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Psychometric Characteristics of the DANVA-2 in High-Functioning Children with ASD

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Title: Psychometric Characteristics of the DANVA-2 in High-Functioning Children with ASD
Language: English
Authors: Booth, Adam J., Rodgers, Jonathan D., Volker, Martin A., Lopata, Christopher, Thomeer, Marcus L.
Source: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. Oct 2019 49(10):4147-4158.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-348-4505; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2019
Sponsoring Agency: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
Contract Number: R324A080136
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Psychometrics, Clinical Diagnosis, Nonverbal Communication, Children, Autism, Pervasive Developmental Disorders, Nonverbal Ability, Recognition (Psychology), Psychological Patterns, Accuracy, Scores, Age, Intelligence Quotient, Language Skills
DOI: 10.1007/s10803-019-04130-w
ISSN: 0162-3257
Abstract: This study examined psychometric characteristics of the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy--Second Edition (DANVA-2) in 121 children, ages 6 to 13 years, with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder (HFASD). Internal consistency for adult and child faces subtests were 0.70 and 0.75, respectively. Immediate test-retest reliability in the total sample (N = 121) ranged from 0.78 to 0.84. Reliability for two subsamples for 5- (n = 21) and 12-week (n = 21) intervals ranged from 0.75 to 0.90 and from 0.43 to 0.68, respectively. DANVA-2 scores strongly converged with two measures of emotion recognition but were unrelated to parent ratings of social functioning and ASD symptoms. Significant correlations (small to medium) were found between DANVA-2 scores and child age, IQ, and language ability.
Abstractor: As Provided
IES Funded: Yes
Entry Date: 2019
Accession Number: EJ1228814
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0138689638;aut01oct.19;2019Sep20.02:15;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0138689638-1">Psychometric Characteristics of the DANVA-2 in High-Functioning Children with ASD </title> <p>This study examined psychometric characteristics of the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy—Second Edition (DANVA-2) in 121 children, ages 6 to 13 years, with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder (HFASD). Internal consistency for adult and child faces subtests were.70 and.75, respectively. Immediate test–retest reliability in the total sample (N = 121) ranged from.78 to.84. Reliability for two subsamples for 5- (n = 21) and 12-week (n = 21) intervals ranged from.75 to.90 and from.43 to.68, respectively. DANVA-2 scores strongly converged with two measures of emotion recognition but were unrelated to parent ratings of social functioning and ASD symptoms. Significant correlations (small to medium) were found between DANVA-2 scores and child age, IQ, and language ability.</p> <p>Keywords: Autism spectrum disorder; High-functioning; Facial emotion recognition; Psychometrics; Diagnostic analysis of nonverbal accuracy—Second Edition</p> <p>Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is defined by deficits in social interaction and social communication along with restricted and repetitive behaviors and interests (American Psychiatric Association [APA] [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>]). The prevalence of ASD has substantially increased over the past decade, with the largest increase in children with high-functioning ASD (HFASD; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref2">11</reflink>]). While there is no empirically validated cutoff for what constitutes "high-functioning," the descriptor is typically used in children with an intelligence quotient (IQ) in the average range, with reported scores in the research literature ranging from the borderline range to the very superior range of cognitive ability (Mayes and Calhoun [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref3">40</reflink>]; Volker [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref4">76</reflink>]; White et al. [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref5">78</reflink>]). For the purpose of this study, the term HFASD will be used to describe children with ASD without concomitant intellectual and language impairment.</p> <p>Despite relative strengths in cognitive and language abilities, children with HFASD show pervasive deficits in using or understanding nonverbal cues, pragmatic language, and other nuances in social communication (Landa [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref6">29</reflink>]; Rubin and Lennon [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref7">59</reflink>]) including facial emotion recognition (FER). FER refers to the ability to accurately identify facial expressions to better understand another's feelings or state of mind. It is a critical aspect of nonverbal communication that has been related to broader areas of functioning including forming social relationships, maintaining emotional well-being, and feeling competent in social situations (Ekman [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref8">18</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref9">19</reflink>]). Impairment in FER has been associated with lower academic achievement (Nowicki and Duke [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref10">51</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref11">52</reflink>]), feelings of depression (Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref12">50</reflink>]), symptoms of social anxiety (McClure and Nowicki [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref13">44</reflink>]), and difficulties in interpersonal functioning (Feldman et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref14">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>With the increase in ASD prevalence, there has been a corresponding increase in research on assessment and identification of ASD-related features, including FER. Deficits in FER have been examined in individuals both with and without cognitive impairment across a variety of emotional states, research methodologies, and means of assessment (Harms et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref15">23</reflink>]), and it has been proposed that these deficits contribute to the social difficulties that define ASD (Schultz et al. [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref16">63</reflink>]). However, research regarding FER in this population has yielded mixed results, particularly when examined on a study-by-study basis. For example, some studies (e.g., Celani et al. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref17">10</reflink>]; Downs and Smith [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref18">17</reflink>]; Lindner and Rosen [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref19">32</reflink>]; Rump et al. [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref20">60</reflink>]; Sawyer et al. [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref21">62</reflink>]) found that individuals with ASD display a global deficit in FER wherein impairment is evident across all emotions tested. Other work (e.g., Bal et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref22">3</reflink>]; Baron-Cohen et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref23">5</reflink>]; Humphreys et al. [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref24">25</reflink>]; Jones et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref25">27</reflink>]; Kuusikko et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref26">28</reflink>]) has found FER deficits to be more emotion specific, indicating that the observed deficits may be driven by difficulties in identifying individual emotions or subsets of emotions. Some studies failed to support the presence of deficits in FER in ASD altogether (e.g., Castelli [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref27">9</reflink>]; Serra et al. [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref28">64</reflink>]; Tracy et al. [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref29">72</reflink>]).</p> <p>While a multitude of factors (e.g., sample composition, participant characteristics, choice of assessment measure) likely contribute to the discrepancies observed in individual studies (Harms et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref30">23</reflink>]), existing research syntheses support the presence of FER deficits in ASD when compared to typically-developing individuals (Lozier et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref31">38</reflink>]; Uljarevic and Hamilton [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref32">74</reflink>]) and have found that these deficits are associated with ASD symptomology such that individuals with ASD and greater ASD symptomatology are more likely to have FER deficits (Trevisan and Birmingham [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref33">73</reflink>]). This supports the inclusion of FER training as an intervention component in clinical studies (e.g., Baghdadli et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref34">2</reflink>]; Barnhill et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref35">4</reflink>]; Lopata et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref36">35</reflink>]; Solomon et al. [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref37">65</reflink>]), as improvements in FER may lead to increased social functioning (Lindner and Rosen [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref38">32</reflink>]) and lower levels of ASD symptoms post-treatment (Thomeer et al. [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref39">71</reflink>]).