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Exploring the Interpersonal Dimension of Teaching in an Irish Post-Primary Context

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Title: Exploring the Interpersonal Dimension of Teaching in an Irish Post-Primary Context
Language: English
Authors: Scully, Darina (ORCID 0000-0002-6076-717X), Pitsia, Vasiliki (ORCID 0000-0002-8172-0397), Karakolidis, Anastasios (ORCID 0000-0002-7460-7759)
Source: Irish Educational Studies. 2020 39(3):355-374.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 20
Publication Date: 2020
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Secondary Education
Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Secondary School Teachers, Teaching Methods, Preferences, Gender Differences, Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, Interpersonal Relationship, Social Influences, Interpersonal Competence, Teacher Education Programs, Preservice Teacher Education, Problem Solving, Teacher Attitudes
Geographic Terms: Ireland
DOI: 10.1080/03323315.2019.1697947
ISSN: 0332-3315
Abstract: Effective teaching encompasses both a pedagogical and an interpersonal dimension. Despite this, the latter typically receives little attention in initial teacher education and professional development programmes because of its tacit, non-conscious, and context-specific nature. In this study, the interpersonal dimension of teaching was conceptualized in terms of an explicit set of problem-solving strategies. "Using the Tacit Knowledge Inventory for High School Teachers" ("TKI-HS"), the perceived effectiveness of these strategies amongst a sample of Irish post-primary teachers (n = 69) was explored, and the extent to which this varied across certain individual and contextual factors was also investigated. The findings suggest that, when faced with challenging social situations in the course of their professions, Irish post-primary teachers demonstrate preferences for strategies involving either rational discussions with the source of the problem, or appealing to a colleague for advice. These preferences were independent of the teachers' gender, education level, degree of job satisfaction, and the climate of the school in which they worked. Some implications for teacher education programmes are outlined. Potential future directions, including links to broader issues concerning the assessment of non-cognitive skills and competencies more generally, are also discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2020
Accession Number: EJ1268813
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0145732586;u1001sep.20;2020Sep16.03:45;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0145732586-1">Exploring the interpersonal dimension of teaching in an Irish post-primary context </title> <p>Effective teaching encompasses both a pedagogical and an interpersonal dimension. Despite this, the latter typically receives little attention in initial teacher education and professional development programmes because of its tacit, non-conscious, and context-specific nature. In this study, the interpersonal dimension of teaching was conceptualized in terms of an explicit set of problem-solving strategies. Using the Tacit Knowledge Inventory for High School Teachers (TKI-HS), the perceived effectiveness of these strategies amongst a sample of Irish post-primary teachers (n = 69) was explored, and the extent to which this varied across certain individual and contextual factors was also investigated. The findings suggest that, when faced with challenging social situations in the course of their professions, Irish post-primary teachers demonstrate preferences for strategies involving either rational discussions with the source of the problem, or appealing to a colleague for advice. These preferences were independent of the teachers' gender, education level, degree of job satisfaction, and the climate of the school in which they worked. Some implications for teacher education programmes are outlined. Potential future directions, including links to broader issues concerning the assessment of non-cognitive skills and competencies more generally, are also discussed.</p> <p>Keywords: teaching; post-primary; interpersonal skills; problem-solving; tacit knowledge</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-2">Introduction</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0145732586-3">Teacher effectiveness</hd> <p>A wealth of educational research literature points towards the wide-reaching impact of teacher effectiveness. Indeed, findings from large-scale international studies have consistently revealed that among various school-level factors, teacher quality has the greatest impact on student achievement (e.g. Guerriero [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref1">13</reflink>]; OECD [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref2">21</reflink>]), and teacher excellence has been identified as the single most important element of high-performing education systems such as those of Finland (Sahlberg [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref3">24</reflink>]) and Singapore (Steiner [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref4">25</reflink>]). Thus, improving teacher effectiveness is clearly a worthwhile goal for education systems worldwide. As Looney ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref5">18</reflink>]) outlined, although there is no agreed-upon definition of teacher quality, research has identified a number of characteristics exhibited by the most effective teachers. These include: (i) general cognitive ability, (ii) good content knowledge, (iii) pedagogical content knowledge (including assessment literacy), (iv) strong classroom management skills, and (v) the ability to develop positive relationships and work collaboratively with others. The latter of this list might well be described as the 'interpersonal' dimension of teaching.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-4">The interpersonal dimension of teaching</hd> <p>Jones, Bouffard, and Weissbourd ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref6">15</reflink>]) attempted to unpack the interpersonal dimension of teaching, highlighting <emph>social</emph> processes such as understanding social cues and correctly attributing the intent of others' behaviours and <emph>emotional</emph> processes such as regulating one's own emotions and behaviours and taking others' perspectives into account. Their assertion – that these competencies 'are not secondary to the mission of education, but are concrete factors in the success of teachers' (Jones, Bouffard, and Weissbourd [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref7">15</reflink>], 62) – echoes the sentiments of others and has been well supported in international research literature. For instance, in a survey of school principals (Torff and Sessions [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref8">32</reflink>]), lack of ability to establish a rapport with students was among the most frequently perceived causes of teacher ineffectiveness. Teachers' interpersonal skills have also been identified as important in establishing relationships with colleagues and parents (Stemler et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref9">27</reflink>]). Moreover, teachers with good emotional regulation skills have higher job satisfaction and increased feelings of personal accomplishment (Brackett et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref10">3</reflink>]).</p> <p>Despite the well-recognised importance of the interpersonal dimension of teaching, international research suggests that it is seldom a prominent feature of initial teacher education (ITE) programmes or continuous professional development (CPD) programmes, both of which tend to focus on skills in instructional practice (Patti et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref11">23</reflink>]; Zeichner [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref12">34</reflink>]). Instructional skills undoubtedly form a significant element of what it means to be a good teacher. However, as Zeichner ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref13">34</reflink>], 379) pointed out, an exclusive focus on teaching practices risks</p> <p>narrowing the role of teachers to that of technicians who are able to implement a particular set of teaching strategies, but who do not develop ... the relational skills they need to be successful in the complex institutional settings in which they will work.