A Comparison of the Physiological Responses in Professional and Amateur Sports Car Racing Drivers
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| Title: | A Comparison of the Physiological Responses in Professional and Amateur Sports Car Racing Drivers |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Barthel, S. C. (ORCID |
| Source: | Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 2020 91(4):562-573. |
| Availability: | Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 12 |
| Publication Date: | 2020 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Research |
| Descriptors: | Physiology, Responses, Motor Vehicles, Physical Fitness, Tests, Metabolism, Biochemistry, Athletes, Fatigue (Biology), Stress Variables |
| DOI: | 10.1080/02701367.2019.1690120 |
| ISSN: | 0270-1367 |
| Abstract: | Purpose: Automobile racing is physically challenging, but there is no information related to experience level and physiological responses to racing. The aim of this study was to compare physiological responses of professional (PRO) and amateur (AM) sportscar drivers. Methods: Four male racing drivers (PRO n = 2, AM n = 2), completed a physical fitness assessment and had heart rate (HR), breathing rate 10 (BR), skin temperature (T[subscript sk]), core temperature (T[subscript core]), physiological strain index (PSI) and blood glucose (BG) measured continuously during six races. Rate of perceived exertion (RPE), blood lactate, and fluid loss were measured post-race. Results: AM had higher HR compared to PRO during driver changes (AM: 177 ± 12 beats·min[superscript -1], PRO: 141 ± 16 beats·min[superscript -1], p < 0.0001), pit stops (AM: 139 ± 14 beats·min[superscript -1], PRO: 122 ± 1 beats·min[superscript -1], p = 0.0381) and cautions (AM: 144 ± 13 beats·min[superscript -1], PRO: 15 123 ± 11 beats·min[superscript -1], p = 0.0059). During pit stops, PRO (26 ± 6 respirations·min[superscript -1]) displayed a significantly greater BR than AM (AM: 18 ± 7 respirations·min[superscript -1], p = 0.0004). T[subscript core] was greater for PRO (38.4 ± 0.4°C) drivers while in the car during pit stops than AM (36.1 ± 2.5°C, p < 0.0001). AM displayed elevated PSI during cautions (AM: 5.5 ± 1.8, PRO: 3.2 ± 1.3, p < 0.0001) and pit stops (AM: 5.6 ± 1.4, PRO: 2.8 ± 1.1, p < 0.0001). BG was increased for AM versus PRO during pit stops (AM: 20 132.9 ± 20.2 mg·dl[superscript -1], PRO: 106.5 ± 3.5 mg·dl[superscript -1], p = 0.0015) and during racing (AM: 150.9 ± 34.6 mg·dl[superscript -1], PRO: 124.9 ± 16.0 mg·dl[superscript -1], p = 0.0018). AM (3.3 ± 1.7 mmol·dl[superscript -1]) had a higher blood lactate than PRO (1.7 ± 2.6 mmol·dl[superscript -1], p = 0.0491) from pre to post-race. AM (1.90 ± 0.54 kg) lost more fluids over the race than PRO (1.36 ± 0.67 kg, p = 0.0271). Conclusions: Amateur drivers could fatigue faster in the car which results in a decreased driving performance. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Entry Date: | 2020 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1275526 |
| Database: | ERIC |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwGSVhEBLqdApYTfBBUSt5gjAAAA4jCB3wYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHRMIHOAgEAMIHIBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDBLTVr9O0kwXvjepSAIBEICBmi-U0oCfBtAWCHNEjgz1qGd9lPuGVTZ1IE1XNea5JYlUyihaYJWzw9OT8ssBl2lGuvvY1wtRpRhDwpt9nVDG7vEGVJTszK60-adM8wF6_Rv4fy_QrAweCmoTiX4g9Slzb4KlcFy8fsPO0X-YTig09vcSjq1OE3dow19HymNyDuG7JiwUN-OxzqOCRy7J9mI8rc7lAVcPvueg9qU= Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0146972016;rqe01dec.20;2020Nov16.03:37;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0146972016-1">A Comparison of the Physiological Responses in Professional and Amateur Sports Car Racing Drivers </title> <p>Purpose:Automobile racing is physically challenging, but there is no information related to experience level and physiological responses to racing. The aim of this study was to compare physiological responses of professional (PRO) and amateur (AM) sportscar drivers. Methods:Four male racing drivers (PRO n = 2, AM n = 2), completed a physical fitness assessment and had heart rate (HR), breathing rate 10 (BR), skin temperature (T&lt;sub&gt;sk&lt;/sub&gt;), core temperature (T&lt;sub&gt;core&lt;/sub&gt;), physiological strain index (PSI) and blood glucose (BG) measured continuously during six races. Rate of perceived exertion (RPE), blood lactate, and fluid loss were measured post-race. Results:AM had higher HR compared to PRO during driver changes (AM: 177 ± 12 beats·min&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, PRO: 141 ± 16 beats·min&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, p &lt;.0001), pit stops (AM: 139 ± 14 beats·min&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, PRO: 122 ± 1 beats·min&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, p =.0381) and cautions (AM: 144 ± 13 beats·min&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, PRO: 15 123 ± 11 beats·min&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, p =.0059). During pit stops, PRO (26 ± 6 respirations·min&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;) displayed a significantly greater BR than AM (AM: 18 ± 7 respirations·min&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, p =.0004). T&lt;sub&gt;core&lt;/sub&gt; was greater for PRO (38.4 ± 0.4°C) drivers while in the car during pit stops than AM (36.1 ± 2.5°C, p &lt;.0001). AM displayed elevated PSI during cautions (AM: 5.5 ± 1.8, PRO: 3.2 ± 1.3, p &lt;.0001) and pit stops (AM: 5.6 ± 1.4, PRO: 2.8 ± 1.1, p &lt;.0001). BG was increased for AM versus PRO during pit stops (AM: 20 132.9 ± 20.2 mg·dl&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, PRO: 106.5 ± 3.5 mg·dl&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, p =.0015) and during racing (AM: 150.9 ± 34.6 mg·dl&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, PRO: 124.9 ± 16.0 mg·dl&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, p =.0018). AM (3.3 ± 1.7 mmol·dl&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;) had a higher blood lactate than PRO (1.7 ± 2.6 mmol·dl&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, p =.0491) from pre to post-race. AM (1.90 ± 0.54 kg) lost more fluids over the race than PRO (1.36 ± 0.67 kg, p =.0271). Conclusions:Amateur drivers could fatigue faster in the car which results in a decreased driving performance.</p> <p>Keywords: Tolerance; sport; physical fitness; nonelite</p> <p>Automobile racing is one of the largest spectator sports in the world, with an equal viewing audience to Football (American Soccer) (Potkanowicz &amp; Mendel, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref1">27</reflink>]). Yet, there are less than 30 total peer reviewed publications related to sports science, human performance, and exercise physiology on auto racing compared to nearly 400 publications on football (American Soccer)(Ferguson, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref2">15</reflink>]). The physiological demands on a racing driver stem from the physical work required to drive the race car coupled with being exposed to stressors such as vibration from the car, gravitational loading and thermal strain (Brearley &amp; Finn, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref3">6</reflink>]; Carlson, Ferguson, &amp; Kenefick, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref4">8</reflink>]; Ferguson, Barthel, Pruett, Buckingham, &amp; Waaso, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref5">16</reflink>]; Ferguson &amp; Myers, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref6">17</reflink>]) which requires drivers to have high aerobic fitness and skeletal muscle glycolytic capacity to pilot the race car (Ferguson &amp; Myers, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref7">17</reflink>]; McKnight, Bennett, Malvern, &amp; Ferguson, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref8">23</reflink>]; Potkanowicz, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref9">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>Racing drivers must pilot a car, sometimes without power steering or brakes depending on the rules of the racing series, as quickly as possible around a racing circuit while gravitational (G) loads are experienced during braking/acceleration (longitudinal loading), cornering (lateral loading), and on oval tracks vertical G loading is experienced. These G loads require the driver to elicit significant skeletal muscle isometric contractions to hold their body in position in the racing seat. If a driver suffers muscle fatigue due to G loading, the driver will "slump" to one side of the seat for