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Does Child Likeability Mediate the Link between Academic Competence and Depressive Symptoms in Early Elementary School?

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Title: Does Child Likeability Mediate the Link between Academic Competence and Depressive Symptoms in Early Elementary School?
Language: English
Authors: Herman, Keith C., Hodgson, Caroline G., Eddy, Colleen L., Cohen, Daniel R. (ORCID 0000-0003-0937-0836), Reinke, Wendy M., Burrell, Lori, Mcfarlane, Elizabeth C., Duggan, Anne K.
Source: Child Development. e331-e344 Mar-Apr 2020 91(2):e331-e344.
Availability: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2020
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Elementary Education
Grade 1
Primary Education
Grade 3
Descriptors: Depression (Psychology), Academic Achievement, Grade 1, Elementary School Students, Correlation, Grade 3, Teacher Attitudes, Peer Acceptance, At Risk Students, Child Abuse, Parent Child Relationship, Stress Variables, Role, Intervention, Prevention, Child Development, Symptoms (Individual Disorders)
Geographic Terms: Hawaii
DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13214
ISSN: 0009-3920
Abstract: The present study investigated the role of teacher-rated likeability as a mediator of the relation between low academic competence and depressive symptoms in elementary-aged children. Analyses focused on a sample of children at risk for child maltreatment living in Hawaii (n = 380). Structural equation modeling supported the hypothesized negative relations between academic competence in first grade and depressive symptoms in third grade controlling for correlated constructs (e.g., baseline social avoidance, parenting stress, externalizing problems, and internalizing symptoms). Teacher-rated likeability in second grade negatively mediated the effect of academic competence on depressive symptoms. Implications for understanding the role of early academic skill deficits and social judgments on risk for depressive symptoms as well as recommendations for interventions and prevention strategies are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2020
Accession Number: EJ1246029
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0142101356;cdv01mar.20;2020Mar09.02:20;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0142101356-1">Does Child Likeability Mediate the Link Between Academic Competence and Depressive Symptoms in Early Elementary School? </title> <p>The present study investigated the role of teacher‐rated likeability as a mediator of the relation between low academic competence and depressive symptoms in elementary‐aged children. Analyses focused on a sample of children at risk for child maltreatment living in Hawaii (n = 380). Structural equation modeling supported the hypothesized negative relations between academic competence in first grade and depressive symptoms in third grade controlling for correlated constructs (e.g., baseline social avoidance, parenting stress, externalizing problems, and internalizing symptoms). Teacher‐rated likeability in second grade negatively mediated the effect of academic competence on depressive symptoms. Implications for understanding the role of early academic skill deficits and social judgments on risk for depressive symptoms as well as recommendations for interventions and prevention strategies are discussed.</p> <p>Mounting evidence supports the notion that low competency during childhood across a variety of domains is associated with increased depression risk (Cole, Martin, Powers, & Truglio, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref1">11</reflink>]; Herman, Lambert, Ialongo, & Ostrander, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref2">23</reflink>]; Herman, Lambert, Reinke, & Ialongo, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref3">24</reflink>]; Herman et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref4">22</reflink>]). The competency model of depression suggests that childhood depression is rooted in real performance deficits, especially in the academic and social realms (Cole, Jacquez, & Maschman, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref5">9</reflink>]; Cole & Turner, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref6">13</reflink>]). More specifically, this model suggests that children receive ongoing feedback from adults and peers about their social and academic competence, which contributes to their emerging self‐perceptions and attributions. Children develop the capacity to identify discrepancies between task difficulty and personal aptitude and to engage in social comparisons during early and middle childhood (Nicholls & Miller, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref7">54</reflink>]). Thus, during the elementary school years, children have the cognitive capacity to internalize negative social feedback, which can provide a foundation for the stable, distorted thinking habits that are the hallmark of depression later in development (Cole, Maxwell, et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref8">12</reflink>]). To date, though, no research has tested the hypothesized proximal mechanisms between competence and depression. In this article, we examined whether teacher ratings of children's likeability mediated the relations between academic competence and depressive symptoms.</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-2">The Competency Model of Depression</hd> <p>Given the high priority placed on academic and social success, children who fall short in these areas may be perceived as less competent and, in turn, come to view themselves in this way. For instance, a child who is struggling academically relative to his or her peers will likely receive frequent negative feedback through multiple channels, including parent or teacher comments, assignments, and ratings. Additionally, although school assessments provide feedback on performance, they also imply a desired or set level of expected performance. The competency model of depression suggests that repetitive exposure to negative performance feedback can inhibit the development of positive self‐schema and perceptions of competence (Cole, Jacquez, et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>]).</p> <p>Consistent with the competency model, many prior studies have shown that students' academic and social skill deficits are associated with their depressive symptoms (Cole, Jacquez, et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref10">9</reflink>]; Herman & Ostrander, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref11">25</reflink>]; Herman, Reinke, Parkin, Traylor, & Agarwal, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref12">26</reflink>]; Herman et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref13">23</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref14">24</reflink>]). In particular, many studies have shown that low academic competence during the early elementary years predicts future risk for depressive symptoms (see Herman & Ostrander, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref15">25</reflink>]; Herman et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref16">23</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref17">24</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref18">26</reflink>]). For instance, in a sample of 416 African American children living in an urban context, Herman et al. ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref19">23</reflink>]) found that academic performance in the spring of first grade mediated the relation between inattention in fall of first grade and depressive symptoms in the spring of third grade; that is, lower academic performance partially accounted for the relation between higher attention problems and greater depressive symptoms. The effects held when controlling for conduct problems and academic competence in first grade suggesting the path was specific to attention problems rather than a more general externalizing or school readiness pathway. A follow‐up study found that academic incompetence in first grade predicted depressive symptoms in seventh grade, and these effects were mediated by youth lower perceptions of control (Herman et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref20">24</reflink>]). In this study, the relation between first grade academic problems and seventh grade depressive symptoms was reduced by more than 50% with low perceptions of control in the model.</p> <p>Prior studies have also suggested that teacher and peer evaluations of student academic and social competence predict changes in a student's self‐perceived competence during the elementary years (Cole, Martin, & Power, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref21">10</reflink>]). Moreover, changes in self‐perceived academic competence mediate the effect of others' ratings of competence on future depressive symptoms. That is, teacher and peer perceptions of a students' competence may precede and cause changes in a student's self‐perceptions, which in turn are associated with depressive symptoms (Cole, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref22">8</reflink>]; Cole, Jacquez, et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref23">9</reflink>]).</p> <p>To date, however, no studies have examined explanations for how others' ratings of a student's competence lead to changes in self‐perceptions. One alternative is that teachers and peers simply communicate accurate relative standing of skills to students, without judgment. Over time, students internalize their relative standing and make their own interpretative biases, which contribute to their risk for depressive symptoms. On the other hand, teachers and peers may not only communicate information about relative competence to students but also may do so with social judgment (Cole et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref24">10</reflink>]).