</p> <p>The relative lack of emphasis placed on the interpersonal dimension of teaching in formal education is perhaps attributable to the fact that it depends heavily on knowledge that is procedural rather than declarative. Procedural knowledge is knowledge applied to a particular task, i.e. it involves knowing <emph>how</emph> as opposed to knowing <emph>that</emph>. Due to its tacit or non-conscious nature, it is 'usually not openly expressed or taught' (Wagner and Sternberg [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref14">33</reflink>], 436); indeed, the interpersonal dimension of teaching is typically assumed to result from experience and general socialization rather than from direct instruction (Stemler et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref15">27</reflink>]). However, given the strong evidence supporting the interpersonal dimension of teaching, it may be time to give greater consideration to understanding this constellation of skills, and whether it can be developed in both pre-service and practising teachers.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-5">The Irish context</hd> <p>As this study focuses on the post-primary education system in the Republic of Ireland, it is important to consider the above issues specifically in relation to this context. As Stemler et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref16">27</reflink>], 102) pointed out, the need for teachers to have well-developed skills in dealing with social situations is heightened in cultures wherein 'student independence and autonomy are particularly prized' and wherein educational practice is subject to considerable scrutiny by stakeholders such as parents, administrators and the media. Both of these are at play in the Irish context: an enhanced focus on student autonomy is evident in the framework for the new Junior Cycle at post-primary level (DES [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref17">8</reflink>]); furthermore, a growing emphasis on accountability and performativity across the entire system continues to place demands on Irish teachers from various external sources (Conway and Murphy [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref18">5</reflink>]).</p> <p>Additionally, it has been argued that a growing emphasis on social and emotional learning in many school curricula may heighten the need for teachers to have advanced interpersonal skills (Patti et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref19">23</reflink>]). This phenomenon is clearly evident in the Irish post-primary context, with wellbeing identified as a core area of learning in the new Junior Cycle programme. Junior Cycle students in Ireland are expected to acquire skills in 'developing good relationships and dealing with conflict', 'co-operating' and 'being social' as part of their schooling (DES [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref20">8</reflink>]). As argued by Patti et al. ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref21">23</reflink>]), teachers in such contexts must themselves have well-developed skills in these areas such that they may effectively model them for students. These authors used the term 'emotional intelligence', and suggested that this is manifest in teacher behaviours such as 'how they communicate with colleagues and students, how they process feedback from others, and how they manage conflict and stress' (Patti et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref22">23</reflink>], 102).</p> <p>Of particular note is that Irish teachers themselves regard interpersonal skills as an important aspect of their profession. Indeed, in a survey of primary and post-primary school teachers in Ireland (Devine, Fahie, and McGillicuddy [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref23">9</reflink>]), the statements 'is compassionate and sympathetic', 'establishes and maintains good parent/teacher relationships' and 'is a good team player on the staff' were rated as being 'important' or 'highly important' characteristics of a good teacher by 92.9%, 84.6% and 84.2% of respondents respectively. Devine, Fahie, and McGillicuddy ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref24">9</reflink>]) acknowledged that there was a tendency for respondents to rate all of the items on this questionnaire more rather than less positively; nonetheless, these findings suggest that the interpersonal dimension of teaching is regarded as being at least as important as others (e.g. the ability to effectively plan and manage learning) in determining teacher effectiveness in this country.</p> <p>In light of the above, it is important to consider whether sufficient emphasis is placed on the interpersonal dimension of teaching in ITE programmes in Ireland, or if it is somewhat overshadowed by a dominant focus on instructional practice, as seems to be the case in other jurisdictions. The Teaching Council of Ireland ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref25">31</reflink>]) have outlined a series of overarching aims and specific learning outcomes for ITE programmes in this country. Amongst the aims are some references to the interpersonal dimension of teaching (e.g. 'programmes should prepare teachers ... to engage with colleagues, co-professionals and parents'). Similarly, some of the learning outcomes also encompass key aspects of the phenomenon (e.g. 'the graduate will be able to foster good relationships with and among pupils based on mutual respect and trust and meaningful interactions'). It is stated that evidence of these learning outcomes should be accrued from a combination of factors, including ongoing assessment of coursework and observation during school placements. The latter, in particular, would seem to present a suitable opportunity for pre-service teachers (PSTs) to develop and receive feedback on their skills in the interpersonal dimension.</p> <p>Individual programme syllabi provide an additional source of information about the relative weight placed on the interpersonal dimension of teaching in ITE. For example, in an overview of the Professional Masters in Education (PME) offered by Trinity College, Dublin (TCD) the course is said to prepare new entrants for the teaching profession 'who are knowledgeable and reflective about the aims and processes of education and are subject experts in their chosen discipline' (TCD [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref26">30</reflink>], 33). It further states the intention to develop practitioners who are 'professional in all aspects of their work', which arguably could include the interpersonal dimension of teaching. There is, however, no explicit mention of interpersonal skills.</p> <p>Consultation of policy documents and programme syllabi provides insight into intended learning outcomes, but it should be appreciated that these may not always reflect the lived reality for PSTs. Data relating specifically to post-primary PSTs' experiences are, to the best of our knowledge, not available, however, findings from a recent survey of final year primary PSTs (O'Leary, Michael, 2017, email message to author, December 5th) are interesting in this regard. Specifically, almost all (>95%) of these PSTs agreed that their ITE programme had improved their understanding of how children learn, and provided them with some of the skills to be an effective teacher, but only two-thirds agreed that the course had prepared them to 'handle challenging classroom situations'.