [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref13">15</reflink>]; Hallows, Wolf, and Marks [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref14">30</reflink>]; DeGraaf et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref15">20</reflink>]; Bryla [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref16">9</reflink>]; Cleak, Anand, and Das [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref17">14</reflink>]; Kratz and Netz [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref18">40</reflink>]; Kronholz and Osborn [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref19">41</reflink>]). Despite growing empirical research to date, there have been no systematic reviews of prior work on the student outcomes afforded by participation in short-term international mobility programs. Our study therefore addresses an important research question: what are the outcomes of student participation in international mobility programs?</p> <p>To answer this question, we undertake a systematic review of empirical research on the outcomes of short-term international student mobility programs. The scope of our review covers short-term mobility programs only, that is, exchange semesters spent at a host university, overseas volunteering, second language programs, internships and training placement programs, whether credit-bearing or not. We exclude long-term international student mobility, that is, studying at an overseas destination university for a complete degree. The review contributes to the growing body of research on short-term international student mobility and to the existing literature in two ways. First, it consolidates existing knowledge of the student-centric outcomes of international student mobility programs. Second, the review findings are used to generate an agenda for future research highlighting opportunities for empirical and theoretical advancement of the current literature.</p> <p>The paper is organized as follows. First, we describe the methods used for the review. Second, we analyze the literature focusing on the student-centric outcomes of short-term international mobility and on the boundary conditions that influence the outcomes of mobility programs. Finally, we present an agenda for future research and highlight opportunities for empirical and theoretical advancement.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-3">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0137944978-4">Criteria for inclusion and exclusion</hd> <p>Various inclusion and exclusion criteria were adopted to determine which research studies were to be covered by the review. These criteria are summarized in Table 1.</p> <p>Table 1. Criteria for inclusion and exclusion.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Criteria</td><td>Exclusion</td><td>Inclusion</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Journal articles in English language</td><td /><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Journal articles in other languages</td><td>✓</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Books, book chapters</td><td>✓</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Reports</td><td>✓</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Unpublished work</td><td>✓</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Student dissertations</td><td>✓</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Web sites, web pages, blogs</td><td>✓</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Long-term international mobility (such as studying for a degree overseas)</td><td>✓</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Short-term international mobility program (second language programs, exchange semester, internships, volunteering, training placements) LIMITED TO studies examining the effects of short-term mobility on student-centric outcomes</td><td /><td>✓</td></tr><tr><td>Mobility programs organized by private organizations without university involvement</td><td>✓</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Mobility programs organized by universities only</td><td /><td>✓</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>As can be seen from Table 1, only studies examining the effects of short-term international mobility on student-centric outcomes were included and the review was limited to peer-reviewed journal articles published in English. No time limits were imposed on the publication period for review. Unpublished work, book chapters, reports, and student dissertations were not included for the reason that we were unable to determine if they were peer reviewed.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-5">Search strategy</hd> <p>An electronic search was conducted between February 2017 and May 2017 of the bibliographic database Web of Science (https://clarivate.com/products/web-of-science/) by the first and second authors independent of one another. Web of Science is the most comprehensive citation database and contains records of over 12,000 academic journals. In addition, the first author searched library databases and Google Scholar. The terms used in the searches included 'study abroad,' 'student mobility,' 'global mobility,' and 'student exchange' in the titles, abstracts, and keywords of articles.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-6">Identification of relevant studies</hd> <p>Over 4800 articles that focused on international student mobility were identified. Most of these studies were excluded as they did not focus on mobility outcomes. Many articles discussed policy issues related to international mobility, how to establish international mobility programs, collaboration issues between institutions, or the factors that led students to undertake international mobility experiences. Authors one and two (independent of one another) prepared individual excel sheets summarizing each paper deemed relevant to the study of the outcomes of short-term international student mobility. The two authors then exchanged their individual work for review by the other. After application of the remaining inclusion and exclusion criteria, the authors determined that 75 studies were suitable for inclusion in the review.</p> <p>Students covered by these studies came from undergraduate and postgraduate cohorts across a wide range of faculties and disciplines. The time spent overseas ranged from a minimum of 1 week (Houser et al. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref20">33</reflink>]) to a maximum of 1 year (Nash [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref21">55</reflink>]; Carlson and Widaman [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref22">11</reflink>]; Norris and Gillespie [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref23">56</reflink>]). The duration of the programs typically undertaken by students ranged from 2 to 4 weeks. A diverse range of international student mobility programs were investigated, including service learning projects, classroom-based programs, cultural-immersion programs, project work, pre-service teacher placements, nursing placements in overseas medical institutes and teaching hospitals, consulting projects, joint language and culture programs involving students from both home and host universities, and student exchange programs of one to two semesters in duration. Most studies focused on programs developed by universities from the US, followed by some select European countries including Germany, Finland, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and the UK. In the Asia Pacific, there were studies from Taiwan and Australia. The destination countries studied included a large number of nations from various parts of the world including Argentina, Costa Rica, Cambodia, China, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ireland, the UK, Spain, Samoa, and Vietnam.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-7">Outcomes of short-term international mobility programs</hd> <p>Based on the papers reviewed, the outcomes of short-term international mobility programs can be broadly classified into three areas: cultural, personal, and employment/career outcomes.