</p> <p>These competing hypotheses about proximal mechanisms have important implications for potential early interventions for depressive symptoms. In the former case, interventions would need to focus on either ameliorating competence deficits or teaching youth to change their negative interpretations. Unfortunately, cognitive restructuring interventions during the early elementary years are challenging given that most youth lack the meta‐cognitive skills needed to implement these coping strategies (see Herman et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref25">26</reflink>]; Ostrander & Herman, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref26">56</reflink>]). Alternatively, assuming a key mechanism in the competence‐depression link involves teacher and peer negative social evaluations, another potential intervention point would be to alter these early social interactions and judgments before they establish a developmental cascade of failure and subsequent risk (Masten & Cicchetti, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref27">44</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-3">Teacher and Peer Ratings of Likeability in Early Childhood</hd> <p>If evaluations of student competence include social judgments, one consequence of these evaluations may be that teachers and peers come to view students with low competence as less likeable. In this lens, the development of depressive symptoms in students with low academic competence can be understood as a function of negative teacher and peer judgments about their likeability, which is further translated into feelings of low self‐worth and the internalization of others' negative appraisals (Cole et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref28">10</reflink>]).</p> <p>Prior studies have shown that teacher and peer rated likeability has important implications for child social and emotional development (Denham & Holt, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref29">17</reflink>]; Ladd, Price, & Hart, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref30">41</reflink>]). Many studies have focused on the deleterious outcomes and associated features of low likeability. In particular, children who are rated as less preferred or likeable by others engage in fewer prosocial behaviors (Denham & Holt, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref31">17</reflink>]) and are more likely to have externalizing and internalizing symptoms (Asarnow, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref32">5</reflink>]). For instance, Hymel et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref33">28</reflink>]) found that unpopularity in second grade predicted aggression, disruptive behaviors, and internalizing symptoms in fifth grade.</p> <p>Parallel studies have examined the origins and stability of low likeability and peer rejection. Social judgments of likeability begin early in development and become stable reputations over time (Denham & Holt, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref34">17</reflink>]; Denham, McKinley, Couchoud, & Holt, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref35">18</reflink>]). Additionally, ratings of likeability are consistent across raters in the same setting. For instance, teacher ratings of student likeability are highly correlated with peer ratings of social acceptance (La Greca, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref36">40</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-4">Contributing Factors to Childhood Depressive Symptoms</hd> <p>In evaluating the unique relation between academic competence, likeability, and the development of depressive symptoms, it is necessary to account for factors that impact or partially account for this pathway. Prior studies have focused on social behaviors as a precursor to likeability (Denham & Holt, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref37">17</reflink>]; Ladd et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref38">41</reflink>]). Additionally, social behaviors such as social avoidance are associated with academic deficits and with internalizing problems (O'Connor et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref39">55</reflink>]). Thus, to examine the unique links among academic competence, likeability, and depressive symptoms, it is important to include a measure of social avoidance.</p> <p>A second important contributing factor to child depressive symptoms is parental stress. Ge, Lorenz, Conger, Elder, and Simons ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref40">21</reflink>]) described and provided empirical support for a model where the presence of stressful life events for parents disrupts their ability to deliver effective parenting practices thus putting their child at risk for the development of depressive symptoms. Costa, Weems, Pellerin, and Dalton ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref41">15</reflink>]) collected data on 300 youths seeking treatment at a mental health clinic and stressful interactions between parents and their children predicted internalizing symptoms, even after controlling for parental psychopathology. Thus, extant literature suggests that stressors, many of which may originate from dysfunctional interactions with their children, undermine parenting quality, which might otherwise serve as a protective factor for children situated within pathways that commonly lead to depressive symptoms.</p> <p>A third covariate of depressive symptoms in childhood is externalizing problems. The co‐occurrence of depressive disorders with externalizing disorders such as Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder is over 25% (Angold, Costello, & Erkanli, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref42">3</reflink>]). Moreover, correlations between continuous measures of internalizing and externalizing symptoms generally exceed.50 (Leech, Larkby, Day, & Day, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref43">42</reflink>]; Volk, Neuman, & Todd, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref44">65</reflink>]). Additionally, both externalizing and internalizing symptoms are related to early academic problems (see Herman & Ostrander, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref45">25</reflink>]), thus accounting for this covariation is important for unpacking the unique relations among academic problems and depressive symptoms.</p> <p>A fourth important consideration in evaluating links between competencies and depression is the presence of depressive symptomatology during early childhood. Kovacs et al. ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref46">37</reflink>]) found that the presence of major depressive disorder or dysthymia significantly predicted subsequent depressive episodes over time.</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-5">Present Study</hd> <p>The purpose of this longitudinal developmental study was to examine the role of student academic competence at school entry on future depressive symptoms and whether teacher ratings of child likeability mediated this relation. We hypothesized that academic problems in first grade would be associated with elevated risk for depressive symptoms in third grade. In turn, we expected that teacher ratings of child likeability in second grade would mediate the relation between low academic competence and depressive symptoms. To test the robustness of this model, we added sociodemograhic covariates and controlled for baseline child social avoidance, child internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and parent stress. We also included measures of parent‐rated likeability and social avoidance to determine if social judgments about academic competence generalized to a rater outside the school setting.</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-6">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0142101356-7">Sample</hd> <p>Data were collected as part of a multisite, randomized trial of Hawaii's Healthy Start Program (HSP; Duggan et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref47">19</reflink>]), a prototype for Healthy Families America (HFA). HFA is among the largest paraprofessional home visiting models. The original study examined the impact of HSP on families at risk for child maltreatment. Of relevance to the longitudinal developmental focus of the current study, the intervention did not prevent child abuse or promote use of nonviolent discipline (Duggan et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref48">19</reflink>]), suggesting that HSP had minimal impact on youth developmental outcomes assessed in the current study. Original study participants included 643 children and families enrolled in the Hawaii HSP. The mean age for the mother participants at baseline was 23 years, and over 60% of the sample had household incomes below the poverty line. The racial/ethnic characteristics were 34% Pacific Islander/Native Hawaiian, 28% Asian or Filipino, 12% Caucasian, and 27% no primary ethnicity or unknown. The child participants were assessed each year from birth to age 3 and from first through third grade. During the elementary years, teachers of student participants were recruited to provide information about students in their classrooms. The teacher participants were mostly female (96%) and Asian American (61%).