support which could hinder their vision leading to a decrease in on-track performance (Ebben &amp; Suchomel, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref10">13</reflink>]; McKnight et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref11">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>Adding to the physical stress induced by G loading is thermal strain induced by wearing the required fire protective suits, socks, shoes, gloves, and a helmet. The safety equipment protects the drivers during a fire but also prevents drivers from effectively cooling themselves via sweating (Brearley &amp; Finn, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref12">6</reflink>]; Carlson, Ferguson, &amp; Kenefick, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref13">8</reflink>]). During a race the cockpit temperature is influenced by the ambient temperature but more importantly, temperatures from the drive train (engine, transmission, differential) can raise the cockpit temperature to 51°C (Reid &amp; Lightfoot, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref14">28</reflink>]). As drivers routinely compete up to 4 hr in these conditions, it is not uncommon for the thermal strain to result in 3.5 kg of sweat loss (Potkanowicz, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref15">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>The stresses placed on racing drivers can lead to fatigue which could result in injury of the driver, competitors, or spectators. In traditional stick and ball sports, professional athletes adapt to handling sport-related stressors (Ferguson, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref16">15</reflink>]), but in racing professionals and armatures often compete together, potentially resulting in different fatigue profiles of drivers. To lay the foundation for evidence-based training guidelines it is necessary to evaluate drivers (professional and amateur) that pilot nearly identical cars over a racing season (which to date has not been done). The premier sports car racing league in the United States is the International Motor Sports Association (IMSA). IMSA has multiple competition classes which are based on the differing performance levels of competing cars. The Continental Tire Sports Car Challenge series (CTSC) is a sports car racing league, under the IMSA umbrella, racing GT4 Cars (e.g., Porsche Cayman GT4 Clubsport, Mustang GT4, and McLaren 570s GT4) that average 450 horsepower and can reach speeds up to 175 mph. Race competition takes place on road courses and lasts an average of 2 hr in length. The CTSC was selected for this investigation because it provided the unique opportunity for both professional and amateur drivers to race identical cars (Porsche Cayman GT4) in the same race, thereby providing a controlled environment to evaluate the physiological responses to racing from drivers of different experience levels.</p> <p>Therefore, we present the first investigation to quantify the varying physiological responses between professional and amateur racing drivers to better inform strength coaches, personal trainers, exercise physiologists, team physicians, athletic trainers and other members of the allied health-care team to improve conditioning, overall health, and wellbeing of racing drivers.</p> <hd id="AN0146972016-2">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0146972016-3">Experimental approach to the problem</hd> <p>We hypothesize that professional drivers (PRO) will have faster lap times due to having better physical fitness than amateur drivers (AM), and PRO drivers are more able to cope with the thermoregulatory and emotional stress of competitive racing. To quantify physical fitness parameters, we measured body composition, aerobic capacity, and skeletal muscle power output/fatigue resistance.</p> <p>In order to determine physiological responses to racing, we measured heart rate HR, breath rate, skin temperature, core temperature, blood glucose, blood lactate and fluid loss at six races. Furthermore, we evaluated if different time points of the race elicited different physiological responses between PRO and AM.</p> <hd id="AN0146972016-4">Subjects</hd> <p>This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board. Before the start of testing, the protocols were explained, and the participants provided an up-to-date health history and informed consent. All procedures performed were in accordance with the ethical standards established by the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. Study participants were four male sports car drivers, two PRO and two AM. Participants provided consent for their race team to be acknowledged in the paper which could potentially lead to their identification. All participants were members of the same racing team and drove identical Porsche Cayman GT4 Clubsport racing cars in the IMSA Continental Tire Sportscar Challenge. Car number 1 was driven by PRO driver 1 and AM driver 1 while Car number 2 was driven by PRO driver 2 and AM driver 2. Both PRO drivers were in their fifth year of competition in the CTSC while both AM drivers were in their first year.</p> <hd id="AN0146972016-5">Procedures</hd> <p>Before any racing data collection occurred, all participants underwent fitness tests at the Performance Lab to obtain individual fitness profiles. A detailed physical training history was not collected but all participants engaged in aerobic and resistance training several days per week and did not present with any injuries. Body density was measured via BodPod (Body Composition System; Life Measurement Instruments, Concord, CA). After the pre-testing calibration was completed and the subject put on the relevant clothing scheme consisting of swim cap (worn to minimize air trapped within the hair) and spandex shorts. The subject entered the BodPod for two trials of approximately 45 s and using the provided software and Siri equation, body fat percentage, and lean mass were calculated (Vescovi et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref17">32</reflink>]).</p> <p>A maximal aerobic capacity (VO<subs>2peak</subs>) test was performed according to testing criteria established by the American College of Sports Medicine (Kohl, Gibbons, Gordon, &amp; Blair, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref18">21</reflink>]) using a metabolic cart (Parvomedics, Sandy, Utah), calibrated against gases of known concentrations. A validated discontinuous protocol was utilized (Peyer, Pivarnik, Eisenmann, &amp; Vorkapich, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref19">25</reflink>]) whereby the protocol consisted of three-minute exercise stages followed by 1.5-min recovery stages on a treadmill. The exercise stages were as follows: Stage 1–160.9 m·minute-1 at 0% grade; Stage 2–160.9 m·minute-1 at 5% grade; Stage 3–187.7 m·minute-1 at 6% grade; Stage 4–214.5 m·minute-1 at 7% grade; Stage 5–241.4 m·minute-1 at 8% grade; Stage 6–268.2 m·minute-1 at 9% grade. Minute values for oxygen consumption were calculated by averaging breath by breath data over a 15-s period. Peak oxygen consumption was defined as the highest 15-s average recorded. Continuous heart rate was monitored by EKG during exercise and recovery stages. Blood pressure was measured during the recovery stages as well as 1 min and 5 min post completion of the test. The exercise test was terminated based on the following previously established criteria (Kohl et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref20">21</reflink>]): (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref21">1</reflink>) volitional exhaustion (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref22">2</reflink>) VO<subs>2</subs> plateaued, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref23">3</reflink>) systolic blood pressure dropped by 10 mmHg, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref24">4</reflink>) cardiac arrhythmias were present, or (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref25">5</reflink>) there was occurrence of dizziness/fatigue.</p> <p>Muscular fatigue resistance and power output were assessed through a standard Wingate power test using a cycle ergometer with a mechanically loaded flywheel (Velotron, Seattle, WA). The participant was fitted to the cycle, so that the pedals and seat were in proper positions (Bar-Or, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref26">4</reflink>]), and then warmed up by pedaling at a light resistance for 1 min. The ergometer flywheel was loaded with a resistance of 7.5% of the subject's body weight and the participant was instructed to pedal to their maximum revolutions per minute (rpm) and maintain an rpm above 80 for the 30-s test period. Maximum and minimum power were measured and rate of fatigue [(maximum power-minimum power) ·30 s<sups>−1</sups>] and glycolytic capacity [mean power (W) · body mass −1 (kg)] was calculated to provide a relative power variable accounting for the different masses of each participant and to provide a measure of fatigue resistance.