</p> <p>As mentioned previously, many people regard the interpersonal dimension of teaching as a tacit entity that is almost trait-like in nature. Following this line of thought, it could be argued that instead of attempting to include interpersonal skill development as part of an ITE programme curriculum, it may be more appropriate to include methods to identify people who are high on this trait, e.g. interviews, as part of the selection process for these programmes. In Ireland, whether or not this occurs varies across different universities and higher education institutions offering ITE programmes for post-primary teachers. Many rely solely on information about prior academic achievement derived from central application systems, but some also conduct interviews as an additional screening procedure (Darmody and Smyth [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref27">7</reflink>]).</p> <p>Despite the routine use of interviews as a selection tool in many contexts, it cannot be assumed that they are indeed an appropriate means of identifying those with the requisite interpersonal skills to teach. Indeed, as Klassen and Kim ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref28">16</reflink>]) pointed out, there is a distinct lack of research justifying the use of interviews to select PSTs. Moreover, it may not be entirely accurate to classify the interpersonal dimension of teaching as a decidedly tacit entity that is unlikely to be influenced by formal instruction. Rather, it may be possible to address these skills more explicitly in both ITE and CPD contexts if their nature could be articulated with greater clarity.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-6">A conceptual framework: interpersonal skills as problem-solving</hd> <p>Stemler et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref29">27</reflink>]) have provided an invaluable conceptual framework to support a greater understanding of the interpersonal dimension of teaching. The framework is rooted in Sternberg's theory of practical intelligence (Sternberg [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref30">29</reflink>]), which states that intelligence in any given domain comprises analytical, creative and practical skills. Analytical skills are those applied to relatively familiar situations, whilst creative skills are those applied to novel situations. In both cases, the situations are likely to be fairly abstract in nature. Practical skills, on the other hand, apply to real problems confronted in everyday life. Often colloquially described as 'street smarts', practical skills are linked to a particular context and they can be further divided into (i) dealing with self, (ii) dealing with others, and (iii) dealing with tasks.</p> <p>Stemler et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref31">27</reflink>]) thus conceptualized the interpersonal dimension of teaching as a set of practical skills in dealing with others. Specifically, they posited that there is a finite set of problem-solving strategies in which teachers may engage when dealing with challenging situations involving either students, parents or colleagues. Furthermore, they sought to detect and categorize these strategies through a series of interviews with experienced teachers. During these interviews, teachers were asked to describe specific 'critical incidents' that they had actually encountered during their careers, to describe how they had handled these incidents, and finally, to suggest a range of other possible ways in which they might have been handled. A content analysis of the interview responses revealed seven strategies, each of which is defined in terms of the observable behaviours with which it is associated (see Table 1). The content validity of these strategies was supported through discriminant analysis.</p> <p>Table 1. Defining characteristics and behaviours associated with each of the seven problem-solving strategies underlying the interpersonal dimension of teaching (adapted from Stemler et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref32">27</reflink>]).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Strategy</td><td>Defining characteristics and behaviours</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Avoid</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Teacher avoids, delays or puts off dealing with a situation or problem</p></list-item><list-item><p>No action is taken at all, or actions that are taken to not deal directly with the situation</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Comply</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Teacher does whatever is asked of him or her, regardless of who is asking</p></list-item><list-item><p>Teacher takes action that can be interpreted as actively condoning behaviours of others in the situation</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Confer</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Teacher engages in verbal discussion with source of interaction</p></list-item><list-item><p>Conversation takes place in a private, one-on-one setting and is characterized by rational explanation of the teacher's point of view</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Consult</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Teacher appeals to an external source for advice</p></list-item><list-item><p>Teacher asks people to work together to solve the problem</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Delegate</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Teacher either implicitly or explicitly delegates responsibility for taking action to someone else</p></list-item><list-item><p>Teacher absolves him/herself of responsibility for action</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Legislate</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Teacher explicates rules governing future actions of self and others</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Retaliate</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Teacher reacts physically or verbally in direct response to a situation</p></list-item><list-item><p>Direct response is often like-for-like in nature and involves punishment</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0145732586-7">Identifying 'good' and 'bad' problem-solving: consensus-based judgement</hd> <p>The extent to which each of the above interpersonal problem-solving strategies may be considered to be preferable is not necessarily universal. Unlike situations involving declarative knowledge, it is not the case that one of the above strategies is demonstrably 'good' or 'correct', and another 'bad' or 'incorrect'. This reflects a significant and recurrent challenge faced by those attempting to define and measure complex, non-cognitive skills – and one which has been addressed using several different approaches (see Bergman et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref33">2</reflink>]). One such approach, the expert judgement method, involves determining the relative 'correctness' or appropriateness of different response options in assessments of complex constructs according to the opinions of <emph>bona fide</emph> subject matter experts. Depending on the construct in question, however, it can be difficult to identify exactly who these experts should be.</p> <p>An alternative to the expert judgement method is the use of consensus-based judgement, whereby the appropriateness of the various options is defined by the response distribution of a pilot sample who are knowledgeable concerning the subject matter, but do not necessarily qualify as experts. Although unpalatable to some, there is compelling evidence for the effectiveness and utility of consensus-based judgement to determine what constitutes a 'correct' or an 'incorrect' response in situations involving tacit and procedural types of knowledge (Legree et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref34">17</reflink>]). It follows that it may be possible to identify which of Stemler et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref35">27</reflink>]) problem-solving strategies can be considered as 'good' or 'bad' in the Irish post-primary context, and consequently, articulate with some degree of clarity what it means to be skilled in the interpersonal dimension of teaching in this context, by consulting a sample of practising post-primary teachers in Ireland.