</p> <p>In the present study, we used data from children who completed assessments in Grades 1, 2, and 3 (<emph>n </emph>=<emph> </emph>380). Students who completed assessments during early elementary school did not significantly differ from those who did not on nearly all demographic characteristics including poverty status (i.e., above or below federal poverty line; χ<sups>2</sups>[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref49">1</reflink>] = 1.18; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.28), maternal high school graduation status (yes or no; χ<sups>2</sups>[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref50">1</reflink>] = 0.32; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.57), intervention condition (χ<sups>2</sups>[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref51">2</reflink>] = 2.68; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.26), or study catchment area (χ<sups>2</sups>[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref52">5</reflink>] = 8.32; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.14). The one difference between groups was that fewer girls were in the non completer group (46% vs. 55%; χ<sups>2</sups>[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref53">1</reflink>] = 5.77; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.02). Those who completed early elementary assessments were also equivalent to those who did not on program entry continuous measures of maternal depression (<emph>t</emph>[<reflink idref="bib556" id="ref54">556</reflink>] = .53; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.60), child temperament (<emph>t</emph>[<reflink idref="bib559" id="ref55">559</reflink>] = −.94; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.35), and or home environment (<emph>t</emph>[<reflink idref="bib522" id="ref56">522</reflink>] = −1.49; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.14).</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-8">Procedures</hd> <p>The program recruited "at‐risk" families as determined by a semistructured assessment interview with the mother using Kempe's Family Stress Checklist (FSC; Kempe, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref57">35</reflink>]). The FSC assesses 10 risk factors for child abuse (parental substance use, poor mental health, domestic violence, history of abuse as a child, unrealistic expectations of the child, and a child who was unwanted or at other risk for poor bonding). Scores on the FSC range from 0 to 100 with higher scores indicating greater stress and higher risk for child maltreatment. Research staff conducted interviews with the infant's primary caregiver, generally the biological mother. Interviews took place in the homes of primary caregivers. To be eligible for HSP services, one or both caregivers needed a score of 25 or higher. Nearly 25% of mothers and 40% of fathers in the final sample had scores of 45 or higher on the FSC, which falls in the very high risk category. Child participants were followed through early elementary school. Follow‐up data from first to third grade were collected between October 2000 and August 2005. Elementary school teachers of students were recruited as part of the study to complete ratings of student behaviors.</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-9">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0142101356-10">Academic Competence</hd> <p>Child scores on reading and math subscales of standardized achievement test, the Woodcock Johnson Tests of Achievement–Revised [WJ]; Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref58">69</reflink>]), were used as indicators of academic competence in first grade. Scores are standardized with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Trained project staff administered two subscales of the WJ to students: applied problems (AP) and letter word identification (LWI). The AP subscale is a measure of quantitative and fluid reasoning. Students were asked to solve quantitative word problems that were presented orally. The LWI measures reading decoding skills. Students were asked to identify and pronounce letters and increasingly difficult words. We selected this subscale as it assesses the alphabetic principle (the ability to associate sounds with letters), a primary indicator of early reading development (Juel, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref59">32</reflink>]). Additionally, both AP and LWI have the highest factor loadings on the Broad Math and Reading domains of the WJ (both.92). These two subscales have internal consistencies above.90 across all elementary grade levels. In the present study, the 1‐year test–retest reliabilities of the WJ AP and LWI scores were.81, and.75, respectively.</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-11">Depressive Symptoms</hd> <p>Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) was used in the HSP study to measure children's depressive symptoms in third grade. The CDI is a measure for children ages 7–17 years and includes 27 items assessing cognitive, affective, and behavioral symptoms of depression in youth (Kovacs, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref60">36</reflink>]). The CDI has been widely used in clinical and research settings (Craighead, Smucker, Craighead, & Ilardi, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref61">16</reflink>]; Saylor, Finch, Spirito, & Bennett, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref62">59</reflink>]; Smucker, Craighead, Craighead, & Green, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref63">62</reflink>]). Each item consists of three statements rated on a scale from 0 to 2; total scores range from 0 to 54, with higher scores indicating higher levels of depressive symptoms. For nonclinical samples, Kovacs ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref64">36</reflink>]) recommended a cutoff score of 20 or higher to identify youth with significant depressive symptoms. Research staff read the CDI items to child respondents who were asked to select one statement that characterized them best during the past 2 weeks. The CDI is composed of five factors, including negative mood, interpersonal problems, ineffectiveness, anhedonia, and negative self‐esteem. T‐scores for the scale are computed based a normative sample of 1,266 youths and are calculated based on age and gender (Kovacs, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref65">36</reflink>]). It has good internal consistency and adequate stability (Nelson & Politano, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref66">53</reflink>]; Saylor, Finch, Spirito, & Bennett, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref67">59</reflink>]); coefficient alpha and 1‐year test–retest stability in the present sample were.82 and.51, respectively. Child CDI subscale scores in grade 3 were used in the present study.</p> <p>As child self‐reported depressive symptoms were not collected in Grade 1, children's depressive symptoms at Grade 1 were assessed with parent ratings on the Child Behavioral Checklist (CBCL). Items on the CDI and the Internalizing subscale of the CBCL tap common symptoms of child depression including somatic complaints, social withdrawal, irritable or sad mood, and negative self‐perceptions. The Internalizing scale includes 33 items that assess three symptom domains: Social Withdrawal, Somatic Complaints, and Mood Symptoms. A large amount of data have provided strong evidence for their psychometric properties. The Internalizing score of the CBCL has a test–retest reliability of.91 and an alpha coefficient of.90 (Achenbach & Rescoral, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref68">2</reflink>]); in the present study, the 1‐year test–retest reliability of the CBCL Internalizing score was.61. Of most relevance to the present study, prior studies have found that the Internalizing score predicts concurrent (Jensen, Salzberg, Richters, & Watanabe, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref69">31</reflink>]) and future mood disorders over a 1.5 (Kroes et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref70">38</reflink>]) and 8‐year time frame in young children (Mesman & Koot, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref71">48</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-12">Social Behaviors and Likability</hd> <p>Teacher Observation of Classroom Adaptation–Revised (TOCA–R; Werthamer‐Larsson, Kellam, & Wheeler, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref72">68</reflink>]). Teacher ratings of social avoidance and likeability were obtained in the spring semester of the first and second grade using the TOCA–R (Werthamer‐Larsson et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref73">68</reflink>]). The TOCA–R was developed and employed by the Johns Hopkins University Prevention Intervention Research Center (JHU PIRC) in the evaluation of the first‐ and second‐generation JHU PIRC trials. The TOCA–R requires teachers to respond to 43 items pertaining to the child's adaptation to classroom task demands over the last 3 weeks. Adaptation is rated by teachers on a 6‐point frequency scale (1 = <emph>almost never</emph> to 6 = <emph>almost always</emph>). We used the Social Avoidance subscale as a covariate in our path models. This scale includes four items that measure low social participation ("Avoided classmates," "Stayed to him/herself," "Socializes/interacts with classmates"). All items are summed after reverse coding positive participation items (e.g., interacts with others). Scores range from 0 to 24 with higher scores indicating higher levels of avoidance. The Likeability subscale includes three items that examine teacher perceptions of how well the student is liked by his or her peers. ("Well liked by classmates," "Children seek him/her out to play," "Disliked by classmates."). Negative likeability items are reverse scored, and then all items are summed. Scores range from 0 to 18 with higher scores indicating higher levels of likeability. The coefficient alphas for the TOCA–R subscales in elementary school were.78 (Avoidance) and.80 (Likeability).