</p> <p>Choice of measurement tool is important when evaluating FER ability, as a valid measure is necessary to accurately draw conclusions about intervention effects and/or the relationship between FER and other constructs. One of the most frequently used FER measures in HFASD studies (McMahon et al. [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref40">47</reflink>]) is the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy—Second Edition (DANVA-2; Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref41">49</reflink>]). This computer-based measure consists of separate adult faces (DANVA-2-AF) and child faces (DANVA-2-CF) subtests that directly measure FER. The psychometric properties of the DANVA-2 have been evaluated primarily by the test developer in typically-developing samples of varying ages (Nowicki [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref42">48</reflink>]; Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref43">50</reflink>]; Nowicki and Duke [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref44">51</reflink>]). In an initial validation study (Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref45">49</reflink>]), internal consistency estimates ranged from.62 to.77 for the DANVA-2-AF and from.70 to.76 for the DANVA-2-CF in students from first grade through college. Nowicki and Carton ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref46">49</reflink>]) also reported test–retest correlations ranging from.74 to.88 across an eight-week interval for third graders and college students. Correlations supporting convergent validity between the adult and child faces subtests of the DANVA-2 and the corresponding subtests on the original version of the DANVA (Nowicki and Duke [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref47">52</reflink>]) ranged from.44 to.58 (Nowicki [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref48">48</reflink>]; Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref49">49</reflink>]). DANVA-2 scores have also shown significant associations with social adjustment (Goodfellow and Nowicki [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref50">22</reflink>]), teacher (Maxim and Nowicki [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref51">39</reflink>]; Nowicki and Mitchell [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref52">53</reflink>]; Verbeek [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref53">75</reflink>]) and parent (McClanahan [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref54">42</reflink>]) rated social competence, and subclinical characteristics of ASD (Ingersoll [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref55">26</reflink>]) in typically-developing individuals.</p> <p>However, a major limitation in the testing of the DANVA-2 is the lack of independent, peer-reviewed psychometric studies in clinical samples. Studies commonly cited to support the reliability and validity of the DANVA-2 are doctoral dissertations (e.g., Baum [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref56">6</reflink>]; Logan [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref57">33</reflink>]; McClanahan [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref58">42</reflink>]; McClure [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref59">43</reflink>]; Spell [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref60">66</reflink>]; Verbeek [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref61">75</reflink>]) or studies utilizing heterogeneous clinical groups spanning multiple disorders. For example, two studies (McKown [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref62">45</reflink>]; McKown et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref63">46</reflink>]) reporting internal consistency or convergent validity estimates for the DANVA-2 used a pooled sample consisting of children with HFASD, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and/or learning disorders. These studies are further limited in that one (McKown et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref64">46</reflink>]) used only the child faces subtest of the DANVA-2, and the other (McKown [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref65">45</reflink>]) reported convergent correlations using an average score across the adult and child faces subtests of the DANVA-2 as well as two subtests assessing emotion recognition from voices. One study (Lerner et al. [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref66">30</reflink>]) reported internal consistency for the DANVA-2 in an HFASD sample, though the reliability estimate (Cronbach's <emph>α</emph> =.913) was reported for an average score across the adult and child faces subtests. No studies examining a range of psychometric characteristics of the DANVA-2 faces subtests within an exclusive HFASD sample were identified, and other researchers (Baghdadli et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref67">2</reflink>]) have indicated that validation of the DANVA-2 in HFASD samples is lacking.</p> <p>Despite the lack of validation within this population, the DANVA-2 is widely used in HFASD studies (McMahon et al. [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref68">47</reflink>]). For example, researchers have used it to link emotion recognition in individuals with HFASD to adaptive functioning (Hudepohl et al. [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref69">24</reflink>]) and social competence (Berard et al. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref70">7</reflink>]), as well as to compare group differences on FER between HFASD and ADHD (Demopoulos et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref71">15</reflink>]). The DANVA-2 is also frequently used as an outcome measure in clinical treatment studies for HFASD, though its sensitivity to treatment has been inconsistent. Some studies have found the measure to be treatment sensitive (Solomon et al. [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref72">65</reflink>]; Stichter et al. [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref73">67</reflink>]); however, many others have failed to detect changes in FER ability post-intervention when using the DANVA-2 (e.g., Baghdadli et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref74">2</reflink>]; Barnhill et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref75">4</reflink>]; Lerner et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref76">31</reflink>]; Lopata et al. [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref77">34</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref78">35</reflink>]; Stichter et al. [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref79">68</reflink>]). For example, two studies used the DANVA-2 in randomized clinical trials of a summer psychosocial treatment program for children with HFASD (i.e., summerMAX; Lopata et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref80">36</reflink>]; Thomeer et al. [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref81">70</reflink>]). Although the treatments yielded significantly higher post-test scores on child measures of social knowledge and idioms, there was no significant improvement in DANVA-2 scores. While it is possible that treatments focusing on social skills training may not necessarily yield corresponding improvements in FER ability, the authors questioned the measure sensitivity of the DANVA-2 when a later study (Lopata et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref82">35</reflink>]) of the summerMAX program found significant improvement in FER ability when tested using other FER measures. Given this pattern of findings, it is worth considering whether the DANVA-2 adequately assesses FER or yields consistent results (i.e., reliability) in children with HFASD.