</p> <p>Physiological responses to racing were conducted during the last seven races of the 2017 IMSA CTSC race season, which included Watkins Glen, NY, USA, Bowmanville, ON, Canada, Lime Rock Park CT, USA, Elkhart Lake, WI, USA, Alton, VA, USA, Monterey, CA, USA and Braselton, GA. Physiological responses to driving were recorded during races using a lightweight ambulatory monitoring system (Equivital EQ02, Hidalgo Ltd., UK). The Equivital LifeMonitor system recorded heart rate (HR; beats·min<sups>−1</sups>), breath rate (BR; respirations ·min<sups>−1</sups>), skin temperature (T<subs>sk</subs>;°C), and core temperature (T<subs>core</subs>;°C), obtained from an ingestible pill sensor (VitalSense, Mini Mitter, Philips Respironics, The Netherlands) at 15-s intervals. Pill sensors were ingested 3 hr before the start of the race according to established guidelines to ensure good reliability and validity of measurement (Byrne &amp; Lim, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref27">7</reflink>]).</p> <p>Participants wore the Equivital Life Monitor under their racing gear. All variables were recorded without interference from any race car electrical or communication systems. A percentage of the driver's maximum heart rate was calculated from the driver's peak heart rate obtained during the VO<subs>2peak</subs> test (detailed earlier in this section). Physiological Strain Index (PSI) was determined based on T<subs>core</subs> (adjusted for core pill as opposed to rectal temperature) and HR to evaluate heat stress using the following calculation (Moran, Shitzer, &amp; Pandolf, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref28">24</reflink>]):</p> <p>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref29">1</reflink>)</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"&gt;&lt;mtable columnalign="right left" rowspacing=".5em" columnspacing="thickmathspace"&gt;&lt;mtr&gt;&lt;mtd /&gt;&lt;mtd&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;P&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;S&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;I&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mo&gt;=&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mn&gt;5&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mfenced open="(" close=")"&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msub&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;T&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;c&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;o&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;r&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;e&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;t&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/msub&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mo&gt;&amp;#8722;&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mspace width="thickmathspace" /&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msub&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;T&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;c&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;o&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;r&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;e&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mn&gt;0&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/msub&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mfenced&gt;&lt;mo&gt;&amp;#8901;&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msup&gt;&lt;mfenced open="(" close=")"&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;39&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mo&gt;.&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;5&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mo&gt;&amp;#8722;&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mspace width="thickmathspace" /&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msub&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;T&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;c&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;o&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;r&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;e&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mn&gt;0&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/msub&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mfenced&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mo&gt;&amp;#8722;&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;1&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/msup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mtd&gt;&lt;/mtr&gt;&lt;mtr&gt;&lt;mtd /&gt;&lt;mtd&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mtext /&gt;&lt;mtext /&gt;&lt;mtext /&gt;&lt;mtext /&gt;&lt;mtext /&gt;&lt;mtext /&gt;&lt;mtext /&gt;&lt;mtext /&gt;&lt;mo&gt;+&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mn&gt;5&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mfenced open="(" close=")"&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;H&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msub&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;R&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mi&gt;t&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/msub&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mo&gt;&amp;#8722;&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;H&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msub&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;R&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;0&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/msub&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mfenced&gt;&lt;mo&gt;&amp;#8901;&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msup&gt;&lt;mfenced open="(" close=")"&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;180&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mo&gt;&amp;#8722;&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;H&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msub&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi mathvariant="normal"&gt;R&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;0&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/msub&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mfenced&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mo&gt;&amp;#8722;&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;1&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/msup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mtd&gt;&lt;/mtr&gt;&lt;/mtable&gt;&lt;/math&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>In equation [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref30">1</reflink>], T<subs>core<emph>t</emph></subs> and HR<emph><subs>t</subs></emph> are simultaneous measurements taken at any time during the data collection period and T<subs>core0</subs> and HR<subs>0</subs> are the initial measurements taken once the racing attire was put on but before pre-race measurement condition (Moran et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref31">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>Blood glucose was monitored continuously to document the metabolic responses to racing using the Freestyle Libre Pro Glucose Monitor (Abbott Laboratories, Lake Bluff, IL, USA) which was placed on the driver's left triceps, measuring blood glucose subcutaneously and recorded data every 15 min.</p> <p>All data collected over the race weekend were classified into one of the ten categories based on the events of the race to represent physiological responses to different racing conditions. The 10 defined driver conditions were; 1: Pre-race, all events occurring before the start of the race but with driver in fire protective clothing; 2: Green flag out of car, racing is occurring with the co-driver piloting the car. The participant being measured is in fire protective clothing but not racing. 