</p> <p>Parent Observation of Child Adaptation (POCA; Ialongo, et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref74">30</reflink>]). The POCA was designed as a companion measure to the TOCA–R to assess child adaptation in the family social field. Like the TOCA–R, the parent rates the child's performance on basic tasks. We focused on the two parallel POCA subscales: Social Avoidance and Likability. The POCA is scored the same way as the TOCA–R with higher scores indicating high levels of avoidance and likeability, respectively. In the original Baltimore Prevention Trial that was used to develop the POCA the Social Avoidance and Likeability subscales had internal consistencies of.62 and.78, respectively. In the present study, these values were.74 (Social Avoidance) and.60 (Likeability).</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-13">Parenting Stress Index‐Short Form</hd> <p>The Parenting Stress Index (PSI; Abidin & Abidin, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref75">1</reflink>]) is a 36‐item measure of parent adjustment and challenging child behavior rated on a 5‐point scale (<emph>strongly disagree</emph> to <emph>strongly agree</emph>). The PSI includes parent and child domains which are summed to yield a total stress score indicative of a parent's overall life stress. Total scores range from 36 to 180 with higher scores indicating higher levels of stress. Alpha reliability coefficients were.92 in this sample; in prior studies test–retest reliabilities ranged from.82 to.71 (Abidin & Abidin, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref76">1</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-14">Analytic Plan</hd> <p>We used structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine the hypothesized path model including relations among predictors, mediators, and outcome variables. SEM analyses were completed with Mplus 7.1 (Muthén & Muthén, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref77">51</reflink>]), and maximum likelihood estimates were obtained. The Mplus software uses a full information maximum likelihood estimation under the assumption that the data were missing at random (Arbuckle, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref78">4</reflink>]), which is a widely accepted way of handling missing data (Muthén & Shedden, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref79">52</reflink>]; Schafer & Graham, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref80">60</reflink>]). The minimum covariance coverage recommended for reliable model convergence is.10 (Muthén & Muthén, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref81">50</reflink>]). In this study, coverage ranged from.863 to.971.</p> <p>Our measurement model balanced our desire to have factor scores for primary constructs while limiting the number of parameters estimated so as not to exceed conventional parameter to subject ratios. The measurement model was evaluated by examining factor loadings of items for each of the two latent factors in our model: academic competence and depression. Items with loadings over.40 were retained in the final measurement model (Stevens, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref82">63</reflink>]).</p> <p>Structural model fit was evaluated using multiple indicators of fit: chi‐square, the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and the root‐mean‐square error of approximation (RMSEA). Hu and Bentler ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref83">27</reflink>]) suggested that CFI and TLI values above.95 and RMSEA values < .08 represent acceptable fit; RMSEA values equal or less than.05 represent good fit (Browne & Cudek, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref84">6</reflink>]).</p> <p>Mediated effects were tested by calculating indirect effects within an SEM framework. The significance of the indirect effect from the predictor to the outcome was tested using the multiple bootstrap procedure described by Fritz, Taylor, and MacKinnon ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref85">20</reflink>]). Significant indirect effects were taken as evidence of mediation.</p> <p>We examined the need to account for clustering of students within classrooms and schools in this study. We found minimal evidence of clustering effects. First, the majority of students were in unique classrooms (77% and 75% in first and second grade, respectively). Four was the most students in a common classroom, and this only occurred for 5% of the sample. Additionally, we examined the intraclass correlations (ICC) of key variables. The ICCs of teacher ratings of likeability were < .001; the ICCs of WJ scores were all below.005. These values indicated that clustering was not a concern for scores used in subsequent analyses.</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-15">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0142101356-16">Descriptive Statistics</hd> <p>Descriptive statistics and preliminary Pearson correlation analyses were calculated to determine the univariate relations among study variables (see Tables  and). First‐grade academic competence variables were positively correlated with each other (<emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>.54) and significantly, positively correlated with likeability measures (<emph>r = </emph>.18 to <emph>r = </emph>.25) and teacher report of child social avoidance (<emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>−.17 to <emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>−.23). Academic competence in Grade 1 was also significantly negatively correlated with child internalizing in Grade 1 (<emph>r = </emph>−.14 to <emph>r = </emph>−.26), parental stress in Grade 1 (<emph>r = </emph>−.20 to <emph>r = </emph>−.22), and child depression in Grade 3 (<emph>r = </emph>−.24 to <emph>r = </emph>−.31). Parent and teacher social avoidance ratings in Grade 1 were positively associated with internalizing behaviors (<emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>.16 to <emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>.52, respectively) and parental stress (<emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>.11 to <emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>.37, respectively) in the same grade and teacher report of social avoidance was correlated with child depression in Grade 3 (<emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>.12). Social avoidance in Grade 1 was also significantly negatively correlated with likeability in Grade 2 (<emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>−.16 to <emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>−.39, respectively). Last, child internalizing in Grade 1 was significantly positively correlated with depression in Grade 3 (<emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>.16), whereas child likeability in Grade 2 was significantly negatively correlated with child depression in Grade 3 (<emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>−.11 to <emph>r </emph>=<emph> </emph>−.26).</p> <p>Descriptive Statistics of Observed Continuous Variables</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left">Variable name</th><th align="left">Grade</th><th align="left"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>SD</italic></th><th align="left">Range</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">1. Reading (WJ)</td><td align="left">1</td><td align="left">109.36</td><td align="left">16.34</td><td align="left">51–149</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2. Math (WJ)</td><td align="left">1</td><td align="left">100</td><td align="left">16.10</td><td align="left">45–157</td></tr><tr><td align="left">3. Parent stress (PSI)</td><td align="left">1</td><td align="left">73.74</td><td align="left">21.20</td><td align="left">37–172</td></tr><tr><td align="left">4. Internalizing problems (CBCL)</td><td align="left">1</td><td align="left">49.14</td><td align="left">9.93</td><td align="left">33–75</td></tr><tr><td align="left">5. Externalizing (CBCL)</td><td align="left">1</td><td align="left">50.06</td><td align="left">9.44</td><td align="left">33–77</td></tr><tr><td align="left">6. Social avoidance (TOCA)</td><td align="left">1</td><td align="left">8.86</td><td align="left">4.03</td><td align="left">4–24</td></tr><tr><td align="left">7. Social avoidance (POCA)</td><td align="left">1</td><td align="left">9.76</td><td align="left">3.90</td><td align="left">0–24</td></tr><tr><td align="left">8. Likeability (TOCA)</td><td align="left">2</td><td align="left">7.18</td><td align="left">3.16</td><td align="left">3–18</td></tr><tr><td align="left">9. Likeability (POCA)</td><td align="left">2</td><td align="left">6.31</td><td align="left">2.65</td><td align="left">0–15</td></tr><tr><td align="left">10. Child depression (CDI)</td><td align="left">3</td><td align="left">9.93</td><td align="left">7.08</td><td align="left">0–43</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Note</p> <p>4 WJ = Woodcock Johnson; PSI = Parent Stress Index; CBCL = Child Behavioral Checklist; TOCA = Teacher Observation of Classroom Adaptation; POCA = Parent Observation of Classroom Adaptation Revised; CDI = Children's Depression Inventory.