</p> <p>Although consensus-based judgement is a helpful tool, it is acknowledged that there are further complications that need to be considered. First, it is entirely possible that the consensus-determined effectiveness of various strategies may depend to some degree on the nature of the situation (Stemler et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref36">27</reflink>]). Second, the level of experience of the teachers in the sample may come into play. Elliott et al. ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref37">11</reflink>]), for example, revealed that PSTs tended to endorse the <emph>consult</emph> strategy more so than their practising counterparts. In addition, as Eaude ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref38">10</reflink>], 16) pointed out, when considering the concept of effectiveness in the teaching profession, it is also important to 'take account of the expectations of teachers resulting from policy at school and national level'. That is, in schools experiencing higher levels of parental involvement, a strategy such as <emph>confer</emph> may be encouraged when dealing with situations involving parents. At a broader level, certain cultural and societal beliefs regarding child development and education are also likely to have an influence. Indeed, differences have been reported in how experienced teachers across different countries rate these interpersonal problem-solving strategies (Stemler et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref39">28</reflink>]), thus highlighting the necessity to collect data from a sample of practising teachers in Ireland, rather than relying on consensus judgement from other jurisdictions to inform practice in this country.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-8">Outline of the study</hd> <p>With all of the above considerations in mind, this study explores how the interpersonal dimension of teaching plays out in an Irish post-primary context. Guided by Stemler et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref40">27</reflink>]) conceptual framework, and by previous studies exploring this framework in a U.S. context (e.g. Elliott et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref41">11</reflink>]), our primary aim is to identify which problem-solving strategies are typically preferred and avoided by a sample of Irish teachers when faced with challenging interpersonal situations associated with their profession, and in doing so, provide a helpful reference point for ITE programme providers seeking to support their students in developing these skills. Acknowledging the potential shortcomings of the consensus-based judgement approach, we also explore the extent to which these preferences are dependent on (i) the nature of the particular situation and (ii) individual and contextual factors such as years of experience and school climate.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-9">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0145732586-10">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0145732586-11">Demographics</hd> <p>A series of questions were included to gather basic demographic and background information about the teachers participating in this study. These questions pertained to participants' gender, level of education, main subject area, years of experience in the profession, and the number of different schools in which they had taught.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-12">Job satisfaction and school climate</hd> <p>In order to gather further contextual information, two additional questions were included. The first of these was comprised of a series of items from the PISA 2015 General Teacher Questionnaire (OECD [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref42">22</reflink>]) and was intended to address teachers' overall level of job satisfaction (encompassing their satisfaction with the teaching profession, and, more specifically, with their current job environment). The second was comprised of a series of items from the TIMSS 2015 Teacher Questionnaire (IEA, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref43">14</reflink>]) and was intended to measure the general climate of the school in which the teacher currently worked (including issues pertaining to student behaviour and the level of parental involvement). Table 2 displays each set of items – note that some have been adapted slightly from their original format to ensure that the same Likert-style response options could be used across all statements (<emph>strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree</emph>). Items were reverse-scored where appropriate, and participants' responses were summed to give two separate scales, one pertaining to overall level of job satisfaction and one pertaining to the overall school climate. Both scales had satisfactory levels of internal consistency (Cronbach's Alpha =.87 and.91 respectively), and the possible scores on each scale ranged from 8 to 32.</p> <p>Table 2. Questions used to measure job satisfaction and school climate, and their component items.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Job satisfaction*</td><td>School climate**</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements ... The advantages of being a teacher clearly outweigh the disadvantages. If I could decide again, I would still choose to work as a teacher. I regret that I decided to become a teacher. I enjoy working at this school. I would recommend my school as a good place to work. I wonder whether it would have been better to choose another profession. I am satisfied with my performance in this school. All in all, I am satisfied with my job.</td><td>Thinking about the school in which you currently teach, please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements ... The students behave in an orderly manner. The students are respectful of the teachers. The students respect school property. The school has clear rules about student conduct. The school's rules are enforced in a fair and consistent manner. Parents are supportive of school activities. Parents are committed to ensure that students are ready to learn. Parents have high expectations regarding student achievement.</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>*Source: PISA 2015 General Teacher Questionnaire Retrieved from: https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pisa/pisa2015/questionnaires/General%5fTeacher%5fQ%5fEnglish.html. **Source: TIMSS 2015 Teacher Questionnaire © International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-13">The tacit knowledge inventory for high-school teachers (TKI-HS)</hd> <p>An adapted version of the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> (Stemler et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref44">26</reflink>]) was used to gather information about teachers' preferred interpersonal problem-solving strategies. Developed using the situations and strategies identified through interviews with experienced teachers, the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> consists of eleven scenarios describing challenging interpersonal situations that a teacher may encounter, involving either parents, students, administrators or colleagues. After each scenario, respondents are required to rate the extent to which they agree or disagree with each of seven possible options for responding to that scenario, using a seven-point Likert scale. Each response option corresponds to one of the seven interpersonal problem-solving strategies outlined in Stemler et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref45">27</reflink>]) framework. Consent to adapt the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> for use in an Irish context, and to use the adapted instrument for this study was obtained by the researchers through personal communication with Steven Stemler.