3: Yellow flag out of car, caution racing conditions with the driver being measured not driving the race car, 4: Pit stop out of car, the participant being measured is not piloting the car but the co-driver is completing a pit stop, 5: Driver change, the AM and PRO drivers are changing who is piloting the car while in a pit stop, 6: Pit stop in car, the driver being monitored is in the race car completing a pit stop, 7: Yellow flag in car, caution racing conditions while the participant being measured is driving the race car, 8: Green flag in car, clear racing conditions while the participant being measured is driving the race car, 9: Post-race in car, after the finish of the race while the participant being measured is still driving the race car, 10: Post-race out of car, after the finish of the race and the participant being measured is out of the race car.</p> <p>Immediately after completion of a driving stint, drivers were asked their rating of perceived exertion (RPE) utilizing the Borg scale of 6 to 20, with 6 being very, very light exertion and 20 being very, very hard exertion (Borg, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref32">5</reflink>]). Participants were specifically asked to rate how they felt during the proceeding driving stint. Blood lactate was measured both before and after driving via a finger prick method (Feliu et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref33">14</reflink>]) using a Lactate Plus Meter (Nova Biomedical, Waltham, MA, USA).</p> <p>Fluid loss for each participant was assessed by measuring nude body mass (Tanita, Arlington Heights, IL, USA) pre and post-race. Drivers consumed food and fluid ad libitum, therefore, all final fluid loss calculations were corrected for food and fluid intake as well as fecal or urine losses for the period between pre and post measurements. For in car fluid consumption measurement each driver had their own drink bottle and the contents where measured pre- and post-race to determine amount of fluid consumed.</p> <p>IMSA released official lap times along with ambient temperatures for every race. These official times were used to calculate the average difference in lap times between the PRO and AM drivers. Calculations were done using "clean" laps only, defined as laps not involving a race caution or pit stop. A positive mean lap time difference value indicates that the PRO had a faster lap time and a negative value means the AM had a faster lap time.</p> <hd id="AN0146972016-6">Statistical analyses</hd> <p>Previous racing literature commonly has a low sample size, with the highest sample size to date being n = 7 (Carlson, Ferguson, &amp; Kenefick, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref34">8</reflink>]; Jacobs, Olvey, Johnson, &amp; Cohn, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref35">19</reflink>]; Potkanowicz &amp; Mendel, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref36">27</reflink>]). Participants in the current study drove identical cars in races of identical length, wore identical race suits/safety equipment. Furthermore, there were no physiological responses differences (<emph>p</emph> =.93) due to the race venue (i.e., the race at Lime Rock Park CT, USA, did not elicit any different physiological responses as compared to Elkhart Lake, WI, USA or any other venue). Therefore, the physiological responses for each lap were coded to a specific driving condition, as stated above in the methods, and we pooled all race venue data based on the data pooling methods of Leger et al. (Leger &amp; Didrichsons, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref37">22</reflink>]), which has been previously used in understudied populations to elicit evidence-based recommendations (Collings et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref38">10</reflink>]). Following which an ANOVA was run to compare the main effects of Condition (Pre-Race vs Green Out of Car vs Yellow Out of Car vs Pit Out of Car vs Driver Change vs Pit in Car vs Yellow in Car vs Green in Car vs Post-Race in Car vs Post-Race Out of Car) and Driver (PRO vs AM) for all races with an alpha level of 0.05 set <emph>a priori</emph> and if significant a Tukey's HSD post hoc test was run. Pre- and post-driving measurements of blood lactate, RPE, and fluid loss were compared using an unpaired Welch's t-test with an Alpha level set <emph>a priori</emph> of 0.05. All statistical analyses were performed in JMP v12.0 (SAS, Cary, NC). All values are presented as means (range of minimum to maximum value) for giving racing conditions.</p> <hd id="AN0146972016-7">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0146972016-8">Fitness profile</hd> <p>The participants' fitness profiles are displayed in Table 1. PRO drivers were older (41 and 42 years old) than the AM drivers (25 and 35 years old). Drivers' weights and heights were similar between co-drivers for Car #1 (PRO #1 weighed 80.1 kg and was 179.0 cm tall; AM #1 was 84.8 kg and 183.0 cm tall) and Car #2 (PRO #2 weighed 78.1 kg and was 172.4 cm tall; AM #2 weighed 77.8 kg and was 173.9 cm tall). Body fat percentages ranged from 22.6% to 27.1% for all participants with AMs having a higher percent body fat. Absolute and relative body surface area measurements were similar in both AM drivers (AM #1 2.08 m<sups>2</sups> and 0.0245 m<sups>2</sups>·kg<sups>−1</sups> and AM #2 1.94 m<sups>2</sups> and 0.0249 m<sups>2</sups>·kg<sups>−1</sups>) and PRO drivers (PRO #1 2.00 m<sups>2</sups> and 0.0250 m<sups>2</sups>·kg<sups>−1</sups> and PRO #2 1.93 m<sups>2</sups> and 0.0247 m<sups>2</sups>·kg<sups>−1</sups>). Relative VO<subs>2max</subs> ranged from 44.9 ml·kg·<sups>−1</sups>min<sups>−1</sups> to 47.7 ml·kg·<sups>−1</sups> ·min<sups>−1</sups>. There was variation in peak HR observed, ranging from 175 beats·min<sups>−1</sups> to 207 beats·min<sups>−1</sups> in the final stage of the maximal treadmill test with no influence of age or driving status observed (Table 1).</p> <p>Table 1. Participant fitness profile</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO #1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO #2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM #1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM #2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Age (Years)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;41&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;42&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;35&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;25&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Height (cm)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;179.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;172.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;183.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;173.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Weight (kg)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;80.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;78.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;84.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;77.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Body surface area (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.00&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.93&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.08&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.94&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Body surface area/mass (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#183;kg&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#8722;1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.0250&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.0247&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.0245&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.0249&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Body Fat (%)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;22.6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;24.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;27.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;25.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Lean Mass (kg)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;58.6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;62.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;61.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;57.6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Relative VO2 Max (ml&amp;#183;kg&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#8722;1&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#183;min&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#8722;1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;46.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;47.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;44.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;46.