</p> <p>Intercorrelations Among Study Variables</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left">1</th><th align="left">2</th><th align="left">3</th><th align="left">4</th><th align="left">5</th><th align="left">6</th><th align="left">7</th><th align="left">8</th><th align="left">9</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">1. G1 WJ letters</td><td align="left">—</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">2. G1 WJ math</td><td align="left">.54<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">—</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">3. G1 parent stress (PSI)</td><td align="left">−.20<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">−.22<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">—</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">4. G1 internalizing problems (CBCL)</td><td align="left">−.14<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">−.26<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.09</td><td align="left">—</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">5. G1 social avoidance (TOCA)</td><td align="left">−.17<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">−.23<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.11<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.52<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">—</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">6. G1 social avoidance (POCA)</td><td align="left">−.08</td><td align="left">−.21<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.37<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.16<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.23<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">—</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">7. G2 likeability (TOCA)</td><td align="left">.23<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.25<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">−.11<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">−.18<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.24<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.16<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">—</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">8. G2 likeability (POCA)</td><td align="left">.18<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.20<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">−.34<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">−.14<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.16<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.39<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.19<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">—</td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">9. G3 child depression (CDI)</td><td align="left">−.24<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">−.31<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">.07</td><td align="left">.16<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">−.12<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">−.09</td><td align="left">−.26<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">−.11<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn6" /></td><td align="left">—</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>2 Note</item> <item>5 G1 = first grade; G2 = second grade; G3 = third grade; WJ = Woodcock Johnson; PSI = Parent Stress Index; CBCL = Child Behavioral Checklist; TOCA = Teacher Observation of Classroom Adaptation; POCA = Parent Observation of Classroom Adaptation Revised; CDI = Children's Depression Inventory.</item> <item>6 <emph>*p </emph>< .05. **<emph>p </emph>< .01.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0142101356-17">Measurement Model</hd> <p>Our final measurement model included two latent factors: academic competence and depression. Academic competence included two subscales of the WJ: letter word identification and AP. Both observed scores had factor loadings above.70. Depression included observed subscales on the CDI. Analyses revealed that the negative self‐esteem subscale did not load on the depression factor (< .40), so it was dropped from subsequent analyses. The final depression factor included four CDI subscales that all had loadings > .60: negative mood, interpersonal problems, ineffectiveness, and anhedonia. The low correlations between parent and teacher ratings of social avoidance and likeability did not justify aggregating them into latent variables. Instead, we tested various models with observed values on each of these constructs. The final best fitting models used teacher ratings on both constructs only, as parent ratings did not improve or significantly alter model fit.</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-18">Mediation Analyses</hd> <p>We conducted a SEM controlling for baseline covariates to test our structural model and mediational hypotheses. We first tested an initial model without the hypothesized mediator (second‐grade likeability) to determine the non‐mediated effect of the predictor (first‐grade academic competence) on the outcome (third grade depression). In this non‐mediated model, first‐grade academic competence had a moderate effect on third‐grade depression (β <emph>=</emph> −.48). The final model yielded an adequate fit to the data, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref86">68</reflink>) = 94.40; CFI = .96; TLI = .96; RMSEA = .03. Figure  depicts the final model; final model estimates, standard errors, and <emph>p</emph>‐values appear in Table . Academic competence had a significant direct effect on second‐grade likeability (β = .25) and third‐grade depression (β<emph> </emph>= −.43); the addition of the mediator lowered the path coefficient of the predictor‐outcome link by.05. Second‐grade likeability had a significant direct effect on third‐grade depression (β<emph> </emph>= −.17). The total indirect effect of academic competence on depression was also significant, and the total indirect effect through likeability was significant (indirect = −.04). Social avoidance was unrelated to second‐grade likeability or third‐grade depression with other variables in the model. Thus, the comparison provided support for a mediated model was specific to academic competence.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/CDV/01mar20/cdev13214-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="cdev13214-fig-0001.jpg" title="Final structural model from academic competence to depression (n = 380). , nonsignificant path; , significant path. Sum of Indirect from Academic—Depression = −.04 (p = .01); Sum of Direct from Academic—Depression = −.47 (p < .001)." /> </p> <p></p> <p>Final Model Estimates, Standard Errors, and p‐Values</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left">Variables (command)</th><th align="left">Estimate</th><th align="left"><italic>SE</italic></th><th align="left">Est<italic>/SE</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>p</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">G1 academic BY</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 WJ reading</td><td align="left">.68</td><td align="left">.06</td><td align="left">10.81</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 WJ math</td><td align="left">.80</td><td align="left">.06</td><td align="left">14.44</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G3 depression BY</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G3 CDI mood</td><td align="left">.72</td><td align="left">.04</td><td align="left">18.53</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G3 CDI interpersonal</td><td align="left">.71</td><td align="left">.04</td><td align="left">16.74</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G3 CDI ineffective</td><td align="left">.66</td><td align="left">.05</td><td align="left">14.46</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G3 CDI anhedonia</td><td align="left">.72</td><td align="left">.04</td><td align="left">19.03</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G3 depression ON</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 Academic</td><td align="left">−.43</td><td align="left">.08</td><td align="left">−5.40</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G3 depression ON</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 internalizing (CBCL)</td><td align="left">−.06</td><td align="left">.08</td><td align="left">−0.76</td><td align="left">.447</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 likeability (TOCA)</td><td align="left">.02</td><td align="left">.09</td><td align="left">−0.17</td><td align="left">.864</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 parent stress (PSI)</td><td align="left">−.07</td><td align="left">.07</td><td align="left">−1.14</td><td align="left">.256</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 externalizing (CBCL)</td><td align="left">.10</td><td align="left">.09</td><td align="left">1.11</td><td align="left">.268</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 social avoidance (TOCA)</td><td align="left">−.01</td><td align="left">.09</td><td align="left">−0.15</td><td align="left">.885</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Intervention</td><td align="left">−.10</td><td align="left">.06</td><td align="left">−1.83</td><td align="left">.068</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Sex</td><td align="left">−.05</td><td align="left">.06</td><td align="left">−0.92</td><td align="left">.360</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Race</td><td align="left">.07</td><td align="left">.07</td><td align="left">0.95</td><td