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-8">Cultural outcomes</hd> <p>Researchers have identified a wide range of cultural outcomes resulting from participation in international student mobility programs (e.g. Dedee and Stewart [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref24">19</reflink>]; Anderson et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref25">4</reflink>]; Fairchild, Pillai, and Noble [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref26">23</reflink>]; Hallows, Wolf, and Marks [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref27">30</reflink>]; Bohman and Borglin [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref28">8</reflink>]; Holtbrugge and Engelhard [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref29">32</reflink>]). These cultural outcomes include cultural awareness, cultural intelligence, global mindedness, cultural sensitivity and empathy, cultural adaptability, language skills, cross-cultural communication skills, and intercultural competence. In the following sections, we examine research on each of these outcomes.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-9">Cultural awareness</hd> <p>There is general agreement amongst scholars (e.g. Dedee and Stewart [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref30">19</reflink>]; Williams [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref31">78</reflink>]; Fairchild, Pillai, and Noble [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref32">23</reflink>]; Ismail, Morgan, and Hayes [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref33">36</reflink>]; Marx and Moss [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref34">51</reflink>]; Griner, Herron, and White [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref35">27</reflink>]) that participation in short-term international mobility programs has a positive effect on students' cultural awareness, which refers to the recognition and understanding of differences between cultures. Studies using pre- and post-test designs have established an increase in cultural awareness following a mobility experience (Chieffo and Griffiths [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref36">12</reflink>]; Black and Duhon [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref37">7</reflink>]; Fairchild, Pillai, and Noble [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref38">23</reflink>]; Kuehn et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref39">42</reflink>]). In addition, qualitative results have supported the positive effects of mobility on cultural awareness (Tuleja [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref40">75</reflink>]; Crossman and Clarke [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref41">15</reflink>]; Marx and Moss [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref42">51</reflink>]; Bohman and Borglin [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref43">8</reflink>]; Griner, Herron, and White [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref44">27</reflink>]; Cleak, Anand, and Das [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref45">14</reflink>]). For example, Cleak, Anand, and Das ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref46">14</reflink>]) found that students frequently cited cultural awareness as the most important outcome of mobility. Gullekson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref47">28</reflink>]) also found that international mobility increased students' levels of cultural awareness.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-10">Cultural intelligence</hd> <p>An outcome that overlaps with cultural awareness is cultural intelligence. Cultural intelligence refers to an individual's ability and skills to manage themselves and interact with others across cultures. Varela and Gatlin-Watts ([<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref48">77</reflink>]), adopting a pre- and post-test design, found that although international mobility positively influenced the development of meta-cognitive and cognitive cultural intelligence, it did not necessarily lead to the development of participants' motivational and behavioral cultural intelligence. In other words, international student mobility fostered participants' greater awareness of cultural differences as captured by its cognitive dimensions, but did not increase their motivation to explore unfamiliar contexts or adapt to other cultures. Although Eisenberg et al. ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref49">22</reflink>]) did not directly examine the effects of international mobility on cultural intelligence, they found a positive relationship between students' international experience (living, studying, and working) and their meta-cognitive, cognitive, and behavioral cultural intelligence.</p> <p>In their study of 901 students drawn from 46 countries, Holtbrugge and Engelhard ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref50">32</reflink>]) examined the processes that improve cultural intelligence in a study-abroad program and the role played by participants' motivation and their cultural boundary spanning skills. The study confirmed that cultural boundary spanning or a desire to engage in intercultural interactions and seek cultural understanding had a direct effect on the development of cultural intelligence. The study concluded that students with intrinsic and highly self-determined extrinsic motivations, and thus higher meta-cognitive cultural intelligence, were more likely to engage in cultural boundary spanning than those with poor self-determined extrinsic motivations.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-11">Global mindedness</hd> <p>Global mindedness, an outcome that also overlaps with cultural awareness, is the extent to which an individual feels connected to the global community and to its members (Clarke et al. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref51">13</reflink>]). Studies such as those of Clarke et al. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref52">13</reflink>]) and Douglas and Jones-Rikkers ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref53">21</reflink>]) investigated the impact of international mobility on global mindedness and concluded that students who studied abroad had higher levels of global mindedness than those who did not. Hadis ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref54">29</reflink>]) also established that participation in international mobility led to changes in global mindedness.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-12">Cultural sensitivity and empathy</hd> <p>Cultural sensitivity and empathy refers to being open to and showing respect for cultural differences. The findings from empirical work examining the effects of international mobility on cultural sensitivity are inconclusive. For example, some researchers found that international mobility had a positive impact on the development of cultural sensitivity and empathy, using pre- and post-test experimental designs and qualitative methods (Lindsey [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref55">45</reflink>]; Stronkhorst [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref56">71</reflink>]; Williams [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref57">78</reflink>]; Anderson et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref58">4</reflink>]; Ruddock and Turner [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref59">68</reflink>]; Crossman and Clarke [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref60">15</reflink>]), whilst others have found no significant difference in the levels of cultural sensitivity between students who engaged in international mobility and those who did not (Clarke et al. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref61">13</reflink>]). Comparing intercultural sensitivity between students who studied abroad and those who stayed at home, using the intercultural sensitivity index, Clarke et al. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref62">13</reflink>]) found that students who studied abroad had higher levels of adaption and integration than those who stayed at home and showed higher levels of cultural sensitivity in general, but the levels of denial, defense, minimization, and acceptance responses with respect to other cultures were not significantly different. Pedersen ([<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref63">61</reflink>]) also found no significant differences in cultural sensitivity between students who studied abroad and those who stayed at home. Meanwhile, Gullekson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref64">28</reflink>]) found that international mobility reduced ethnocentrism amongst students. Similarly, Marx and Moss ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref65">51</reflink>]) in a study of overseas placements of pre-service teachers found that participants developed culturally responsive approaches to teaching.