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Peak Heart Rate (beats&amp;#183;min&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#8722;1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;175&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;193&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;207&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;193&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Peak Power (W)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;895&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;952&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;721&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;735&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Minimum Power (W)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;354&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;401&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;339&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;271&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mean Power (W)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;581&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;623&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;500&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;422&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Rate of Fatigue (W&amp;#183;s&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#8722;1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17.5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;18.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;13.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Glycolytic Capacity (W&amp;#183;kg&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#8722;1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7.3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Wingate test results showed an average peak power output of 924 W in the PRO group compared to an average of 728 W in the AM group. Minimum power of the PRO group averaged 377.5 W and mean power output averaged 602 W while the AM group had an average minimum power output of 305 W and mean power output of 461 W. These results led to the PRO group having an average rate of fatigue of 18.1 W·s<sups>−1</sups> while the AM group displayed an average rate of fatigue of 15.4 W·s<sups>−1</sups>. When observing glycolytic capacity, the PRO group had an average of 7.54 W·kg<sups>−1</sups> as compared the AM group which had an average glycolytic capacity of 5.65 W·kg<sups>−1</sups> (Table 1).</p> <hd id="AN0146972016-9">Physiological responses to racing</hd> <p>Representative physiological responses (HR, BR, T<subs>sk</subs>, T<subs>core</subs>, and BG) to a racing event are displayed in Figure 1, where the AM driver (Panel A) raced first followed by the PRO driver (Panel B). PSI is also represented in Figure 1 (Panel C). The varying race venues did not elicit differing physiological responses (<emph>p</emph> =.93).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Representative physiological profile for amateur (Panel A) and professional drivers (Panel B) in the same car at the same track and same race over the 3-hr measurement period. The professional driver entered the car after the amateur driver. Race conditions are labeled across the top. Y = yellow flag, G = green flag. PSI is represented over a single driving stint for each groups (Panel C)</p> <p>When comparing PRO and AM drivers' heart rate responses (Table 2) during a racing season, the conditions that elicited a statistically significant difference were; Driver Changes (AM: 177 ± 12 beats·min<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 141 ± 16 beats·min<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> &lt;.0001), Pit in Car (AM: 140 ± 14 beats·min<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 122 ± 11 beats·min<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.0381) and Yellow in Car (AM: 145 ± 13 beats·min<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 124 ± 12 beats·min<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.0059). While not statistically significant, there were trends toward significance in; Green in Car (AM: 165 ± 15 beats·min<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 149 ± 13 beats·min<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.0794) and Post-Race Out of Car (AM: 109 ± 13 beats·min<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 125 ± 18 beats·min<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.1023).</p> <p>Table 2. Heart rate responses to differing race conditions during sports car racing</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Condition&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Driver&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mean&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;SD&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;N&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;p value&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pre-Race&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;95&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#62;.9999&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;96&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Green Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;107&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.8352&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;99&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yellow Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;123&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;24&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.1636&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;109&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pit Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;121&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;28&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.3076&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;108&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Driver Change&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;177&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;12&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&amp;#60;.0001*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;141&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pit in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;140&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0381*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;122&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yellow in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;145&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;13&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0059*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;124&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Green in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;165&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.0794&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;149&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;13&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post-Race in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;111&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post-Race Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;109&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;13&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.1023&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;125&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;18&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>For breathing rate responses during competition, there was a significant difference between groups for the Pit in Car condition (AM: 18 ± 7 respirations·min<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 26 ± 6 respirations·min<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.0004) with no other significant differences based on condition. When comparing PRO and AM skin temperature responses, the only significant condition was Post-Race out of Car (AM: 36.4 ± 1.1°C, PRO: 37.6 ± 1.0°C, <emph>p</emph> =.0370).</p> <p>Furthermore, when comparing core temperature responses (Table 3), the only significant difference occurred during Pit in Car (AM: 36.1 ± 2.5°C, PRO: 38.4 ± 0.3°C, <emph>p</emph> &lt;.0001). Drivers' percentage of max HR (Table 4) were significantly different during; Driver Change (AM: 90% ± 8%, PRO: 78% ± 9%, <emph>p</emph> =.0056) and Post-Race Out of Car (AM: 55% ± 7%, PRO: 68% ± 10%, <emph>p</emph> =.0023).