align="left">.345</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G2 likeability (TOCA)</td><td align="left">−.17</td><td align="left">.06</td><td align="left">2.61</td><td align="left">.009</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G2 likeability (TOCA) ON</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 academic</td><td align="left">.25</td><td align="left">.07</td><td align="left">−3.77</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G2 likeability (TOCA) WITH</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 social avoidance (TOCA)</td><td align="left">−.06</td><td align="left">.08</td><td align="left">−0.72</td><td align="left">.476</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 likeability (TOCA)</td><td align="left">.29</td><td align="left">.08</td><td align="left">3.88</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 academic WITH</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 parent stress (PSI)</td><td align="left">−.28</td><td align="left">.07</td><td align="left">−4.22</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 externalizing (CBCL) WITH</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 academic</td><td align="left">−.10</td><td align="left">.08</td><td align="left">−1.30</td><td align="left">.195</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 likeability (TOCA) WITH</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 academic</td><td align="left">.30</td><td align="left">.06</td><td align="left">−4.82</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 social avoidance (TOCA) WITH</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 Academic</td><td align="left">−.28</td><td align="left">.06</td><td align="left">−4.62</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 internalizing (CBCL) WITH</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 academic</td><td align="left">−.03</td><td align="left">.07</td><td align="left">−0.39</td><td align="left">.70</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 social avoidance (TOCA) WITH</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 likeability (TOCA)</td><td align="left">−.75</td><td align="left">.02</td><td align="left">31.72</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 internalizing (CBCL)</td><td align="left">−.01</td><td align="left">.05</td><td align="left">−0.19</td><td align="left">.850</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 parent stress (PSI) WITH</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 likeability (TOCA)</td><td align="left">−.15</td><td align="left">.05</td><td align="left">2.77</td><td align="left">.006</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 social avoidance (TOCA)</td><td align="left">.11</td><td align="left">.05</td><td align="left">2.31</td><td align="left">.021</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 externalizing (CBCL) WITH</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 social avoidance (TOCA)</td><td align="left">−.03</td><td align="left">.05</td><td align="left">−0.52</td><td align="left">.602</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 parent stress (PSI)</td><td align="left">.44</td><td align="left">.06</td><td align="left">7.89</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 likeability (TOCA)</td><td align="left">.10</td><td align="left">.05</td><td align="left">1.77</td><td align="left">.076</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G2 likeability (TOCA)</td><td align="left">.10</td><td align="left">.05</td><td align="left">2.18</td><td align="left">.030</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 internalizing (CBCL)</td><td align="left">.64</td><td align="left">.03</td><td align="left">21.38</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 internalizing (CBCL) WITH</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 likeability (TOCA)</td><td align="left">.05</td><td align="left">.05</td><td align="left">1.09</td><td align="left">.276</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G2 likeability (TOCA)</td><td align="left">.07</td><td align="left">.05</td><td align="left">1.40</td><td align="left">.162</td></tr><tr><td align="left">G1 parent stress (PSI)</td><td align="left">.39</td><td align="left">.05</td><td align="left">7.38</td><td align="left">.000</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>3 Note</item> <item>7 G1 = first grade; G2 = second grade; G3 = third grade; WJ = Woodcock Johnson; PSI = Parent Stress Index; CBCL = Child Behavioral Checklist; TOCA = Teacher Observation of Classroom Adaptation; POCA = Parent Observation of Classroom Adaptation Revised; CDI = Children's Depression Inventory.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0142101356-20">Sensitivity Analysis</hd> <p>We tested the sensitivity of the model by adding third‐grade academic scores to our final model. With these analyses we attempted to rule out third‐grade academic competence as an alternate path by which second‐grade likeability influenced third‐grade depressive symptoms. The addition of third‐grade academic competence (LWI and AP scores on the WJ) did not improve model fit. Moreover, in these models controlling for first‐grade academic competence, second‐grade likeability did not predict third‐grade reading and math scores (β = .02; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.48; and β = −.07; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.15, respectively), and reading and math scores in third grade were not significantly related to third‐grade depressive symptoms (β<emph> </emph>= −.12; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.35; and β = −.04; <emph>p </emph>=<emph> </emph>.77, respectively). The relations among first‐grade academic competence, second‐grade likeability, and third‐grade depressive symptoms were unchanged with the addition of third‐grade reading and math scores. Thus, we retained the final model without third‐grade academic scores as the more parsimonious and better fitting model.</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-21">Discussion</hd> <p>The results of this study revealed that, as expected, first graders with weaker academic skills were more likely to show greater depressive symptoms in third grade. Additionally, when students were reportedly better liked, they were more likely to show fewer depressive symptoms in third grade. Notably, teachers' ratings of how well students were liked by their peers partially mediated the relation between academic problems and depressive symptoms; that is, the findings suggest that part of the connection between children's low academic skills in first‐grade and third‐grade depressive symptoms is explained by their lower likeability ratings in second grade. The findings supported our hypothesized developmental pathway and were robust even after controlling for potential confounds (e.g., social avoidance, family environment, externalizing symptoms) and baseline scores on key constructs. This is consistent with the competency model of depression (Cole, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref87">8</reflink>]) in which student performance deficits, particularly academic skills, contribute to later depressive symptoms development via negative social judgments that result from skill deficits.</p> <p>Unlike prior studies, we found no relation between early social avoidance and future depressive symptoms in our overall model. This may be an artifact of our measurement strategy that relied on a narrow range of social behaviors, avoidance, rather than a broader measure of social competence. Additionally, our findings may be explained by the phase of development under investigation. In prior studies that found relations between social competence and future risk for depressive symptoms (Cole, Jacquez, et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref88">9</reflink>]; Cole, Maxwell, et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref89">12</reflink>]), the timing of these assessments was later in elementary school (fourth and fifth grade). Thus, the relation between social competence and depressive symptoms may take on more significance later in development. Similarly, other studies later in development have not found strong relations between academic competence and depressive symptoms. School entry, particularly first grade, appears to be a key stage of development for the role of academic competence and depressive symptoms. It is likely the relations among these variables change over the course of development. Thus, the timing of assessments linked to the nuanced developmental hypotheses should guide future work in this area.</p> <p>The strength of relations between likeability and depressive symptoms and their role in mediating the relation between academic competence and depressive symptoms were small. This is not surprising given the multiple pathways through which competence may impact development and depressive symptoms. Moreover, the measure of likeability in this study was a limited proxy for testing the full Cole model as it relied on teacher perceptions of how much students were liked by their peers (Cole [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref90">8</reflink>]; Cole, Maxwell, et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref91">12</reflink>]). A more specific measure is likely needed to capture the moment‐to‐moment feedback that children receive from both peers and adults about their competence rather than a static judgment of teacher perceptions of peer likeability. Still, this measure was an appropriate proxy for assessing negative social judgments of a student that could precede the development of negative self‐perceptions.