</p> <p>Some authors have specifically noted potential problems with the reliability of the DANVA-2 in HFASD samples. For example, one study reported that pilot testing with the DANVA-2 revealed high variability in responses within and between study participants that could compromise statistical power (Lopata et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref83">36</reflink>]), as high within participant variability would negatively impact the internal consistency reliability of the measure. This may have significant implications and affect efficacy conclusions in treatment studies with small samples. In addition, it has been suggested that the DANVA-2 may be vulnerable to practice effects (Lerner et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref84">31</reflink>]; Rosen and Lerner [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref85">58</reflink>]), which could account for improvements in FER ability in some treatment studies (Solomon et al. [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref86">65</reflink>]; Stichter et al. [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref87">67</reflink>]). If practice effects are present, they may impact the strength of the relationships between test items and thus compromise reliability assessments of the measure (DeVellis [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref88">16</reflink>]).</p> <p>Studies of the validity and reliability of the DANVA-2 within samples of children with HFASD are warranted. Lopata et al. ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref89">34</reflink>]) noted that psychometric studies of the DANVA-2 would be beneficial to the overall literature, as they would contribute to the interpretability of past findings and have important implications for future use of the measure. The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the DANVA-2 in a sample of children with HFASD. Specifically, this study assessed the (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref90">1</reflink>) internal consistency, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref91">2</reflink>) test–retest reliability, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref92">3</reflink>) convergent validity (comparisons with other established measures of emotion recognition) of the DANVA-2 faces subtests. In addition, this study explored the relationships between performance on the DANVA-2 and measures of social skills, ASD symptoms, age, intelligence, and language abilities.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-2">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0138689638-3">Participants</hd> <p>A total of 121 children, ages 6 to 13 years, with HFASD were included in this study. Participants were drawn from several previous studies of psychosocial interventions that utilized the DANVA-2 as an outcome measure. However, the studies varied in terms of additional outcome measures used and/or the use of a wait-list control group; therefore, subsamples were formed based on the availability of the necessary data for each analysis. Specifically, one study (<emph>n</emph> = 36) containing all of the convergent validity and parent report measures was used to maintain consistency in the sample used for these comparisons. Three studies yielded the sample for the 5-week (<emph>n</emph> = 21) and the 12-week (<emph>n</emph> = 21) test–retest analyses because they utilized waitlist control groups over these intervals. The overall sample (<emph>N</emph> = 121) was comprised of the pooled participants from these studies as well as additional treatment studies. Recruitment for each study was primarily through public announcements and distribution of program information to local clinics and school districts. All included studies were approved by the Institutional Review Board and conducted in compliance with the approved protocols (including attainment of informed consent).</p> <p>Each of the included studies used a multi-gate screening process to ensure children met criteria for having HFASD. These criteria included a formal written diagnosis of ASD (i.e., Asperger's disorder, autism, or pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified [PDD-NOS]) from the child's physician or psychologist, a Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—4th Edition (WISC-IV; Wechsler [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref93">77</reflink>]) short-form intelligence quotient (IQ) of ≥ 70, with a Verbal Comprehension Index or Perceptual Reasoning Index score of ≥ 80, an expressive or receptive language composite score of ≥ 75 on a short form of the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language (CASL; Carrow-Woolfolk [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref94">8</reflink>]), and a score meeting diagnostic criteria on the Autism Diagnostic Interview—Revised (ADI-R; Rutter et al. [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref95">61</reflink>]).</p> <p>Demographic information for all participants was collected during the initial screening. Parent education, calculated as the mean years of education attained, was also included. Sample demographic characteristics are detailed in Table 1 and differentiated based on analysis subgroup.</p> <p>Categorical demographic characteristics of group subsamples</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="3"><p>Characteristic</p></th><th align="left"><p>IC</p></th><th align="left"><p>5-Week TRT</p></th><th align="left"><p>12-Week TRT</p></th><th align="left"><p>Convergent</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>(<italic>n</italic> = 121)</p></th><th align="left"><p>(<italic>n</italic> = 21)</p></th><th align="left"><p>(<italic>n</italic> = 21)</p></th><th align="left"><p>(<italic>n</italic> = 36)</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p><italic>n</italic> (% of total)</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>n</italic> (% of total)</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>n</italic> (% of total)</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>n</italic> (% of total)</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Gender</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Male</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>107 (88.4%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>18 (85.7%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>19 (90.5%)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>34 (94.4%)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Female</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>14 (11.6%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>3 (14.3%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>2 (9.5%)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>2 (5.6%)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Race</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Caucasian</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>111 (91.7%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>18 (85.7%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>20 (95.2%)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>31 (86.1%)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> African American</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>1 (0.8%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>1 (2.8%)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Latino</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>2 (1.7%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left"><p>1 (4.8%)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>1 (2.8%)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Asian</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>1 (0.8%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>1 (4.8%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Other</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>6 (5.0%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>2 (9.5%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>3 (8.3%)</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Categorical demographic characteristics of group subsamples</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>M (<italic>SD</italic>)</p></th><th align="left"><p>M (<italic>SD</italic>)</p></th><th align="left"><p>M (<italic>SD</italic>)</p></th><th align="left"><p>M (<italic>SD</italic>)</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Age in years</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>9.32 (<italic>1.50</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>10.05 (<italic>1.64</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>8.95 (<italic>1.10</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>9.37 (<italic>1.48</italic>)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parent education in years</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>15.54 (<italic>2.03</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>15.12 (<italic>1.68</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>15.69 (<italic>2.29</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>15.36 (<italic>1.59</italic>)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>ADI-R scores</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Social interaction</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>19.36 (<italic>5.31</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>18.10 (<italic>5.18</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>21.14 (<italic>4.74</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>18.42 (<italic>5.14</italic>)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Communication</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>15.27 (<italic>4.42</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>13.91 (<italic>5.07</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>16.71 (<italic>3.68</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>14.89 (<italic>4.16</italic>)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Repetitive behavior</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>6.27 (<italic>2.43</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>6.57 (<italic>2.06</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>5.71 (<italic>2.26</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>5.50 (<italic>2.42</italic>)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>WISC-IV short form IQ</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>103.38 (<italic>14.28</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>106.16 (<italic>12.89</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>102.27 (<italic>13.24</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>105.65 (<italic>13.12</italic>)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Short-form VCI</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>103.64 (<italic>13.72</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>107.66 (<italic>13.30</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>100.77 (<italic>9.41</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>106.33 (<italic>11.97</italic>)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Short-form PRI</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>102.47 (<italic>16.18</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>103.25 (<italic>16.10</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>103.38 (<italic>17.34</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>103.71 (<italic>15.57</italic>)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>CASL</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Short form expressive</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>99.39 (<italic>15.82</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>101.43 (<italic>14.95</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>97.38 (<italic>12.71</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>102.69 (<italic>14.13</italic>)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Short form receptive</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>103.11 (<italic>16.45</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>111.24 (<italic>15.65</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>100.62 (<italic>15.54</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>108.20 (<italic>15.08</italic>)</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>IC</emph> Internal Consistency, <emph>TRT</emph> Test–retest, <emph>ADI</emph>-<emph>R</emph> Autism Diagnostic Interview—Revised, <emph>WISC</emph>-<emph>IV</emph> Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—4th Edition, <emph>IQ</emph> Intelligence Quotient, <emph>VCI</emph> Verbal Comprehension Index; <emph>PRI</emph> Perceptual Reasoning Index; <emph>CASL</emph> Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-4">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0138689638-5">DANVA-2</hd> <p>The DANVA-2 (Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref96">49</reflink>]) is a computer-based assessment that tests the ability to recognize basic emotions in facial expressions (Adult and Child Faces subtests) and spoken language (Adult and Child Paralanguage subtests). Only the faces subtests were examined for the current study. The faces subtests assess the ability to accurately identify four basic emotions (happy, angry, sad, and fearful). Images are displayed for 2 s and are followed by a forced-choice selection of an emotion word. The test contains an equal number of male and female faces at high and low intensity for a total of 48 images. The current study used the total error scores (i.e., number of incorrect responses) for both the adult and child faces subtests as the primary variables in all analyses. (Psychometric data on the DANVA-2 faces subtests in typically-developing samples as well as use of the measure in HFASD samples are described in the introduction.)</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-6">Cambridge Mindreading Face-Voice Battery for Children (CAM-C)</hd> <p>The facial portion of the CAM-C (Golan et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref97">21</reflink>]) directly measures FER abilities across 15 emotions using silent video clips of actors portraying each emotion. After viewing each clip, children are asked to choose one of four emotion words presented on the screen that best characterizes the emotion portrayed in the video. The CAM-C assesses six basic emotions (i.e., happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust) and nine complex emotions (i.e., amused, bothered, disappointed, embarrassed, jealous, loving, nervous, undecided, and unfriendly) across 45 items. The current study used the total error score (i.e., number of incorrect responses) as the dependent variable in the convergent validity analyses in order to parallel the DANVA-2. The CAM-C has been shown to effectively discriminate between children with HFASD and typically-developing children, particularly on the complex emotions (Golan et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref98">21</reflink>]). Test–retest reliability of.74 was reported across a 10 to 15-week interval in an ASD sample (Golan et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref99">21</reflink>]). Internal consistency of the CAM-C in the current sample was.80.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-7">Social Emotional Evaluation (SEE)</hd> <p>The SEE (Wiig [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref100">79</reflink>]) assesses broad emotion recognition and integration across a variety of interpersonal, affective, and contextual cues and circumstances. The measure is comprised of four subtests. The Identifying Common Emotions subtest requires the child to identify common emotions when shown four illustrations of different facial stimuli. The Identifying Emotional Reactions subtest requires the child to label the emotion depicted in a facial illustration and identify which of the pictured scenarios below it was the most logical cause of the emotion illustrated. The Understanding Social Gaffes subtest requires the child to identify correct and incorrect social responses to a vignette provided, while the Understanding Conflicting Messages subtest requires the child to interpret the meaning of a character's verbal and nonverbal communication from a social scene. Scores from each subtest are used to generate a receptive composite score. This score was used as the dependent variable in the convergent validity analyses. Higher scores indicate stronger emotion recognition and integration ability. In a mixed sample of children with no disabilities, children with ASD, and children with language/learning disability, the test–retest reliability for the receptive composite across an average of 20 days was.89, and internal consistency estimates ranged from.76 to.88. Internal consistency of the SEE in the current sample was.82. The SEE has been shown to accurately discriminate individuals with ASD from typically-developing controls (Wiig [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref101">79</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-8">Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition-Parent Rating Scales (BASC-2-PRS)</hd> <p>The Social Skills subscale of the BASC-2-PRS (Reynolds and Kamphaus [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref102">56</reflink>]) was used as a measure of general social functioning and performance. This subscale assesses behavior related to the interpersonal aspects of social adaptation and the skills required to successfully interact with others. Each behavior is rated on a scale from zero (never) to three (almost always). Internal consistency reliabilities for the Social Skills subscale ranged from.84 to.87 in a typically developing sample and from.85 to.88 in a clinical sample. In the present study, internal consistency for the Social Skills subscale was.86. Moderate correlations were reported with other established behavior rating scales that also measure social skills (Reynolds and Kamphaus [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref103">56</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-9">Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS)</hd> <p>The SRS (Constantino and Gruber [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref104">13</reflink>]) is a 65-item questionnaire that assesses the social impairments associated with ASD. Specifically, the SRS measures behaviors related to interpersonal skills and communication, as well as repetitive/stereotypic behaviors. The child's parent/caregiver rates the intensity of each behavior on a scale from one (not true) to four (almost always true), with higher scores reflecting a greater degree of symptom expression/severity. Although it generates a total score along with five subtest scale scores, only the total score was used as a dependent variable in the current study. Internal consistency for the total score ranged from.93 to.97 in the standardization sample and was.97 in a mixed clinical sample of children with and without ASD (Constantino and Gruber [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref105">13</reflink>]). In the present study, internal consistency for the SRS was.90.