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-13">Cultural adaptability</hd> <p>Cultural adaptability refers to individuals' abilities to adapt to cultures other than their own. Williams ([<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref66">78</reflink>]) found that students who undertook an international mobility program exhibited a greater change in cultural adaptability than those who stayed at home. Similarly, Mapp ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref67">48</reflink>]) found that a short-term international mobility program led to higher levels of cultural adaptability amongst participating students.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-14">Language skills</hd> <p>There is a growing body of research on the impact of participation in short-term international mobility programs on second language proficiency. Allen and Herron ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref68">1</reflink>]) found that compared with language students who stayed at a home university, students participating in a mobility program demonstrated better linguistic skills and lower levels of language anxiety after taking the same language program. Similarly, Hernández ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref69">31</reflink>]) found that study-abroad students who participated in an oral language program had better oral language skills than did students who participated in a similar program at the home campus. In another study of two groups of students undertaking a second language program, Cubillos, Chieffo, and Fan ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref70">16</reflink>]) found that the study-abroad group displayed higher confidence and self-perceived language ability, adopting top-down social listening skills that differed from the home-campus group's bottom-up approach. In the same study, higher proficiency students in the study-abroad group had significantly greater comprehension gains compared with students in the home-campus group. Teichler and Janson ([<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref71">73</reflink>]) found that students who had undertaken international mobility during undergraduate study were three times more confident in their language skills than those who had not. In another study, Cubillos and Ilvento ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref72">17</reflink>]) found that international mobility led to an increase in participants' confidence in their language ability. Reynolds-Case ([<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref73">67</reflink>]) established that recognition of different linguistic forms improved as a result of a short-term mobility program.</p> <p>Stronkhorst ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref74">71</reflink>]) observed that language skills generally improved in students who participated in mobility programs; however, limited progress was made amongst students whose language skills were already at higher levels. Martinsen ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref75">50</reflink>]) also found that study abroad had a positive effect on the oral language skills of students, but particularly those with higher levels of cultural sensitivity prior to going abroad.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-15">Cross-cultural communication skills</hd> <p>Previous studies have investigated the influence of short-term international mobility on students' abilities to communicate in cross-cultural settings (Orahood, Kruze, and Pearson [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref76">58</reflink>]; Tuleja [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref77">75</reflink>]; Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref78">47</reflink>]). For example, Orahood, Kruze, and Pearson ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref79">58</reflink>]) found that cross-cultural communication skills improved as a result of participation in an international mobility program. Tuleja ([<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref80">75</reflink>]) found that participation in an international mobility program improved students' confidence such that they would be able to communicate effectively in an intercultural setting. Clarke et al. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref81">13</reflink>]) also found that students who had participated in international mobility programs reported higher levels of cross-cultural communication skills than those who had not. Gullekson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref82">28</reflink>]) similarly found that international mobility reduced students' apprehension to engaging in cross-cultural communication.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-16">Intercultural competence</hd> <p>Intercultural competence refers to an individual's ability to cope with life in another culture. Empirical work has established that short-term international mobility enhances intercultural competence (e.g. Stronkhorst [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref83">71</reflink>]; Teichler and Janson [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref84">73</reflink>]; Hallows, Wolf, and Marks [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref85">30</reflink>]; Kokko [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref86">38</reflink>]; Behrnd and Porzelt [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref87">6</reflink>]; Reichard et al. [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref88">66</reflink>]; Winslade [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref89">79</reflink>]; Onorati, d'Ovidio, and Antonucci [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref90">57</reflink>]). Winslade ([<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref91">79</reflink>]), for example, found that student involvement in international mobility had a positive influence on their intercultural competence as measured by cultural awareness and use of culturally appropriate work practices.</p> <p>Behrnd and Porzelt ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref92">6</reflink>]) examined the influence of international mobility on different dimensions of intercultural competence. Whilst they found that students who studied abroad had higher levels of cognitive intercultural competence than did those who did not, only those who stayed abroad for a significant period had higher levels of affective, social, and strategic intercultural competence. Cross-cultural trigger events experienced by students during international mobility also lead to higher levels of intercultural competence by broadening students' social and cognitive resources, their knowledge of different cultural norms, and their perspectives (Reichard et al. [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref93">66</reflink>]). Similarly, Teichler and Janson ([<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref94">73</reflink>]) found that students who had undertaken mobility considered that they were more competent in cooperating with people from other cultural backgrounds than were those without an international mobility experience. Hallows, Wolf, and Marks ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref95">30</reflink>]) also found that students reported an increase in their global business competence after taking part in a short-term international mobility program.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-17">Other cultural outcomes</hd> <p>Other cultural outcomes that have been found to be related to participation in short-term international mobility programs include greater openness to and appreciation of cultural diversity (Ismail, Morgan, and Hayes [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref96">36</reflink>]; Clarke et al. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref97">13</reflink>]; Leutwyler and Meierhans [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref98">44</reflink>]); greater identification as a global citizen (Greenfield, Davis, and Fedor [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref99">26</reflink>]); higher levels of global engagement (Paige et al. [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref100">59</reflink>]; DeGraaf et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref101">20</reflink>]); higher levels of cultural cosmopolitanism and interest (Carlson and Widaman [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref102">11</reflink>]); higher levels of international political concern (Carlson and Widaman [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref103">11</reflink>]); an increased understanding of global perspectives, cultural relativism, and an increased commitment to social justice (Tarrant, Rubin, and Stoner [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref104">72</reflink>]); higher levels of global awareness (Shiveley and Misco [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref105">70</reflink>]); and a greater sensitivity to poverty in developing countries (Le, Raven, and Chen [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref106">43</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-18">Personal outcomes</hd> <p>Personal outcomes resulting from participation in short-term international student mobility programs that have been investigated include an understanding of moral and ethical issues (Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref107">47</reflink>]) and improved academic performance (Houser et al. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref108">33</reflink>]; Luo and Jamieson-Drake [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref109">47</reflink>]). In addition, research has frequently established that international mobility programs are perceived by students to enhance their personal development (Dedee and Stewart [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref110">19</reflink>]; Orahood, Kruze, and Pearson [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref111">58</reflink>]; Shieh [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref112">69</reflink>]; Stronkhorst [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref113">71</reflink>]; Black and Duhon [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref114">7</reflink>]; Marcotte, Desroches, and Poupart [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref115">49</reflink>]; Ruddock and Turner [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref116">68</reflink>]; Green et al. [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref117">25</reflink>]; Keogh and Russel-Roberts [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref118">37</reflink>]; Norris and Gillespie [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref119">56</reflink>]; Lumkes, Hallett, and Vallade [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref120">46</reflink>]; Potts [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref121">64</reflink>]; Shiveley and Misco [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref122">70</reflink>]). For example, Van Hoof and Verbeeten ([<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref123">76</reflink>]) found that international mobility enabled students to learn more about themselves and enriched them personally. Green et al. ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref124">25</reflink>]) similarly revealed that students described an increase in confidence and self-reliance as a result of participating in short-term international mobility programs. DeGraaf et al. ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref125">20</reflink>]) also found that participation in short-term international mobility programs influenced maturity, confidence, and increased students' sense of accomplishment. Similarly, Lindsey ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref126">45</reflink>]) found that participation in international mobility programs resulted in higher levels of perceived self-awareness, whilst Luo and Jamieson-Drake ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref127">47</reflink>]) noted an increase in academic performance, communication skills, and the ability to understand moral and ethical issues amongst short-term international mobility participants.</p> <p>Petersdotter, Niehoff, and Freund ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref128">63</reflink>]) found that students who had undertaken an international mobility program had higher levels of self-efficacy than those who had not, and Norris and Gillespie ([<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref129">56</reflink>]) found that individuals who had participated in international mobility programs believed that the experience had enhanced their self-efficacy and interest in other cultures. However, Nash ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref130">55</reflink>]) found evidence to suggest that international mobility for one year had no beneficial effects on flexibility, tolerance, and confidence, and only enhanced autonomy, expansion, and differentiation of self. In actual fact, Nash ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref131">55</reflink>]) found that students seemed to exhibit lower confidence as a result of participation in a one-year mobility program. However, this particular study appears to be an outlier based on the limitations acknowledged by the author; namely, program duration of one year appears to have an adverse effect on students' well-being and positive personality changes noted in the earlier stages of the program do not remain constant. Concerns may also be raised regarding the ad hoc selection process of the control group. In addition, the study is over 40 years old reflecting the world view held by students from a different generation and may not compare well with the student mobility experience of today.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-19">Employment and career outcomes</hd> <p>Researchers have begun to examine the influence of student participation in international mobility programs on employment and career-related outcomes, including professional development, perceived employability, career choices, transition into international careers, and career success.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-20">Professional development</hd> <p>Beneficial effects of participation in short-term international mobility programs identified by previous research include: professional development (Shieh [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref132">69</reflink>]; Marcotte, Desroches, and Poupart [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref133">49</reflink>]; Green et al. [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref134">25</reflink>]; Keogh and Russel-Roberts [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref135">37</reflink>]; Bryla [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref136">9</reflink>]; Winslade [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref137">79</reflink>]) and professional identity development (Lindsey [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref138">45</reflink>]). For example, Green et al. ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref139">25</reflink>]) found that students who had undertaken international mobility programs reported that they had developed professional knowledge and practical skills, whilst Shieh ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref140">69</reflink>]) also found that students developed greater professional knowledge as a result of participation in short-term international mobility programs.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-21">Perceived employability</hd> <p>There is growing evidence that short-term international mobility programs enhance perceived employability on the part of students (Crossman and Clarke [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref141">15</reflink>]; DeGraaf et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref142">20</reflink>]; Potts [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref143">64</reflink>]; Cleak, Anand, and Das [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref144">14</reflink>]; Meier and Smith [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref145">53</reflink>]). For example, Cleak, Anand, and Das ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref146">14</reflink>]) found that students believed that their participation in international mobility programs enhanced their employability and career prospects. Potts ([<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref147">64</reflink>]) also reported that students felt that their mobility experience enhanced their employability through improving their interpersonal, communication, teamwork, problem-solving, and analytical skills. Furthermore, Crossman and Clarke ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref148">15</reflink>]) found that international experience fostered employability by enabling students to forge networks, engage in experiential learning, acquire language skills, and develop their soft skills.