</p> <p>Table 3. Core temperature responses to differing race conditions during sports car racing</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Condition&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Driver&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mean (C&amp;#176;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;SD&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;N&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;p value&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pre-Race&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;36.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.8612&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;37.5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Green Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;36.3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.2069&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;37.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yellow Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;37.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.9999&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;37.5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pit Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;38.3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.9087&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;37.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Driver Change&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;38.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.9996&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;38.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pit in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;36.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&amp;#60;.0001*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;PRO&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;38.4&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;0.3&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yellow in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;38.2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#62;.9999&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;38.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Green in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;37.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.9969&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;38.2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post-Race in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;38.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post-Race Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;37.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#62;.9999&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;37.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 4. Percent of maximum heart rate response to differing race conditions during sports car racing</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Condition&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Driver&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mean&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;SD&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;N&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;p value&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pre-Race&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;48%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.7741&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;53%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Green Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;54%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#62;.9999&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;55%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;9%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yellow Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;62%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#62;.9999&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;60%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;9%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pit Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;62%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#62;.9999&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;61%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Driver Change&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;90%&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;8%&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0056*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;78%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;9%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pit in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;71%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.9707&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;68%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yellow in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;73%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.5226&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;68%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Green in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;84%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.9998&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;82%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post-Race in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;62%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post-Race Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;55%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0023*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;PRO&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;68%&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;10%&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>This manifested as significant differences in physiological strain index (Table 5) during; Yellow Out of Car (AM: 5.5 ± 1.8, PRO: 3.2 ± 1.3, <emph>p</emph> &lt;.0001), Pit Out of Car (AM: 5.6 ± 1.4, PRO: 2.8 ± 1.1, <emph>p</emph> &lt;.0001), Driver Change (AM: 8.4 ± 1.2, PRO: 4.9 ± 1.3, <emph>p</emph> &lt;.0001), and Yellow in Car (AM: 6.6 ± 1.3, PRO: 4.7 ± 1.1, <emph>p</emph> =.0012). While not statistically significant, there was a trend toward significance in Green in Car (AM: 7.2 ± 1.3, PRO: 5.9 ± 1.0, <emph>p</emph> =.1190).</p> <p>Table 5. Physiological strain index response to differing race conditions during sports car racing</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Condition&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Driver&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mean&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;SD&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;N&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;p value&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pre-Race&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.8589&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Green Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;4.3&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;1.6&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0162*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yellow Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;5.5&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;1.8&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&amp;#60;.0001*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pit Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;5.6&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;1.4&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&amp;#60;.0001*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Driver Change&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;8.4&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;1.2&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&amp;#60;.0001*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pit in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.9643&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yellow in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;6.6&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;1.3&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0012*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Green in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7.2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.1190&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post-Race in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post-Race Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#62;.9999&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Blood glucose responses (Table 6) for PRO and AM drivers were significantly different during; Pit Out of Car (AM: 142.7 ± 8.6 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 113.2 ± 14.8 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.0002), Pit in Car (AM: 132.9 ± 20.2 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 106.5 ± 3.5 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.0015) and Green in Car (AM: 150.9 ± 34.6 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 124.9 ± 16.0 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.0018). There were trends toward significance in; Green out of Car (AM: 132.8 ± 16.4 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 116.8 ± 19.1 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.1625) and Yellow Out of Car (AM: 133.7 ± 17.3 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 115.0 ± 10.3 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.0584). Driver Change could not be compared due to a low number of samples occurring during that condition but yielded one sample for each group (AM: 139.0 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 108.0 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>).