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-10">Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition</hd> <p>A four-subtest short-form of the WISC-IV (Wechsler [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref106">77</reflink>]) was used to measure cognitive ability. The short-form included the Block Design, Similarities, Vocabulary, and Matrix Reasoning subtests. Reliability and validity coefficients for the WISC-IV short-form composite were calculated using standardization values in the technical manual and formulas provided by Tellegen and Briggs ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref107">69</reflink>]). The short-form composite yielded an internal consistency coefficient of.95 and correlated highly (<emph>r</emph> =.92) with the long-form Full Scale IQ.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-11">Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language</hd> <p>A four-subtest short-form of the CASL (Carrow-Woolfolk [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref108">8</reflink>]) was used to assess the receptive and expressive language abilities of the study participants. The receptive language domain was comprised of the Synonyms and Paragraph Comprehension subtests, and the expressive language domain was comprised of the Antonyms and Syntax Construction subtests. For the age ranges and subtests in the current study, internal consistencies ranged from.76 to.90. Internal consistency reliability was.88 and.91 for the short-form receptive and expressive composites, respectively (calculated using formulas provided by Tellegen and Briggs [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref109">69</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-12">Autism Diagnostic Interview—Revised</hd> <p>The ADI-R (Rutter et al. [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref110">61</reflink>]) is a standardized diagnostic interview administered with a parent or caregiver who is familiar with the developmental history and current behavior of the person being assessed. The structured interview consists of 93 items that pertain to three symptom domains including Reciprocal Social Interactions, Language/Communication, and Restricted, Repetitive and Stereotyped Patterns of Behavior/Interests. Inter-rater reliability estimates in a sample of ASD participants between ages 5 and 29 ranged from.59 to.87. The ADI-R accurately discriminates individuals with ASD from individuals without ASD (Rutter et al. [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref111">61</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-13">Procedure</hd> <p>Data were collected as a part of the screening and baseline assessments for the various psychosocial treatment trials. The first administration (pretest) for each study was used for the current study. Test–retest reliability samples for the 5-week and 12-week intervals were obtained by using the no-treatment (wait-list) period for three of the studies. Reliability data for these subsample analyses were collected at baseline for treatment.</p> <p>FER testing (i.e., DANVA-2, CAM-C, and SEE) and rating forms (BASC-2-PRS and SRS) were completed with/for each participant prior to the initiation of treatment. The DANVA-2 was administered twice to each participant during the testing session, as the studies from which these data were obtained reported an average score between the two administrations. Scores from the first administration only were utilized for all analyses in the current study, with the exception of the immediate test–retest reliability analysis which necessarily required use of the first and second administration scores. The adult and child faces subtests were completed in counter-balanced order.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-14">Data Analysis Plan</hd> <p>Internal consistency estimates were calculated using Cronbach's alpha (Cronbach [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref112">14</reflink>]). This index of internal consistency was used in most other studies reporting psychometric characteristics of the DANVA-2 (e.g., Baum [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref113">6</reflink>]; McKown et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref114">46</reflink>]; Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref115">49</reflink>]; Verbeek [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref116">75</reflink>]). A minimum internal consistency of.70 is considered adequate for measures used for research purposes, while a minimum internal consistency of.90 or higher is recommended for measures used in important decision-making (Nunnally and Bernstein [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref117">54</reflink>]). Immediate test–retest reliability was assessed for the total sample (<emph>N</emph> = 121), while two subgroups of wait-list control participants were tested for 5-week (<emph>n</emph> = 21) and 12-week (<emph>n</emph> = 21) stability. Convergent validity was tested in a separate subgroup (<emph>n</emph> = 36) by examining correlations between the DANVA-2 and other measures of emotion recognition (i.e., CAM-C and SEE) that were administered at the same testing point. Error scores (i.e., number of items answered incorrectly) were utilized for the DANVA-2 and CAM-C (higher scores indicating weaker performance), and a raw composite score (higher scores indicating stronger performance) was used for the SEE. DANVA-2 scores were also compared to parent ratings of social ability (i.e., BASC-2-PRS Social Skills subscale) and autism symptomology (i.e., SRS) in this subgroup. Lastly, relationships between the DANVA-2 and child characteristics (age, IQ, and language abilities) were examined using the total sample (<emph>N</emph> = 121). All correlations were calculated using Pearson's <emph>r</emph>. The qualitative descriptors reported in this study for interpreting correlation strength were based on the benchmarks (<emph>r</emph> =.10 is small, <emph>r</emph> =.30 is medium, and <emph>r</emph> ≥.50 is large) provided by Cohen ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref118">12</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-15">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0138689638-16">Internal Consistency and Test–Retest Reliability</hd> <p>Internal consistency estimates were.70 for the DANVA-2-AF and.75 for the DANVA-2-CF subtests. For the DANVA-2-AF, reliability coefficients for immediate, 5-week, and 12-week retest intervals were.84,.75, and.68, respectively. For the DANVA-2-CF, reliability coefficients for the immediate, 5-week, and 12-week retest intervals were.78,.90, and.43, respectively. All correlation coefficients were statistically significant (<emph>p</emph> <.05) with the exception of the DANVA-2-CF 12-week retest interval (<emph>r</emph> =.43, <emph>p</emph> =.053). Mean error scores for the DANVA-2-AF and DANVA-2-CF subtests across each test–retest interval are presented in Table 2.</p> <p>Mean error scores across test–retest intervals</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Test</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>Immediate TRT (<italic>n</italic> = 121)</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>5-Week TRT (<italic>n</italic> = 21)</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>12-Week TRT (<italic>n</italic> = 21)</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>AF</p></th><th align="left"><p>CF</p></th><th align="left"><p>AF</p></th><th align="left"><p>CF</p></th><th align="left"><p>AF</p></th><th align="left"><p>CF</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Time 1 M (<italic>SD</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>7.59 (<italic>3.68</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>6.40 (<italic>3.48</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>7.19 (<italic>4.11</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>6.00 (<italic>4.06</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>7.48 (<italic>3.17</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>6.19 (<italic>2.86</italic>)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Time 2 M (<italic>SD</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>7.20 (<italic>3.77</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>6.27 (<italic>3.64</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>6.38 (<italic>3.54</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>5.24 (<italic>4.02</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>6.48 (<italic>2.98</italic>)</p></td><td char="(" align="char"><p>6.05 (<italic>3.56</italic>)</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>TRT</emph> Test–retest, <emph>AF</emph> Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy—2nd Edition—Adult Faces subtest, <emph>CF</emph> Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy—2nd Edition—Child Faces subtest</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-17">Convergent Validity</hd> <p>Table 3 presents correlations between the DANVA-2, convergent measures, and child characteristics. Error scores on the CAM-C were significantly correlated with those from both the DANVA-2 adult (<emph>r</emph> =.70) and child (<emph>r</emph> =.65) faces subtests. Likewise, the SEE receptive composite score was significantly correlated with error scores from both the DANVA-2 adult (<emph>r</emph> = −.58) and child (<emph>r</emph> = −.58) faces subtests, and the strength of the associations was large.