</p> <p>Research studies have also investigated whether participation in international mobility programs enhances participants' likelihood of employment (Teichler and Janson [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref149">73</reflink>]; Carley, Stuart, and Dailey [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref150">10</reflink>]; Shiveley and Misco [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref151">70</reflink>]; Amendola and Restaino [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref152">3</reflink>]). For example, Shiveley and Misco ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref153">70</reflink>]) found that student teachers who had participated in an international mobility program believed that their involvement in such a program had assisted them in obtaining their first employment role. Similarly, Amendola and Restaino ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref154">3</reflink>]) reported that students who had participated in an international mobility program felt that such participation had helped them acquire their first position. In contrast, Carley, Stuart, and Dailey ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref155">10</reflink>]) found limited evidence that participation in international mobility programs helped participants obtain employment.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-22">Career choices</hd> <p>Participation in international student mobility programs has been shown to foster interest in a career generally, and in an international career specifically (Orahood, Kruze, and Pearson [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref156">58</reflink>]; Van Hoof and Verbeeten [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref157">76</reflink>]; DeGraaf et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref158">20</reflink>]; Felker and Gianecchini [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref159">24</reflink>]; Kronholz and Osborn [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref160">41</reflink>]). For example, Orahood, Kruze, and Pearson ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref161">58</reflink>]) found that 94 percent of students participating in a short-term mobility program expressed heightened interest in an international career. Similarly, Felker and Gianecchini ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref162">24</reflink>]) noted that students expressed a desire to seek international careers after participation in a short-term international mobility program, whilst Kronholz and Osborn ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref163">41</reflink>]) found that participation in a mobility program led to a better understanding of career choices and of individual values and interests. Paige et al. ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref164">59</reflink>]) investigated the long-term impact of short-term international mobility on career choices. They found that participation in Erasmus programs influenced students' subsequent choice of their occupation and career.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-23">Transition into international careers</hd> <p>Researchers (Teichler and Janson [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref165">73</reflink>]; Norris and Gillespie [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref166">56</reflink>]; Parey and Waldinger [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref167">60</reflink>]) have found that participation in international mobility programs predicts transition into international careers. For example, Norris and Gillespie ([<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref168">56</reflink>]) found that the length of study abroad, enrolment in host university courses, participation in internships overseas, and accommodation with host families were positively related to involvement in an international career. Parey and Waldinger ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref169">60</reflink>]) also found that participation in an international mobility program increased an individual's probability of working overseas by 15 percentage points. Similarly, Teichler and Janson ([<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref170">73</reflink>]) found that students who participated in Erasmus international mobility programs were more likely to work overseas than those who had not.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-24">Career success</hd> <p>Scholars have begun to investigate whether participation in international mobility programs influences career success in terms of higher wages and wage growth. For example, Kratz and Netz ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref171">40</reflink>]) revealed that students who participated in short-term international mobility programs experienced steeper wage growth after graduation and earned higher wages in the medium term compared with those who did not participate in such programs. This result is consistent with the findings of earlier research by Messer and Wolter ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref172">54</reflink>]) who reported that graduates with international mobility experience had higher starting salaries than did non-participants. However, this outcome might also be attributable to higher levels of human capital amongst participants and not the mobility experience itself.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-25">Other employment and career outcomes</hd> <p>Researchers have investigated a number of other employment and career outcomes related to student participation in international mobility programs, including perceptions of control over one's career (McCleod et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref173">52</reflink>]) and professional commitment (Dedee and Stewart [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref174">19</reflink>]). Hallows, Wolf, and Marks ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref175">30</reflink>]) reported that students who participated in international mobility programs felt more confident in performing business internationally and had higher levels of perceived entrepreneurial and global industry competence. However, adopting an experimental design, Leutwyler and Meierhans ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref176">44</reflink>]) found no increase in student teachers' perceived competency or self-efficacy as a result of a two-week teacher placement overseas. In contrast, research on student nurses undertaking overseas work placements established that their involvement in such placements had positive effects on their own nursing practice upon returning home (Kokko [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref177">38</reflink>]) and on their attitudes toward, and awareness of, health systems in other countries (Kuehn et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref178">42</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-26">Boundary conditions</hd> <p>Scholars have begun to examine factors that may predict the effect size of participation in short-term international mobility programs on the outcomes associated with such programs. Boundary conditions studied to date include program duration, social interaction during the mobility program, study major, and host country. The most commonly investigated boundary condition is program duration. For example, Dedee and Stewart ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref179">19</reflink>]) found that the longer the program duration, the stronger the positive influence of program participation on personal development, intellectual development, knowledge of international and transcultural issues, and development of favorable perceptions of nurses in their role. Similarly, Behrnd and Porzelt ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref180">6</reflink>]) found that longer program duration had a positive impact on various aspects of intercultural competence. In particular, they found that students who spent a longer time abroad on an international mobility program demonstrated higher levels of intercultural competence than those who spent less time abroad. Varela and Gatlin-Watts ([<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref181">77</reflink>]) also found that longer program duration was positively associated with higher levels of meta-cognitive cultural intelligence amongst students.</p> <p>Researchers have also investigated other boundary conditions that may affect the outcomes of international mobility. Petersdotter, Niehoff, and Freund ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref182">63</reflink>]), for instance, found that the greater the number of social contacts made by students whilst undertaking a semester overseas, the higher their self-efficacy. DeGraaf et al. ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref183">20</reflink>]) found that students undertaking a language major benefited more from mobility programs than did students undertaking a business major, whilst Eisenberg et al. ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref184">22</reflink>]) revealed that students who had undertaken a cross-cultural management course before participating in an international mobility program benefitted from higher levels of cultural intelligence and competence than those who had not undertaken such a course. Douglas and Jones-Rikkers ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref185">21</reflink>]) investigated the effects of the host country location on the outcomes of international mobility and found that the greater the cultural difference between the home country and the host country, the stronger the effect of the mobility program on world-mindedness.</p> <p>Students' personal characteristics may also predict the extent to which they will benefit from international mobility experiences. For example, Martinsen ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref186">50</reflink>]) found that cultural sensitivity predicted the extent to which language skills improved during an international mobility program.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-27">Future research agenda</hd> <p>Based upon our systematic review of prior work of the outcomes of short-term international student mobility programs, we draw five main observations that underpin a future research agenda. First, although many studies have investigated the cultural and personal outcomes of student mobility, comparatively few have investigated the employment and career outcomes resulting from participation in international student mobility. As a result, it is difficult to ascertain the influence of short-term mobility programs on career prospects. Second, few prior studies draw on theory to explain how international short-term mobility programs influence cultural, personal, and employment/career outcomes. This deficit means that we are not in a position to explain the processes by which participation in such mobility programs influences students, how mobility programs might be designed to ensure students obtain maximum benefit, and which individuals respond more positively to international short-term mobility programs. Third, very few studies have investigated the outcomes of student mobility outside Europe and North America. An overwhelmingly large proportion of the prior research on student mobility is on outcomes derived by students from US, European, or developed nations, whereas the outcomes and benefits derived by students from elsewhere in Asia, Latin America, or Africa have received limited attention. This broader view of the outcomes of short-term international student mobility across countries and outside the Anglo-American world remains a critical gap in our knowledge of the outcomes for students. As such, it is difficult to ascertain whether it is cultural differences that influence the outcomes of international mobility programs on students or whether other issues are at play, such as equity and access which constrain participation in such mobility opportunities. Future research therefore needs to consider the influence of geographic and cultural differences on students' participation in short-term international mobility programs and their related benefits and outcomes. Examining these issues is especially important as the numbers of students from outside the US and Europe participating in short-term international mobility programs are increasing in recent years as the university systems in Asia, Africa, and Latin America are developing, and students feel less of a need to study for their whole degree overseas (Institute of International Education [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref187">35</reflink>]). However, most of the current reports on short-term mobility programs look only at US and European students and do not examine the number of students who engage in short-term mobility programs from other regions of the world. For example, whilst a recent Open Doors report on international student mobility by the Institute of International Education found that more than 335,846 students from US institutions participated in short-term mobility programs ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref188">35</reflink>]), and that the majority of these students went to Europe, we know little about the numbers of students from Asia and other regions of the world undertaking short-term mobility programs and the locations where such programs are undertaken. Present data instead concentrate on the enrollments of international students in degree programs overseas (long-term mobility). Fourth, practically none of the studies in our review have deliberately sought to study the negative outcomes of short-term mobility programs except for a 40-year-old study (Nash [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref189">55</reflink>]) which revealed some negative consequences related to personal outcomes. The potential drawbacks of participation in short-term international mobility programs may be another area for future research to consider. Finally, weak study designs are typically employed in previous research examining the outcomes of international short-term student mobility. For example, very few studies adopt pre- and post-test control group designs and researchers depend upon students' self-report data rather than comparing responses before and after participation in a program or comparing responses with those students who did not participate in a program. To address the limitations of the existing literature highlighted above, we now identify a number of opportunities for the theoretical and empirical advancement of the existing literature.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-28">Opportunities for theoretical advancement</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0137944978-29">Theoretical explanations for the outcomes of short-term international mobility</hd> <p>As highlighted above, there is little theoretical understanding of why participation in international mobility programs has a positive influence on students' cultural, personal, and employment and career outcomes. In addition, researchers have not examined variables consistent with such theoretical explanations. In line with prior work (Orahood, Kruze, and Pearson [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref190">58</reflink>]; Onorati, d'Ovidio, and Antonucci [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref191">57</reflink>]), we call on researchers to draw on theories such as social learning theory (Bandura [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref192">5</reflink>]) and experiential learning theory (Kolb [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref193">39</reflink>]) to examine how students benefit from taking part in international mobility experiences. For example, in line with such theories, researchers may investigate whether participation in international mobility programs improves cultural outcomes such as cultural adaptability and sensitivity by enhancing learning or knowledge about cultures pre- and post-participation.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-30">Theoretical explanations of the students who benefit more from short-term international mobil...</hd> <p>As highlighted in our systematic review of the literature, we have a limited understanding of what groups of students benefit more from international mobility programs. To gain a better understanding of the students who respond more positively to international mobility programs, we call on researchers to draw on person–situation theories such as the trait activation theory (TAT) (Tett and Guterman [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref194">74</reflink>]). This theory suggests that 'personality traits and situations are sources of behavioral variance and traits are expressed as responses to trait-relevant situational cues' (Dawkins et al. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref195">18</reflink>], 177). TAT suggests that the influence of personality traits may depend on inducements offered by the context (situational cues), and that this may explain why individuals with certain personalities respond more or less positively to international mobility experiences. For example, we might argue on the basis of TAT that those high in openness to experience (one of the five personality characteristics) will respond more positively to mobility experiences than those low in openness to experience, because individuals high in openness will feel more comfortable in new situations and therefore more likely to benefit from them. Prior research is consistent with such a perspective (Dawkins et al. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref196">18</reflink>]), highlighting how individuals with certain personality types may adjust more successfully to life in a cultural environment different from their own. For example, Huang, Chi, and Lawler ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref197">34</reflink>]) found that individuals from the US were more likely to adapt to life in Taiwan if they had high (as opposed to low) levels of extroversion, openness to experience, and agreeableness. Similarly, arguing that people with certain personalities are more likely to respond positively to cross-cultural experiences, Peltokorpi and Froese ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref198">62</reflink>]) found that individuals with certain personality traits were more likely to successfully adjust to life as an expatriate. Based on the above findings, future research might ascertain whether people with certain personality traits respond more (or less) positively to international mobility experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-31">Theoretical explanations of how short-term international mobility programs can be designed to...</hd> <p>Although scholars have begun to examine a range of boundary conditions that may influence the effectiveness of international mobility programs, such as program duration, social interaction, and the program content (e.g. Ramakrishna, Sarkar, and Vijayaraman [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref199">65</reflink>]), prior research has failed to draw on theories from social psychology or intercultural relations to examine how international mobility programs can be designed to maximize effectiveness for both students and institutions. In doing so, access and equity issues (e.g. cost of programs) need to be explored. These gaps represent a significant opportunity for future research and theoretical advancement. In this light, we call on researchers to adopt relevant theoretical frameworks to examine how international mobility programs can be designed to maximize students' cultural, personal, and employment and career outcomes, as well as positive institutional outcomes. For example, drawing on Allport's contact theory ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref200">2</reflink>]), and the premise that interacting with people from other social groups leads to a better understanding of people from those groups, researchers could examine whether mobility programs that enable greater interaction between students and members of other cultural groups enhance the effectiveness of mobility programs for students in terms of their cultural awareness and understanding. Researchers can also investigate whether the content and duration of short-term international mobility programs predict their effectiveness in enhancing the personal, employment, and career outcomes of students. For example, we might expect that students will be more likely to extend their knowledge through mobility programs that provide opportunities for work-integrated learning (internships or consultancy-based projects) over an extended period of weeks compared to those that do not, which in turn will positively influence personal, employment, and career outcomes. Knowledge of the types of programs that are more successful and effective in enhancing student outcomes will assist higher education institutions in designing short-term international mobility programs for the benefit of all stakeholders, including students, employers, and their partner communities.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-32">Opportunities for empirical advancement</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0137944978-33">Improved research design</hd> <p>Our review highlighted a number of methodological drawbacks in previous empirical work. The first relates to the small sample sizes adopted in many of the studies. Such small samples limit the generalizability of findings from prior work. To ensure sufficient statistical power, we recommend that future quantitative research use larger student samples to increase confidence in the findings and their potential for generalizability. The second relates to the failure of researchers to adopt pre- and post-test control group designs, instead relying on cross-sectional data from students post the completion of mobility programs. Only 24 of the 70 studies included in our review used a pre- and post-test design, whilst 46 reported results based purely on post-sojourn data. In addition, only 23 of the 70 studies utilized control groups to establish whether students who studied abroad were more likely to benefit from such programs than similar students who stayed at home. In future research, we call on researchers to adopt pre- and post-test control group designs to enhance confidence in research findings and enhance the generalizability of these findings.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-34">Examining additional career and employment outcomes of international mobility programs</hd> <p>As highlighted earlier in this paper, prior work has focused predominantly on the cultural and personal outcomes of student mobility, with less emphasis on employment and career outcomes. This disparity results from the fact that studies have tended to sample students immediately after completion of the mobility program rather than track them into employment. In line with recent research (Bryla [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref201">9</reflink>]; Felker and Gianecchini [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref202">24</reflink>]), we call on researchers to undertake longitudinal research that tracks students after they graduate to accurately determine the effects of participation in international student mobility programs on employment and career outcomes. In addition to investigating the effects of student participation in short-term international mobility programs on the career outcomes highlighted in previous work (e.g. employability, career choices, international careers, and career success), future research should also examine the influence of participation in short-term international mobility programs on other career outcomes such as career exploration, career adaptability, and career readiness.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-35">Understanding the role of geography and culture on the effectiveness and outcomes of internat...</hd> <p>Another opportunity for advancing empirical research lies in examining the relationship between culture and outcomes of student participation in international mobility programs. As highlighted earlier, the overwhelming majority of empirical work on student mobility to date has been conducted in North America and Europe. Therefore, we are unable to ascertain whether students from other cultures such as Asia, Africa, and South America are able to realize similar benefits from participation in international mobility programs, especially since such cultures are significantly different. That is, these latter cultures are typically high in collectivism and power distance, compared with the more individualistic and low power distance cultures of North America and Europe. Drawing on recent work (Reichard et al. [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref203">66</reflink>]), researchers might therefore explore the role played by culture in shaping successful international mobility program outcomes for students. For example, Reichard et al. ([<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref204">66</reflink>]) found that the introduction of cultural trigger events within an overseas mobility program led to the development of cultural competence. Therefore, researchers may further investigate how short-term international mobility programs can be designed to enhance students' cultural intelligence. Finally, we call on researchers to examine whether cultural distance between a student's home culture and their host culture may predict the extent to which they benefit from participation in a short-term international mobility program. We might expect that students may develop greater cultural awareness and adaptability where there is a greater cultural distance between home and host culture than where there is a smaller cultural distance between the home and host culture.