</p> <p>Table 6. Blood glucose response to sports car racing</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Condition&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Driver&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mean&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;SD&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;N&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;p value&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pre-Race&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;120&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;22&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.9242&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;112&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Green Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;133&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.1625&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;117&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yellow Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;134&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.0584&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;115&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pit Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;143&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;9&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0002*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;113&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Driver Change&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;139&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;108&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pit in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;133&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;20&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0015*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;107&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yellow in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;127&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;21&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#62;.9999&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;124&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Green in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AM&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;151&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;35&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;bold&gt;14&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0018*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;125&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post-Race in Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;117&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;21&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post-Race Out of Car&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;124&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;22&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#62;.9999&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;122&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 7 indicates the pre- and post-driving measures for RPE, blood lactate and fluid loss. There were no significant differences between PRO and AM in absolute pre-driving blood lactate (PRO: 2.9 ± 1.4 mmol·dl<sups>−1</sups>, AM: 3.7 ± 3.2 mmol·dl<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.8325) or post-driving blood lactate (PRO: 5.1 ± 3.4 mmol·dl<sups>−1</sups>, AM: 5.4 ± 3.0 mmol·dl<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.3507). However, when evaluating change in blood lactate from pre to post driving there was a significant difference between groups (PRO: +1.7 ± 2.6 mmol·dl<sups>−1</sups>, AM +3.3 ± 1.7 mmol·dl<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.0491). There was no difference in post-driving RPE (PRO: 12.9 ± 3.74, AM: 13.0 ± 2.54, <emph>p</emph> =.9132). Kilograms of body mass lost (a measure of fluid loss) between the two groups, indicated there was a significant difference with the AM group losing more net fluid than the PRO group (PRO: 1.36 ± 0.67 kg, AM: 1.90 ± 0.54 kg, <emph>p</emph> =.0271). Similarly, when the same net fluid loss was expressed as a percentage of total body mass the AM group lost a significantly higher percentage of body mass (PRO: 1.72% ± 0.68%, AM: 2.34% ± 0.66%, <emph>p</emph> =.0214). It should be noted that the fluid loss results do include pre and post hydration that occurred while the driver was in their protective uniform. There was no difference in fluids (water) consumed in the car by each group (PRO 0.35 ± 0.37L; AM 0.24 ± 0.35L; <emph>p</emph> =.4478). There was a significant difference in fluids consumed out of the car, as AM (1.26 ± 0.49L) consumed a higher amount of fluids compared to PRO (0.85 ± 0.35L; <emph>p</emph> &lt;.05).</p> <p>Table 7. Pre and post driving measurements</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;Driver&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mean&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;SD&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;N&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;P value&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pre Blood Lactate&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.8325&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(mmol/dl)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post Blood Lactate&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.3507&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(mmol/dl)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5.1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pre to Post Change in Lactate&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;+3.3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0491*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(mmol/dl)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;+1.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;RPE&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;13.0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.54&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.9132&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(6&amp;#8211;20)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.74&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fluid Loss&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.90&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.54&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0271*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;(kg)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.36&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.67&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;% Body Mass Lost&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AM&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.34&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.66&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;.&lt;bold&gt;0214*&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td&gt;PRO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.72&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.68&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0146972016-10">Race performance and ambient temperature measures</hd> <p>The first race occurred at Watkins Glen International Raceway (Watkins Glen, New York, USA) on July 1, 2017, the ambient temperature over the course of the race was 24.0 ± 2.1°C. In Car #1, PRO #1 was 0.996 ± 0.908 seconds (s) faster per lap than the AM driver during the Green in Car condition while the PRO driver in Car #2 was 1.608 ± 1.574s faster per lap than the AM driver.