</p> <p>Parent perceptions of likeability were not a significant mediator of the competence‐depressive symptoms pathway. Teacher and peer perceptions of likeability may be especially important for understanding the academic competence‐depressive symptoms link given the focus of schools on academic skill development (Herman et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref92">26</reflink>]). Parent perceptions of likeability may be most relevant for understanding competence in other domains outside of school settings, particularly social domains. For instance, much literature has focused on the role of externalizing problems in affecting parent perceptions of child likeability and acceptance (Webster‐Stratton & Reid, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref93">66</reflink>]), whereas little evidence suggestions a similar effect of academic skill problems on parent judgments of children.</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-22">Implications</hd> <p>These findings have implications for the prevention and early intervention of depressive symptoms during elementary school. The present findings support the growing literature showing the link between academic skill deficits at school entry and risk for depressive symptoms (Herman & Ostrander, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref94">25</reflink>]; Herman et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref95">23</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref96">24</reflink>]). Thus, the early identification of youth with math or reading problems and provision of supports to improve academic competence can affect youth emotional outcomes. For example, Kellam, Rebok, Mayer, Ialongo, and Kalodner ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref97">34</reflink>]) found that an intervention that improved academic skills in early elementary school led to reductions in youth depressive symptoms. Moreover, the findings also suggest the potential benefit of supplementing academic supports for youth with academic skill deficits with social emotional learning (SEL) supports. Several evidence‐based programs provide explicit instruction in core SEL skills including Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (Kusche & Greenberg, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref98">39</reflink>]), Second Step (Committee for Children, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref99">14</reflink>]), Strong Kids (Merrell & Gueldner, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref100">47</reflink>]), and I Can Problem Solve (Shure, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref101">61</reflink>]). These programs can be delivered as universal supports available to all students and also in small groups for more targeted and intensive training for students deemed to be at risk for future internalizing distress. Low academic competence can serve as one risk indicator for identifying youth who may benefit from these programs.</p> <p>Unique to the present study was specifying the role of negative social evaluations, judgments of likeability, in increasing children's risk for depressive symptoms. The links between teacher perceptions of students and subsequent student academic and behavior outcomes is well established (see Rosenthal, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref102">57</reflink>]). The findings in the present study extend this line of research to student emotional outcomes.</p> <p>One implication of this finding is that making teachers aware of their potential interpretative bias against students with low academic competence may provide an additional leverage point to reduce risk for depressive symptoms. Teachers are not commonly trained to examine their assumptions about students and to alter them. Moreover, given the focus here on peer likeability, more work is needed to assist teachers on minimizing negative peer judgments and social comparisons. Notably, the link between competence and depressive symptoms in this and in prior studies is continuous; in other words, there is not a threshold above which lower levels of competence do not predict depressive symptoms. This implies a need to intervene at the social level to mitigate intervening process such as judgments of likeability that can improve emotional outcomes for students.</p> <p>The competency model of depression development can be conceptualized within a developmental cascades framework; as children experience academic failure experiences early in their schooling, their risk for continued academic failure increases in addition to their risk for developing behavior difficulties and psychopathology (Masten & Cicchetti, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref103">44</reflink>]). Mastery of expected competencies in early childhood predicts mastery of increasingly complex tasks later in childhood (Masten & Coatworth, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref104">45</reflink>]). At the same time, failures to achieve developmental tasks and symptoms of pathology early in childhood predict difficulty in adapting to the increasing demands children face as they mature. The impacts of these competencies over the course of a child's development have been conceptualized as "developmental cascades," in which failing to achieve certain developmental milestones may present additional risk as the child develops (Masten & Cicchetti, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref105">44</reflink>]). In other words, the framework of developmental cascades describes how a child's functioning in one area may come to affect his or her functioning in a variety of other related areas over time (Masten et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref106">46</reflink>]). Further, these cascading effects amplify or snowball in promoting positive or negative developmental outcomes. If a sensitive period with malleable risk and protective factors can be targeted to prevent early symptoms from emerging or worsening, this is an especially strategic time to intervene (Muñoz, Mrazek, & Haggerty, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref107">49</reflink>]; Webster‐Stratton & Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref108">67</reflink>]).</p> <p>In particular, the importance of school entry as a critical developmental transition and opportunity for early intervention has been well documented (see Kellam & Rebok, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref109">33</reflink>]). The present findings suggest that interventions that target low academic competence and negative social evaluations related to competence concerns during the early elementary years may be a viable approach for reducing downstream risks for depressive symptoms.</p> <p>Finally, the study may have implications for further innovations in early home visiting programs, which target families of children from birth to 5 years with the aim of promoting healthy family functioning, positive parenting, and child health and development. In 2010, the federal government initiated unprecedented investment in the scale‐up of evidence‐based early home visiting programs and in rigorous research and infrastructure building to broaden and strengthen effectiveness (Maternal, Infant and Early Childhood Home Visiting Program Funding through The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref110">64</reflink>]). The program in which this study took place was the prototype for one of today's most widely disseminated models designated as evidence‐based (Sama‐Miller et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref111">58</reflink>]). The Home Visiting Applied Research Collaborative is a national research and development program to advance the field through innovative research to promote precision home visiting—research to understand and scale‐up what works best, for whom, under what circumstances (<ulink href="http://www.hvresearch.org">www.hvresearch.org</ulink>). The present findings demonstrate the need to study the distal benefits of home visiting on child academic development and emotional health as part of these efforts (Herman et al., 2018).</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-23">Strengths and Limitations</hd> <p>The community epidemiologically defined sample of children is a strength of the present study. Additionally, the longitudinal design during a critical developmental period extends the findings of prior research. Moreover, we controlled for many third variables in our analyses that helped strengthen confidence in the unique relations between academic competence, likeability, and depressive symptoms.</p> <p>On the other hand, the study relied on continuous measures of key study variables rather than diagnostic data, thus it is unknown if the relations described apply equally well to children with clinical diagnoses. Additionally, the study involved a longitudinal, correlational design; no experimental manipulation involving key constructs occurred in this study, so causal inferences are not warranted.</p> <p>We used teacher ratings of likeability in the present study; a stronger method to test the evaluation components of the competency model would need to use direct observations of these interactions. Additionally, the teacher ratings of likeability between years had low correlations; although this is common given that the ratings were given by different teachers in different classrooms separated by a year, it is important to note that any unreliability in these ratings would serve to underestimate true relations with other variables in the model.