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-36">Conclusion</hd> <p>This paper has presented a systematic review of empirical research relating to student participation in short-term international mobility programs and the cultural, personal, employment, and career outcomes resulting from participation, alongside examining relevant boundary conditions. Our review also presented a comprehensive and detailed agenda for future research based on a critical analysis of the extant literature, identifying opportunities for theoretical and empirical advancement to better understand how short-term international mobility programs can be designed to deliver optimal medium- and long-term outcomes for students, such as employment and career benefits, and their higher education institutions.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-37">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.</p> <hd id="AN0137944978-38">ORCID</hd> <p> <emph>Achinto Roy</emph> <ulink href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0167-1300">http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0167-1300</ulink> </p> <ref id="AN0137944978-39"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref68" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Allen, Heather Willis, and Carol Herron. 2003. " A Mixed-Methodology Investigation of the Linguistic and Affective Outcomes of Summer Study Abroad." 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  Data: Outcomes of International Student Mobility Programs: A Systematic Review and Agenda for Future Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Roy%2C+Achinto%22">Roy, Achinto</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0167-1300">0000-0003-0167-1300</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Newman%2C+Alexander%22">Newman, Alexander</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ellenberger%2C+Tori%22">Ellenberger, Tori</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Pyman%2C+Amanda%22">Pyman, Amanda</searchLink>
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Outcomes+of+Education%22">Outcomes of Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Mobility%22">Student Mobility</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Effectiveness%22">Program Effectiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Students%22">Foreign Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Study+Abroad%22">Study Abroad</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Length%22">Program Length</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Benefits%22">Educational Benefits</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Research+Design%22">Research Design</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Exchange+Programs%22">Student Exchange Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Volunteers%22">Student Volunteers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Second+Language+Learning%22">Second Language Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Internship+Programs%22">Internship Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Employment%22">Student Employment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Job+Placement%22">Job Placement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Journal+Articles%22">Journal Articles</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cultural+Awareness%22">Cultural Awareness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Development%22">Student Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Career+Development%22">Career Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Employment+Potential%22">Employment Potential</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intercultural+Communication%22">Intercultural Communication</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22United+States%22">United States</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Europe%22">Europe</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Taiwan%22">Taiwan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Australia%22">Australia</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Germany%22">Germany</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Finland%22">Finland</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Italy%22">Italy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Spain%22">Spain</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sweden%22">Sweden</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22United+Kingdom%22">United Kingdom</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/03075079.2018.1458222
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0307-5079
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Scholarly studies of international student mobility programs have increased during the last two decades, particularly following the Bologna Declaration. Nevertheless, a systematic review of international student mobility programs and the outcomes and benefits derived from participation in such programs has not been undertaken. This paper provides a comprehensive review of studies examining the various outcomes of student participation in short-term international mobility programs and identifies under-researched areas such as employment and career outcomes. A future research agenda based on the review is outlined, along with recommendations for improving research designs in order to increase our understanding of the short- and long-term outcomes of international student mobility programs.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2019
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1224360
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1224360
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/03075079.2018.1458222
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 15
        StartPage: 1630
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Outcomes of Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Mobility
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Program Effectiveness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Study Abroad
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Program Length
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Benefits
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Research Design
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Exchange Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Volunteers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Second Language Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Internship Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Employment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Job Placement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Journal Articles
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cultural Awareness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Career Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Employment Potential
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intercultural Communication
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: United States
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Europe
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Taiwan
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Australia
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Germany
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Finland
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Italy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Spain
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Sweden
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: United Kingdom
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Outcomes of International Student Mobility Programs: A Systematic Review and Agenda for Future Research
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Roy, Achinto
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Newman, Alexander
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Ellenberger, Tori
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Pyman, Amanda
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2019
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0307-5079
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 44
            – Type: issue
              Value: 9
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Studies in Higher Education
              Type: main
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