</p> <p>DANVA-2 Correlations with convergent measures and child characteristics</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2" /><th align="left" colspan="4"><p>Convergent and social measures (<italic>n</italic> = 36)</p></th><th align="left" colspan="4"><p>Child characteristics (<italic>n</italic> = 121)</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>CAM-C</p></th><th align="left"><p>SEE</p></th><th align="left"><p>BASC-2-SS</p></th><th align="left"><p>SRS</p></th><th align="left"><p>Age</p></th><th align="left"><p>WISC-IV IQ</p></th><th align="left"><p>CASL Exp</p></th><th align="left"><p>CASL Rec</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>AF</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.70<sup>***</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−.58<sup>***</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−.48<sup>***</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−.16<sup>*</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−.18<sup>*</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−.30<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>CF</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.65<sup>***</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−.58<sup>***</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−.13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−.35<sup>***</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−.24<sup>**</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−.23<sup>**</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>−.31<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>AF</emph> Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy—2nd Edition—Adult Faces subtest, <emph>CF</emph> Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy—2nd Edition—Child Faces subtest, <emph>CAM</emph>-<emph>C</emph> Cambridge Mindreading Face-Voice Battery for Children, <emph>SEE</emph> Social Emotional Evaluation, <emph>BASC</emph>-<emph>2</emph>-<emph>SS</emph> Behavior Assessment System for Children—2nd Edition, Social Skills subscale, <emph>SRS</emph> Social Responsiveness Scale, <emph>WISC</emph>-<emph>IV</emph> Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—4th Edition, <emph>IQ</emph> intelligence quotient, <emph>CASL</emph> Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language, <emph>Exp</emph> CASL expressive composite, <emph>Rec</emph> CASL receptive composite *<emph>p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-18">Correlations with Social Skills, ASD Symptoms, and Child Characteristics</hd> <p>Correlations between error scores on the DANVA-2 faces subtests and scores on the Social Skills subscale of the BASC-2-PRS and the SRS were small to negligible and were not statistically significant. Child age was significantly (negatively) correlated with DANVA-2 error scores for both adult (<emph>r</emph> = −.48) and child (<emph>r</emph> = −.35) faces, and these correlations were medium in magnitude. This indicates that the number of errors made tended to decrease with age. The DANVA-2-AF subtest error score was significantly (negatively) correlated with WISC-IV IQ (<emph>r</emph> = −.16) and CASL expressive (<emph>r</emph> = −.18) and receptive (<emph>r </emph>= −.30) language scores. Similarly, the DANVA-2-CF subtest error score was significantly (negatively) correlated with IQ (<emph>r</emph> = −.24) and CASL expressive (<emph>r</emph> = −.23) and receptive (<emph>r</emph> = −.31) language scores. The strength of these correlations was small to medium, and they indicated that error scores tended to decrease as IQ and language abilities increased. In light of the significant associations between DANVA-2 scores and child characteristics, correlations between the DANVA-2 and SRS and Social Skills subscale on the BASC-2-PRS were re-examined, statistically controlling for the effects of participant age, IQ, and expressive and receptive verbal ability. The addition of these measures did not change the relationship between DANVA-2 and BASC-2-PRS or SRS; i.e., partial correlations were negligible and did not reach statistical significance.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-19">Discussion</hd> <p>This study examined the psychometric properties of a commonly used measure of FER, the DANVA-2, in a sample of children with HFASD. The DANVA-2 has been previously validated in typically-developing samples of varying ages by the test developers (Nowicki [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref119">48</reflink>]; Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref120">49</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref121">50</reflink>]; Nowicki and Duke [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref122">51</reflink>]), but no studies specifically assessing various psychometric qualities of the DANVA-2 in an exclusive HFASD sample were identified, despite its frequent use in this population (McMahon et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref123">46</reflink>]). The purpose of this study was to assess the internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and convergent validity of the DANVA-2, as well as to examine associations with child characteristics.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-20">Internal Consistency and Test–Retest Reliability</hd> <p>Overall, results indicated adequate (i.e., alpha ≥.70; see Nunnally and Bernstein [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref124">54</reflink>]) internal consistency in children with HFASD. Alpha values were consistent with those reported in typically-developing samples (Nowicki [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref125">48</reflink>]; Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref126">49</reflink>]) as well as in a mixed clinical sample (McKown et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref127">46</reflink>]) but lower than the alpha value reported across both subtests in a sample of children with HFASD (Lerner et al. [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref128">30</reflink>]). Results also showed reasonably strong test–retest reliability for the immediate and 5-week retest intervals. Reliability coefficients for the 5-week interval were consistent with values reported across an 8-week interval (Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref129">49</reflink>]). Results showed weaker reliability over a 12-week interval, particularly for the child faces subtest where the strength of the association was only considered medium (<emph>r</emph> =.48). One study (Verbeek [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref130">75</reflink>]) found 12-week test–retest reliability for child faces to be.66 in typically-developing children, suggesting stability in children with HFASD may be weaker across longer intervals. While it has been proposed that the DANVA-2 may be subject to practice effects (Lerner et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref131">31</reflink>]; Rosen and Lerner [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref132">58</reflink>]), examination of the mean error scores across the test–retest intervals reported in the current study (see Table 2) suggest that this effect is minimal and would not have an impact on the stability of the measure over time.