</p> <p>Figure 1 presents an example scenario and its corresponding response options. Note that, in this example, the problem-solving strategies are identified in brackets for clarification, but these were not included when the participants rated the response options.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Example scenario and response options (adapted from the TKI-HS, Stemler et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref46">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>It is important to emphasize that the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> was used as a survey instrument and not a test instrument in this study. That is, the instrument was used with the aim of gathering information about how post-primary teachers in Ireland rate various interpersonal problem-solving strategies, with their pooled responses providing a consensus judgement as to the efficacy of these strategies, and thus a collective understanding of what it might mean to be skilled in the interpersonal dimension of teaching in this context. Individual teachers in this study did NOT receive 'scores' pertaining to their own interpersonal skills based on their responses to the <emph>TKI-HS</emph>, as has been the case in some previous studies using this instrument (e.g. Grigorenko, Sternberg, and Strauss [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref47">12</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-14">Open-ended question</hd> <p>Teachers were provided with the opportunity to comment further on the scenarios and/or to rationalize their choice of problem-solving strategies by means of an open-ended question (<emph>If you have any further comments, please feel free to share them with us</emph>).</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-15">Procedure</hd> <p>Ethical approval for this study was granted by Dublin City University's Research Ethics Committee in February 2018. Following this, the demographic and contextual questions were compiled together with the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> and open-ended question to form an online survey, using <emph>e-survey creator</emph> software, and the survey link was circulated widely amongst post-primary teachers in Ireland. Social media were used to explicitly target members of the <emph>Teachers' Union of Ireland (TUI)</emph> and the <emph>Association of Irish Secondary Teachers (ASTI)</emph> – the two major post-primary teaching unions in the Republic of Ireland – and the link was also sent directly to personal and professional contacts of the researchers. Participation in the study was voluntary and confidential and each participant gave their informed consent prior to their participation. To ensure anonymity, the option to save IP addresses of the participants was disabled in the creation of the survey.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-16">Findings and discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0145732586-17">Respondent profile</hd> <p>Eighty-one post-primary teachers completed or partially completed the online survey, however, some of these withdrew at an early stage. For the analysis, only those who had completed the demographic questions, contextual questions and at least one of the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> items (<emph>n</emph> = 69)[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref48">1</reflink>] were retained. Table 3 displays the characteristics of the final sample. Respondents were predominantly female (71%), and held either a Bachelor's or Master's degree (94.2%). Level of experience ranged from less than one year to more than thirty years, and teachers from all major subject areas were represented. Almost 40% of the sample indicated that they had worked in more than four different schools throughout their career.</p> <p>Table 3. Respondent characteristics (<emph>n </emph>= 69).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Gender</td><td>%</td><td>Level of education:</td><td>%</td><td>Years of experience:</td><td>%</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Female</td><td>71.0</td><td>Bachelor's</td><td>42.0</td><td>0–1</td><td>1.4</td></tr><tr><td>Male</td><td>29.0</td><td>Master's</td><td>52.2</td><td>2–4</td><td>18.8</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>Doctorate</td><td>5.8</td><td>5–9</td><td>24.6</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>10–14</td><td>15.9</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>15–19</td><td>10.1</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>20–24</td><td>8.7</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>25–29</td><td>8.7</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>30+</td><td>11.6</td></tr><tr><td>Main subject area:</td><td>%</td><td>No. schools worked in:</td><td>%</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Applied Sciences</td><td>7.2</td><td>1</td><td>11.6</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Business Studies</td><td>13.0</td><td>2</td><td>26.1</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Languages</td><td>30.4</td><td>3</td><td>23.2</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Sciences</td><td>29.0</td><td>>4</td><td>39.1</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Social Studies</td><td>11.6</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Other*</td><td>8.8</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>*Open responses to this category included guidance counselling, special educational needs and religion.</p> <p>Generally speaking, the teachers surveyed seemed satisfied with their choice of career (see Table 4). The lowest level of job satisfaction recorded was 17, whilst many (<emph>n </emph>= 8) respondents achieved the maximum score of 32 on this scale. Indeed, over 90% of the teachers surveyed agreed that 'the advantages of being a teacher clearly outweigh the disadvantages', while just 8.6% indicated that they regretted becoming a teacher. When compared to OECD averages (see Mostafa and Pal [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref49">20</reflink>]), these responses indicate relatively high levels of satisfaction. Scores on the school climate scale were also quite high, indicating that the majority of teachers worked in positive school climates, characterized by relatively high levels of parental involvement, and relatively low levels of disciplinary challenges.</p> <p>Table 4. Descriptive statistics for job satisfaction and school climate.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>M</td><td>SD</td><td>Min</td><td>Max</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Job satisfaction (<italic>n</italic> = 67)</td><td char=".">26.18</td><td char=".">4.052</td><td char=".">17</td><td char=".">32</td></tr><tr><td>School climate (<italic>n</italic> = 69)</td><td char=".">23.35</td><td char=".">4.712</td><td char=".">13</td><td char=".">32</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0145732586-18">Teachers' preferred problem-solving strategies</hd> <p>Figure 2 provides the mean ratings given by the teachers to each of seven problem-solving strategies across all eleven scenarios depicted in the <emph>TKI-HS</emph>. It is clear that the <emph>confer</emph> strategy (whereby the teacher makes an attempt to engage in a rational discussion with the 'source' of a problem) and the <emph>consult</emph> strategy, (whereby a teacher appeals to a third party for advice on how to solve a problem) were generally preferred, with mean ratings of 5.32 and 5.05 respectively. The <emph>delegate</emph> strategy, (whereby a teacher absolves him/herself of responsibility for action), on the other hand, was least popular, receiving a mean rating of 2.99 across all scenarios.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Teachers' mean ratings of each problem-solving strategy across all situations. Note: error bars represent standard deviations of ratings.