</p> <p>The findings may not generalize to other settings and populations. Here, we evaluated a competency model of depression in a high risk sample with high representation of Asian Americans youth. Although this is an important extension of the competency model that has been tested with middle class, predominately White student populations (Cole et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref112">10</reflink>]) as well as in urban contexts with larger representation of African American youth (Herman et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref113">23</reflink>]), the specific findings in the present study need to be replicated with other samples. The findings are also limited by the attrition that was observed from the original HSP study sample compared to the data that were used in the present study during the early elementary years. Finally, because the original study was not primarily focused on schools or teachers, we had limited data on teacher characteristics who completed student ratings. However, the data we did have suggested the teachers were roughly representative of an elementary teacher population from Hawaii in terms of teacher gender and ethnic background.</p> <hd id="AN0142101356-24">Future Directions and Conclusion</hd> <p>Future studies will need to include direct ratings of teacher perceptions of students such as observations of their moment‐to‐moment interactions to accurately assess the more nuanced aspects of feedback hypothesized by the competency model of depression. Additionally, future studies are needed to account for the dynamic interplay between teacher ratings of student likeability and the student's awareness of these ratings and their own ratings of their likeability. Regardless, the findings are promising and suggest one mechanism for understanding the development of early‐onset depression is the social feedback children receive about their competency and likeability early in their academic careers. The study provides guidance to developmental researchers and practitioners to identify and address potential leverage points in the prevention of depression in youth. Further clarification of the developmental pathway to depression for children may lead to improved prevention and treatment interventions for these children.</p> <ref id="AN0142101356-25"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref49" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> [Article updated on March 27, 2019 after first online publication on January 17, 2019: Dr. Daniel R. Cohen's affiliation was corrected to University of Alabama.]</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref51" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Preparation of this manuscript was supported in part by grants from the Federal Maternal and Child Health Bureau (grant R40 MC 00029, formerly grant MCJ‐240637, and grant R40 MC 00123, formerly grant MCJ‐240838), the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (grant 18303), the Annie E. Casey Foundation (grant 94–4041), the David and Lucile Packard Foundation (grants 93–6051, 94–7957, 97–8058, and 98–3448), and the Hawaii State Department of Health (grant 99‐29‐J) awarded to Dr. Anne K. Duggan. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0142101356-26"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Abidin, R. R., & Abidin, R. R. (1990). Parenting Stress Index (PSI). Charlottesville, VA : Pediatric Psychology Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the Achenbach system of empirically based assessment school‐age forms profiles. Burlington, VT : Aseba.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref42" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. 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Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1246029
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Does Child Likeability Mediate the Link between Academic Competence and Depressive Symptoms in Early Elementary School?
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Herman%2C+Keith+C%2E%22">Herman, Keith C.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hodgson%2C+Caroline+G%2E%22">Hodgson, Caroline G.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Eddy%2C+Colleen+L%2E%22">Eddy, Colleen L.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cohen%2C+Daniel+R%2E%22">Cohen, Daniel R.</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0937-0836">0000-0003-0937-0836</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Reinke%2C+Wendy+M%2E%22">Reinke, Wendy M.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Burrell%2C+Lori%22">Burrell, Lori</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Mcfarlane%2C+Elizabeth+C%2E%22">Mcfarlane, Elizabeth C.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Duggan%2C+Anne+K%2E%22">Duggan, Anne K.</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Child+Development%22"><i>Child Development</i></searchLink>. e331-e344 Mar-Apr 2020 91(2):e331-e344.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 14
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2020
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+1%22">Grade 1</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Primary+Education%22">Primary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+3%22">Grade 3</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Depression+%28Psychology%29%22">Depression (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+1%22">Grade 1</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Students%22">Elementary School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+3%22">Grade 3</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Acceptance%22">Peer Acceptance</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22At+Risk+Students%22">At Risk Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Abuse%22">Child Abuse</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Child+Relationship%22">Parent Child Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Variables%22">Stress Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Role%22">Role</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Prevention%22">Prevention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Development%22">Child Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Symptoms+%28Individual+Disorders%29%22">Symptoms (Individual Disorders)</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Hawaii%22">Hawaii</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1111/cdev.13214
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0009-3920
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The present study investigated the role of teacher-rated likeability as a mediator of the relation between low academic competence and depressive symptoms in elementary-aged children. Analyses focused on a sample of children at risk for child maltreatment living in Hawaii (n = 380). Structural equation modeling supported the hypothesized negative relations between academic competence in first grade and depressive symptoms in third grade controlling for correlated constructs (e.g., baseline social avoidance, parenting stress, externalizing problems, and internalizing symptoms). Teacher-rated likeability in second grade negatively mediated the effect of academic competence on depressive symptoms. Implications for understanding the role of early academic skill deficits and social judgments on risk for depressive symptoms as well as recommendations for interventions and prevention strategies are discussed.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2020
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1246029
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1246029
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1111/cdev.13214
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 14
        StartPage: e331
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Depression (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade 1
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade 3
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Peer Acceptance
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: At Risk Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Child Abuse
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Child Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Stress Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Role
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intervention
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Prevention
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Child Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Symptoms (Individual Disorders)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Hawaii
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Does Child Likeability Mediate the Link between Academic Competence and Depressive Symptoms in Early Elementary School?
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            NameFull: Herman, Keith C.
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            NameFull: Hodgson, Caroline G.
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            NameFull: Reinke, Wendy M.
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            NameFull: Burrell, Lori
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            NameFull: Mcfarlane, Elizabeth C.
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            NameFull: Duggan, Anne K.
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              Type: published
              Y: 2020
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