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-21">Convergent Validity</hd> <p>When assessing convergent validity, DANVA-2 scores were compared with scores on two other measures of emotion recognition. Findings suggested a high degree of convergence with both the CAM-C (<emph>r</emph> values ranging from.65 to.70) and the SEE (<emph>r </emph>= −.58 for both adult and child faces). While the strength of association for both measures was large, convergence with the CAM-C was stronger than that with the SEE. This is likely a result of the breadth of each measure's tested construct, as the CAM-C, like the DANVA-2, specifically targets FER ability, while the SEE measures broader emotion recognition and integration abilities. Previous studies (McKown et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref133">46</reflink>]; Nowicki [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref134">48</reflink>]; Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref135">49</reflink>]) reporting convergent validity estimates for the DANVA-2 with other emotion recognition measures in typically-developing samples identified correlations ranging from.36 to.58. In clinical samples containing HFASD participants, McKown ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref136">45</reflink>]) and McKown et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref137">46</reflink>]) reported correlation coefficients from.32 to.54 between the DANVA-2 and other FER measures. The correlations found in the present study exceeded prior studies, providing stronger support for convergent validity of the DANVA-2 in children with HFASD. It should be noted that McKown et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref138">46</reflink>]) used only the DANVA-2-CF subtest, and McKown ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref139">45</reflink>]) reported values using an average score across all DANVA-2 subtests (including adult and child paralanguage subtests), which might have contributed to the differences in results between studies. Relative to prior work, design improvements for the current study included utilizing an exclusively HFASD sample and reporting convergent validity estimates for both the adult and child faces subtests.</p> <p>Beyond the comparisons with other proximal measures of emotion recognition, DANVA-2 scores were examined relative to broader social and ASD symptom ratings. Results indicated that DANVA-2 scores were not correlated with parent ratings on broader measures of the children's social skills and ASD symptomology (BASC-2-PRS Social Skills and SRS). This contradicts findings from previous work involving typically-developing samples that found stronger DANVA-2 performance (i.e., stronger FER ability) was related to higher social competence (Goodfellow and Nowicki [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref140">22</reflink>]; Maxim and Nowicki [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref141">39</reflink>]; Nowicki [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref142">48</reflink>]; Nowicki and Carton [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref143">49</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref144">50</reflink>]; Nowicki and Duke [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref145">51</reflink>]; Nowicki and Mitchell [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref146">48</reflink>]) and fewer characteristics of ASD (Ingersoll [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref147">26</reflink>]). This discrepancy may be attributable to several factors. For example, source differences may have played a role, as the current study used parent-rated measures of social ability, whereas Nowicki and colleagues tended to include teacher or peer ratings of the participants. Previous work (Renk and Phares [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref148">55</reflink>]) has shown that while cross-informant (e.g., parent–teacher, teacher-peer) ratings of children tend to show small to moderate correlations, teachers and peers have more access than parents to the children's social behavior within the classroom. Therefore, informant ratings may vary based on the setting and the individuals within that setting.</p> <p>Assessment modality may also have impacted the relationships between measures. The DANVA-2 is a direct assessment of FER ability, whereas the BASC-2-PRS and SRS are third-party rating measures. Consistent with the current study, McKown ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref149">45</reflink>]) found minimal convergence between the BASC and DANVA-2 and concluded that the DANVA-2 may not be a good predictor of parent- or teacher-reported social skills or leadership but may still be a useful predictor of other aspects of social functioning. In regard to the SRS, further study is needed to determine whether this lack of association is unique to the DANVA-2, as other studies (e.g., Bal et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref150">3</reflink>]; Rice et al. [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref151">57</reflink>]) have reported significant associations between the SRS and other measures of FER in individuals with ASD, and symptoms of ASD have been associated with FER impairment (Trevisan and Birmingham [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref152">73</reflink>]).</p> <p>Lastly, the breadth and complexity of ASD symptoms may also explain the lack of association between the DANVA-2 and parent ratings. In typically-developing samples, like those utilized by Nowicki and colleagues, deficits in FER were found to contribute to poorer social competence; however, those in the sample were not defined by severe impairments in social functioning. For children with HFASD, deficits in social interaction and communication skills are core and defining diagnostic symptoms and the complexity of their social difficulties are distinct. As a result, FER may contribute to social impairments, but it may be a much smaller contributor to overall social abilities, yielding lower associations. Thus, the two constructs (i.e., FER and social ability) may co-vary differently in individuals with ASD and typically-developing individuals. Future research is needed in this area, as the impact of FER on social functioning and symptom severity in HFASD is poorly understood, and research on this topic is lacking (Trevisan and Birmingham [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref153">73</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-22">Correlations with Social Skills, ASD Symptoms, and Child Characteristics</hd> <p>Child characteristics were also examined to assess the extent to which age, IQ, and language abilities were related to DANVA-2 performance. Consistent with results from a recent meta-analysis (Trevisan and Birmingham [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref154">73</reflink>]) reporting a significant association between age and FER ability in individuals with ASD, the current study identified a significant negative association between child age and DANVA-2 error scores, suggesting that FER ability for basic emotions may increase with age in children with HFASD. This is also congruent with other work reporting improved FER task performance with age specifically within a child sample (Golan et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref155">21</reflink>]). In regard to intellectual ability, Nowicki ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref156">48</reflink>]) reported no relationship between the DANVA-2 and IQ measures in typically-developing children; however, small to medium correlations between the DANVA-2 and abbreviated IQ scores were found in the current study. While the majority of studies in ASD samples have found no relationship between IQ and FER ability (Lozier et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref157">38</reflink>]; Uljarevic and Hamilton [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref158">74</reflink>]), few studies have examined this relationship using the DANVA-2 as the measure of FER. In a study comparing DANVA-2 scores in two groups of children with ASD differentiated based on IQ, Mazefsky and Oswald ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref159">41</reflink>]) found significant differences in DANVA-2 performance (i.e., participants with lower IQ performed significantly worse). In addition, the two groups performed similarly when cognitive ability was held constant, suggesting that IQ may have some association with DANVA-2 performance. The current study also found small to medium correlations between the DANVA-2 and expressive and receptive language abilities, potentially implicating language levels in DANVA-2 performance. The directionality of the results indicated that higher language abilities were associated with fewer errors in FER. This is not unexpected, as individuals with HFASD may be able to utilize their higher verbal skills as a compensatory mechanism to more accurately decode facial expressions, particularly within the context of emotion-labeling tasks (Harms et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref160">23</reflink>]). For example, while the verbal demands of the DANVA-2 are minimal, the presence of visual labels for the four emotion choices on the screen may facilitate recognition of facial expressions through the use of a more verbally-mediated pathway, even if the emotion was not initially recognized (Harms et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref161">23</reflink>]; Trevisan and Birmingham [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref162">73</reflink>]). For this reason, it is possible that individuals with HFASD may perform differently on emotion labeling tasks, such as the DANVA-2, than they would on measures using an alternate assessment paradigm (e.g., affect-matching tasks).