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-19">Preferred strategies by situation</hd> <p>Although the above statistics provide an overview of how each strategy fared, they do not take into account the fact that different strategies may be more or less appropriate in different situations. With this in mind, Table 5 provides a more detailed overview of teachers' preferences, specific to each scenario. It is clear from this table that some strategies were rated relatively consistently across all scenarios. The mean rating for the <emph>confer</emph> strategy, for example, never fell below the neutral point (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref50">4</reflink>) on the scale; conversely, the mean rating for the <emph>delegate</emph> strategy only surpassed the neutral point on one occasion.</p> <p>Table 5. Mean ratings for each strategy by scenario.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Strategy</td><td>Avoid</td><td>Comply</td><td>Confer</td><td>Consult</td><td>Delegate</td><td>Legislate</td><td>Retaliate</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Scenario 1</td><td>2.86</td><td>1.19</td><td>6.30</td><td>2.48</td><td>2.42</td><td>4.28</td><td>1.83</td></tr><tr><td>Scenario 2</td><td>4.55</td><td>5.33</td><td>4.82</td><td>5.31</td><td>3.66</td><td>5.86</td><td>3.72</td></tr><tr><td>Scenario 3</td><td>4.72</td><td>2.18</td><td>6.34</td><td>5.30</td><td>3.08</td><td>3.30</td><td>1.54</td></tr><tr><td>Scenario 4</td><td>1.24</td><td>5.60</td><td>5.60</td><td>5.81</td><td>3.43</td><td>3.60</td><td>3.97</td></tr><tr><td>Scenario 5</td><td>1.87</td><td>6.25</td><td>6.16</td><td>5.93</td><td>2.35</td><td>6.02</td><td>4.09</td></tr><tr><td>Scenario 6</td><td>4.11</td><td>3.87</td><td>4.84</td><td>5.65</td><td>2.15</td><td>3.87</td><td>1.35</td></tr><tr><td>Scenario 7</td><td>3.20</td><td>3.25</td><td>4.31</td><td>6.29</td><td>2.80</td><td>2.53</td><td>2.49</td></tr><tr><td>Scenario 8</td><td>2.87</td><td>4.51</td><td>5.20</td><td>3.75</td><td>2.82</td><td>4.28</td><td>3.63</td></tr><tr><td>Scenario 9</td><td>1.72</td><td>1.28</td><td>5.06</td><td>4.83</td><td>4.46</td><td>2.63</td><td>4.78</td></tr><tr><td>Scenario 10</td><td>4.19</td><td>3.80</td><td>5.70</td><td>3.44</td><td>3.46</td><td>5.28</td><td>4.45</td></tr><tr><td>Scenario 11</td><td>4.80</td><td>1.69</td><td>4.30</td><td>6.65</td><td>2.38</td><td>4.67</td><td>4.28</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Note: Sample sizes varied from <emph>n</emph> = 53 to <emph>n</emph> = 69.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>= 'best' response. = 'worst' response.</p> <p>Another way of thinking about these data is to consider the 'best' and 'worst' responses to each scenario (i.e. those receiving the highest or lowest mean ratings as indicated in Table 5). Unsurprisingly, in multiple situations, either the <emph>confer</emph> or the <emph>consult</emph> strategy was deemed to be the 'best response'. The picture is less clear-cut, however, when considering the 'worst' responses. Indeed, four different strategies – <emph>comply, retaliate, avoid</emph> and <emph>delegate –</emph> emerged as the 'worst' response on more than one occasion.</p> <p>Returning to individual strategies, <emph>comply</emph> makes for a particularly interesting case, with mean ratings for this strategy ranging from a low of 1.19 (and categorized as the 'worst' response) in Scenario 1, to a high of 6.25 (and categorized as the 'best' response) in Scenario 5. Given that this strategy is defined as 'taking an action that can be interpreted as actively condoning the behaviours of others', it makes sense that its suitability may depend heavily on the nature of the situation. In Scenario 1, for example, the <emph>comply</emph> strategy involved accepting a student's invitation to go out for a coffee after school hours, whilst in Scenario 5, the <emph>comply</emph> strategy involved a teacher agreeing to give more challenging assignments to a bright student who has become increasingly disruptive in class (see Appendix for more details of these scenarios). Although both of these actions could be interpreted as condoning the student's original behaviour, the latter could be viewed as a positive step in attempting to reduce the undesirable behaviour, whilst the former is universally understood to be highly inappropriate in the context of a teacher-student relationship.</p> <p>The perceived appropriateness of the <emph>consult</emph> strategy also tended to fluctuate somewhat, with relatively high mean ratings for this strategy in eight of the given scenarios, but low to neutral ratings in three others. As mentioned previously, this strategy involves appealing to others for advice on how to solve a problem. One possibility is that consultation may be viewed as an indication of incompetence in situations where there are certain protocols that teachers are expected to be aware of, such as that depicted in Scenario 1. However, as one teacher commented in the open-ended section, 'advice from others should never be seen as weak ... all teachers should be encouraged to confide and seek assistance'. The question of whom or what is to be consulted may also be an important factor. Interestingly, in the vast majority of scenarios in the <emph>TKI-HS</emph>, the suggested consultation tended to be with a professional 'other', such as a teaching colleague, the principal, the Board of Management, or the school's official policy regarding a particular matter. However, in the case of Scenario 10, in which the <emph>consult</emph> strategy emerged as the 'worst' option, it involved the teacher's family (see Appendix for more details of this scenario). Thus, it seems that consultation is more likely to be viewed as an effective strategy if the person to be consulted is knowledgeable and experienced in the school context.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-20">Individual/contextual factors and choice of problem-solving strategy</hd> <p>Additional analyses were conducted to investigate the extent to which preferences for particular strategies were associated with individual and/or contextual factors. Interestingly, strategy ratings did not differ according to teachers' gender, level of education or years of experience in the profession (all <emph>p</emph>s<emph></emph>>.05) suggesting there is a certain degree of uniformity in how these strategies are viewed by various teachers in Ireland. It is perhaps surprising that the number of years in teaching did not yield different strategy choices, particularly as interpersonal skills are thought to be developed through experience (Stemler et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref51">27</reflink>]). However, the majority (80%) of teachers in this sample had more than five years of experience, and it has been argued that the greatest degree of development and adaptation occurs in the first five years of the teaching profession (Darling-Hammond [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref52">6</reflink>]) with many performance indicators tending to level off after this time. Interestingly, previous research using the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> with a sample of American high-school teachers (Elliott et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref53">11</reflink>]) also failed to find differences between the strategy preferences of more and less experienced teachers, however, as noted previously, significant differences did emerge when <emph>PST</emph>s' ratings were compared to those of practising teachers. As no PSTs were included in the current study, no inferences can be made about this issue in the Irish context at this point.</p> <p>This study extended the scope of Elliott et al. ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref54">11</reflink>])'s work by considering the role of additional factors such as job satisfaction and school climate in determining teachers' strategy preferences. A small negative correlation was observed between teachers' levels of job satisfaction and their ratings of the <emph>retaliate</emph> strategy (<emph>r </emph>= −.29, <emph>p </emph><.05). Taken at face value, this suggests that those who are less content in their teaching role may be more likely to favour this somewhat impulsive and poorly-rated strategy. However, as this observation is based on just one significant association emerging from a large correlation matrix, it should be interpreted with caution. Indeed, a Bonferroni correction would render this finding non-significant (<emph>p </emph>>.004). On the whole, it can be concluded that teachers' ratings of problem-solving strategies were independent of both their level of job satisfaction and the climate of the school in which they were teaching, arguably increasing confidence in the use of consensus-based judgement to identify strategies that are generally better or worse than others. That said, it should be noted that the teachers in this sample scored relatively high on both of these variables, and this restricted range limits the extent to which these particular findings can be generalized.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-21">Conclusions, limitations and future directions</hd> <p>This study set out to explore the interpersonal dimension of teaching in the Irish post-primary context. Drawing on seven underlying problem-solving strategies outlined by Stemler et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref55">27</reflink>]) as a conceptual framework, and a sample of post-primary teachers in Ireland as knowledgeable consultants, the consensus-based judgement approach was employed to identify what it might mean to be skilled in the interpersonal dimension of teaching. The overarching aim was to provide a potentially helpful reference point for ITE programme providers seeking to develop their students' skills in this dimension.</p> <p>Overall, the findings suggest that the <emph>confer</emph> strategy is generally regarded as a suitable way of dealing with many challenging social situations encountered in the post-primary teaching profession in Ireland. That is, the teachers in this study tended to agree that regardless of whether a 'challenge' originates from a student, a parent or a colleague, it is often appropriate for a teacher to engage the individual concerned in a rational discussion, and explain their point of view on the matter. Similarly, the option of <emph>consulting</emph> with a colleague as to the best course of action is also regarded as an advisable option in many circumstances. On the other hand, it seems that strategies such as <emph>avoid</emph> and <emph>delegate</emph>, each of which represent a certain reluctance to engage with a problem (either by ignoring it completely or passing it on to someone else), are typically regarded as unsuitable strategies for dealing with such situations. These preferences held true regardless of various individual and contextual factors.</p> <p>Based on these findings, it is suggested that PSTs should be encouraged to appreciate the distinction between these types of strategies. Indeed, it may be helpful for students to engage in role-play situations with their peers and lecturers based on scenarios similar to those depicted in the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> during initial teacher education programmes. This may facilitate the development of the skills needed to engage in strategies such as <emph>confer</emph>, and help them to realize the benefits of consultation with experienced others. Such an activity may also provide opportunities for them to discuss why, as the data in this study indicate, certain strategies may be more or less appropriate in certain situations. Engagement in these role-plays may be especially timely in the weeks leading up to school placement.</p> <p>Limitations of this study are acknowledged, such as the small sample size and non-random sampling procedure. Future research employing a larger and more diverse sample would be welcomed, however, these findings nonetheless provide a baseline for understanding and thinking about the interpersonal dimension of teaching in Irish post-primary schools. Not only could this be shared with ITE programme providers as outlined above, more comprehensive empirical data could also inform the development of a formal assessment of interpersonal skills in teaching, specific to the Irish context. Indeed, although the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> has previously been used as an assessment instrument to make inferences about individual teachers' levels of interpersonal skills (e.g. Grigorenko, Sternberg, and Strauss [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref56">12</reflink>]), it should be appreciated that in order to do so, a series of judgements first needs to be made regarding the 'correctness' of the various response options, and these judgements have been shown to vary across different cultures (Stemler et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref57">28</reflink>]). In other words, before embarking on the process of attempting to measure teachers' interpersonal skills in a particular cultural context, it is necessary to first identify what the construct might 'look like' in that context – which is precisely what this study set out to achieve.</p> <p>The challenges inherent in defining and understanding the interpersonal dimension of teaching with a view to attempting to measure it are, as mentioned previously, not specific to this particular construct. Rather, they reflect a common theme in the broader literature concerning the assessment of complex skills and procedural types of knowledge. Demand for these types of assessments is growing (Adamson and Darling-Hammond [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref58">1</reflink>]), and the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> can in fact be classified as a 'situational judgement test' (SJT) – an assessment format regarded by many as a potentially effective means of gathering information about non-cognitive constructs (McDaniel and Nguyen [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref59">19</reflink>]). Aside from interpersonal skills, other areas commonly targeted by SJTs include leadership, personality composites and teamwork skills (Christian, Edwards, and Bradley [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref60">4</reflink>]), and the issue of how to identify what constitutes a 'correct' vs. an 'incorrect' response to items attempting to measure such constructs has been subject to debate in the SJT literature (Bergman et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref61">2</reflink>]). Consensus-based judgement is regarded as an acceptable technique and consequently is frequently used, however, an additional complication is that once correct/incorrect responses have been identified, there are subsequent decisions to be made regarding how precisely to use this information to assign scores to individual responses. Indeed, previous studies using the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> as an assessment instrument have implemented various different scoring methods (e.g. Grigorenko, Sternberg, and Strauss [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref62">12</reflink>]<emph>vs</emph> Elliott et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref63">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>A detailed discussion of the issues that need to be taken into account when attempting to develop a scoring approach for an SJT is beyond the scope of this paper. However, it is suggested that future research could compare various approaches to scoring the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> using data collected in this study as a reference point. Should a suitable scoring system be identified, the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> could potentially be used in Ireland to provide a measure of individual teachers' (or prospective teachers') interpersonal skills, for example, before and after engaging in CPD, or before and after school placement as part of initial teacher education. In addition, the findings of such research may provide insights relevant to the assessment of complex, non-cognitive skills and '21st century' competencies more generally.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-22">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>The authors gratefully acknowledge Prof. Steven Stemler (Wesleyan University), for granting them permission to adapt and use the <emph>TKI-HS</emph> for this research, and for providing sound advice on some methodological aspects of the study. Thanks are also due to Prof. Michael O'Leary, Director of CARPE, for his helpful comments on drafts of the manuscript. The work of CARPE is financially supported by <emph>Prometric</emph>, a test development, delivery and data management company headquartered in Baltimore, MD. The content of this paper has not been influenced in any way by Prometric, and is solely the responsibility of the authors.</p> <p>Notes on contributors</p> <p> <emph> <bold>Darina Scully</bold> </emph> is a post-doctoral researcher in the Centre for Assessment Research, Policy and Practice in Education, DCU. Darina holds a Ph.D. in psychology from Trinity College, Dublin. Her research is focused on educational and workplace assessment, in particular the assessment of complex, 'hard-to-measure' skills and competencies.</p> <p> <emph> <bold>Vasiliki Pitsia</bold> </emph> is a Ph.D. candidate in the Centre for Assessment Research, Policy and Practice in Education, DCU. She holds an M.Sc. in Quantitative Methods and Statistical Analysis in Education. Her broader research interests include research methods, educational assessment, statistical analysis and large-scale studies.</p> <p> <emph> <bold>Anastasios Karakolidis</bold> </emph> is a Ph.D. candidate in the Centre for Assessment Research, Policy and Practice in Education, DCU. He holds a MSc in Quantitative Methods and Statistical Analysis in Education. His research focuses on the use of new technologies in assessment and testing.</p> <hd id="AN0145732586-23">Appendix</hd> <p>Graph: Figure A1. Scenario 1 (adapted from the TKI-HS, Stemler et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref64">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>Graph: Figure A2. Scenario 5 (adapted from the TKI-HS, Stemler et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref65">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>Graph: Figure A3. Scenario 10 (adapted from the TKI-HS, Stemler et al. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Exploring the Interpersonal Dimension of Teaching in an Irish Post-Primary Context
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Scully%2C+Darina%22">Scully, Darina</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6076-717X">0000-0002-6076-717X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Pitsia%2C+Vasiliki%22">Pitsia, Vasiliki</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8172-0397">0000-0002-8172-0397</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Karakolidis%2C+Anastasios%22">Karakolidis, Anastasios</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7460-7759">0000-0002-7460-7759</externalLink>)
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  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Irish+Educational+Studies%22"><i>Irish Educational Studies</i></searchLink>. 2020 39(3):355-374.
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  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 20
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2020
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+School+Teachers%22">Secondary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Methods%22">Teaching Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preferences%22">Preferences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Job+Satisfaction%22">Job Satisfaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Work+Environment%22">Work Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Relationship%22">Interpersonal Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Influences%22">Social Influences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Competence%22">Interpersonal Competence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Education+Programs%22">Teacher Education Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preservice+Teacher+Education%22">Preservice Teacher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Problem+Solving%22">Problem Solving</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ireland%22">Ireland</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/03323315.2019.1697947
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0332-3315
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Effective teaching encompasses both a pedagogical and an interpersonal dimension. Despite this, the latter typically receives little attention in initial teacher education and professional development programmes because of its tacit, non-conscious, and context-specific nature. In this study, the interpersonal dimension of teaching was conceptualized in terms of an explicit set of problem-solving strategies. "Using the Tacit Knowledge Inventory for High School Teachers" ("TKI-HS"), the perceived effectiveness of these strategies amongst a sample of Irish post-primary teachers (n = 69) was explored, and the extent to which this varied across certain individual and contextual factors was also investigated. The findings suggest that, when faced with challenging social situations in the course of their professions, Irish post-primary teachers demonstrate preferences for strategies involving either rational discussions with the source of the problem, or appealing to a colleague for advice. These preferences were independent of the teachers' gender, education level, degree of job satisfaction, and the climate of the school in which they worked. Some implications for teacher education programmes are outlined. Potential future directions, including links to broader issues concerning the assessment of non-cognitive skills and competencies more generally, are also discussed.
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  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2020
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1268813
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/03323315.2019.1697947
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 20
        StartPage: 355
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Secondary School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preferences
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      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
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      – SubjectFull: Job Satisfaction
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      – SubjectFull: Work Environment
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      – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Relationship
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      – SubjectFull: Social Influences
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      – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Competence
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      – SubjectFull: Teacher Education Programs
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      – SubjectFull: Preservice Teacher Education
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      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
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      – SubjectFull: Ireland
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    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Exploring the Interpersonal Dimension of Teaching in an Irish Post-Primary Context
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