</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-23">Study Limitations and Future Directions</hd> <p>Although the current study had a number of strengths (e.g., use of a functionally-homogenous child sample with HFASD, well-defined inclusion criteria, use of multiple FER and parent-rated measures, etc.), there are several limitations. First, while the overall sample (<emph>N</emph> = 121) utilized for internal consistency, immediate test–retest reliability, and child characteristic analyses was large, smaller samples limit the interpretability and power of the 5- and 12-week test–retest reliability analyses (<emph>n</emph> = 21 for both samples), as well as the convergent validity analyses (<emph>n</emph> = 36). Inconsistencies in sample sizes across the psychometric analyses also limit the generalizability of results. The analyses were necessarily conducted on different subsets of participants based on measure availability and the use of wait-list control groups across the included studies. Second, although the ADI-R is considered a gold-standard measure in the diagnosis of ASD, sample characterization was limited by a lack of additional verification using the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule—Second Edition (ADOS-2; Lord et al. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref163">37</reflink>]). Future work would benefit from more rigorous inclusion criteria for ASD participants involving diagnostic confirmation using both measures. Third, the sample composition for the current study limits generalization of the findings. Participants were predominantly Caucasian (approximately 92%), and inclusion criteria involving age, IQ, and language ability confines the application of results to the sample characteristics described. Ongoing research is needed to further assess the psychometric characteristics of the DANVA-2 in the ASD population. Future studies would be strengthened by including larger and more diverse samples with HFASD/ASD, as well as by examining the association between DANVA-2 scores and scores on a broad range of social and symptom indicators. Additionally, further studies may wish to examine the stability of the DANVA-2 using a larger sample over a greater period of time, as reliability results obtained with greater statistical power would have implications for use of the DANVA-2 in longitudinal research. Lastly, future studies should examine divergent validity of the DANVA-2 in addition to convergent validity to more broadly assess overall construct validity of the measure in HFASD samples.</p> <p>While the DANVA-2 has been widely utilized in HFASD research (McMahon et al. [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref164">47</reflink>]), studies reporting on the psychometric characteristics of the measure in this population are lacking. The current study suggests that the internal consistency and stability of the DANVA-2 are adequate for research purposes. Likewise, the measure was found to strongly converge with other tests of emotion recognition. However, due to the significant relationships observed between age, IQ, and language ability on DANVA-2 performance, studies utilizing the DANVA-2 as a clinical outcome measure or as a correlate of broader ASD symptoms may wish to consider holding these variables constant in their analyses. Further research is needed to determine whether DANVA-2 scores specifically are related to social competence and ASD symptomology in this population and how child characteristics may impact these relationships.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-24">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>The research reported in this article was supported by the Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences Grant No. R324A080136 and research grants from the John R. Oishei Foundation, the Peter and Elizabeth C. Tower Foundation, and the Organization for Autism Research. Findings and conclusions are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the funding agencies.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-25">Author Contributions</hd> <p>AJB participated in study conception and design, assisted with data management, conducted the statistical analyses, and drafted the manuscript; JDR contributed to study design, managed and coordinated the data, assisted in the interpretation of the data, and contributed to manuscript preparation; MAV participated in the study design, assisted with statistical analyses, and assisted with manuscript preparation; CL participated in study conception and design, assisted with data coordination, and contributed to manuscript preparation; MLT contributed to study design and manuscript preparation. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-26">Compliance with Ethical Standards</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0138689638-27">Ethical Approval</hd> <p>All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-28">Informed Consent</hd> <p>Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0138689638-29">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0138689638-30"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> . 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  Data: Psychometric Characteristics of the DANVA-2 in High-Functioning Children with ASD
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Booth%2C+Adam+J%2E%22">Booth, Adam J.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rodgers%2C+Jonathan+D%2E%22">Rodgers, Jonathan D.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Volker%2C+Martin+A%2E%22">Volker, Martin A.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lopata%2C+Christopher%22">Lopata, Christopher</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Thomeer%2C+Marcus+L%2E%22">Thomeer, Marcus L.</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Autism+and+Developmental+Disorders%22"><i>Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders</i></searchLink>. Oct 2019 49(10):4147-4158.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-348-4505; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Data: 12
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  Data: 2019
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  Data: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
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  Data: R324A080136
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychometrics%22">Psychometrics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Clinical+Diagnosis%22">Clinical Diagnosis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Nonverbal+Communication%22">Nonverbal Communication</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Children%22">Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Autism%22">Autism</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pervasive+Developmental+Disorders%22">Pervasive Developmental Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Nonverbal+Ability%22">Nonverbal Ability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Recognition+%28Psychology%29%22">Recognition (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychological+Patterns%22">Psychological Patterns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Accuracy%22">Accuracy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Scores%22">Scores</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Age%22">Age</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intelligence+Quotient%22">Intelligence Quotient</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Language+Skills%22">Language Skills</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1007/s10803-019-04130-w
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  Data: 0162-3257
– Name: Abstract
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  Data: This study examined psychometric characteristics of the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy--Second Edition (DANVA-2) in 121 children, ages 6 to 13 years, with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder (HFASD). Internal consistency for adult and child faces subtests were 0.70 and 0.75, respectively. Immediate test-retest reliability in the total sample (N = 121) ranged from 0.78 to 0.84. Reliability for two subsamples for 5- (n = 21) and 12-week (n = 21) intervals ranged from 0.75 to 0.90 and from 0.43 to 0.68, respectively. DANVA-2 scores strongly converged with two measures of emotion recognition but were unrelated to parent ratings of social functioning and ASD symptoms. Significant correlations (small to medium) were found between DANVA-2 scores and child age, IQ, and language ability.
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  Data: 2019
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  Data: EJ1228814
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      – Text: English
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        PageCount: 12
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      – SubjectFull: Clinical Diagnosis
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      – SubjectFull: Nonverbal Communication
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      – TitleFull: Psychometric Characteristics of the DANVA-2 in High-Functioning Children with ASD
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