</p> <p>The next race occurred at Canadian Tire Motorsports Park (Bowmanville, Ontario, Canada) on July 8, 2017, with an ambient temperature of 21.7 ± 0.4°C. During Green in Car, AM #1 was 0.036 ± 2.926s faster than the PRO #1 in Car #1 and in Car #2, the PRO #2 was 1.466 ± 1.271s faster than the AM #2.</p> <p>The following race was at Lime Rock Park (Lakeville, Connecticut, USA) on July 22, 2017, with an ambient temperature during the race of 25.9 ± 2.4°C. The PRO driver in Car #1 had faster lap times than the AM driver by 0.450 ± 1.282s and the PRO driver in Car #2 was faster than the AM driver by 1.065 ± 0.346s.</p> <p>The next race occurred at Road America (Elkhart Lake, Wisconsin, USA) on August 5, 2017 with an ambient temperature of 19.6 ± 2.2°C for the duration of the race. PRO drivers were not able to complete any laps during Green in Car due to adverse weather conditions which eventually ended the race early so any completed laps were excluded from lap time analysis. Drivers were still able to complete all conditions during the shortened race and all other variables were included in the analysis.</p> <p>The ensuing race was at Virginia International Raceway (Alton, Virginia, USA) on August 26, 2017, with an average ambient temperature of 28.9 ± 0.9°C. In Car #1, the PRO driver's lap times of 1.067 ± 1.209s were faster than the AM driver and in Car #2, the PRO driver's lap times were 2.067 ± 3.124s faster than the AM driver.</p> <p>The penultimate race took place at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca (Monterey, California, USA) on September 23, 2017, with an ambient temperature of 20.4 ± 1.9°C. Car #1. PRO driver's lap times were 0.988 ± 1.686s faster compared to the AM driver. Car #2 PRO driver's lap times were 1.162 ± 1.996s faster compared to the AM driver.</p> <p>The final race of the season occurred at Road Atlanta (Braselton, Georgia, USA) on October 6, 2017, with an average ambient temperature of 26.8 ± 0.5°C. In Car #1, the PRO driver displayed lap times of 1.224 ± 0.712s faster than the AM driver and in Car #2, the PRO elicited lap times 0.049 ± 1.043s faster than the AM driver.</p> <p>When these results were compiled for the entire season the PRO drivers averaged 1.015 ± 0.599s faster per lap than their AM teammate over the six races evaluated. An example in lap time the difference between AM and PRO, in one race, is shown in Figure 2. The average ambient temperature for all races evaluated were 23.9 ± 3.5°C.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Representative display of lap time variance between PRO and AM drivers (Panel C) over 1 hr of clean drive time</p> <hd id="AN0146972016-11">Discussion</hd> <p>The field of motorsport physiology (also referred to as Driver Science) has a limited number of peer-reviewed publications addressing the physical strain and physical fitness requirements to drive a race car (Potkanowicz &amp; Mendel, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref39">27</reflink>]). To briefly summarize the scant existing literature, it has been shown that racing drivers have an increased core body temperature, heart rate, and oxygen consumption while piloting the race car as compared to resting values (Brearley &amp; Finn, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref40">6</reflink>]; Jacobs et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref41">19</reflink>]; Potkanowicz, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref42">26</reflink>]; Potkanowicz &amp; Mendel, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref43">27</reflink>]; Schwaberger, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref44">29</reflink>]; Turner &amp; Richards, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref45">31</reflink>]). These physiological responses are due to increased metabolic demand to drive the car while being exposed to vibration, G force loads and thermal stresses (Brearley &amp; Finn, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref46">6</reflink>]; Jacobs et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref47">19</reflink>]; Schwaberger, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref48">29</reflink>]). However, many of these studies have evaluated drivers during noncompetitive practice sessions or during a single race event. Additionally, the literature has not accounted for experience level of drivers (Potkanowicz &amp; Mendel, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref49">27</reflink>]). Therefore, it is difficult to interpret if the physiological responses during racing competition differ based on the professional or amateur classification of the driver. Thus, the purpose of this study was to quantify the physiological responses of professional and amateur sports car drivers over the course of a racing season to better inform allied health-care personnel working in motorsports to improve the health, safety, and performance of drivers.</p> <p>As such, professional and amateur racing drivers were evaluated at the final seven races of the 2017 CTSC season, from July to October. Anthropometric and fitness variables were evaluated to document the human performance characteristics of the participants. The physiological data reported suggest that PRO and AM drivers' aerobic capacity (VO<subs>2max</subs>) was higher than 70% of age- and sex-matched members of the U.S. population (American College of Sports, M, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref50">1</reflink>]; Kohl et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref51">21</reflink>]). Strength parameters (peak power, minimum power, mean power, rate of fatigue and glycolytic capacity) obtained from a Wingate test indicated that PRO drivers had similar values to those of elite sprint athletes (Gacesa, Barak, &amp; Grujic, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref52">18</reflink>]) while AM drivers were similar to the average population (American College of Sports, M, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref53">1</reflink>]). Functional strength to pilot a race car manifests as the ability to hold the body in the driving position while resisting vibration and gravitational loading during braking, acceleration, and corning. Fatigue can lead to the driver no longer holding the body in position and typically represents as the body and head "slumping" to one side of the seat which can impair vision and lead to the driver not being able to accurately turn the car resulting in a performance decrease or potential crash (Ferguson &amp; Myers, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref54">17</reflink>]). Thus, prevention of fatigue can be achieved with a metabolic response of an increase in oxygen consumption, cardiac output, and glucose availability to fuel the increased isometric contractions of skeletal muscle during racing, and thus prevent skeletal muscle fatigue (Ferguson &amp; Myers, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref55">17</reflink>]). The AM drivers in this study potentially suffered this fatigue as their lap times had increased primarily in the final 30 min of racing. While this performance determinant can be associated with driving skill, we hypothesize that based on our physiological monitoring, the detriment is primarily related to driver fatigue. Specially, the fact that amateur drivers had a higher PSI and sweat loss during competition.</p> <p>While the literature has not compared professional and amateur drivers, the results of this project support the previous literature regarding the cardiovascular and metabolic response to driving the race car. Both groups displayed similar percent of max HR (Table 4) during the Green in Car condition (AM: 84 ± 7%, PRO: 82 ± 10%) as those presented in previous studies during racing (Baroody &amp; Thomason, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref56">2</reflink>]; Baroody, Thomason, &amp; O'Bryan, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref57">3</reflink>]; Brearley &amp; Finn, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref58">6</reflink>]; Carlson, Ferguson, &amp; Kenefick, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref59">8</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref60">9</reflink>]; Ebben &amp; Suchomel, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref61">13</reflink>]; Jacobs et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref62">19</reflink>]; Jacobs &amp; Stephen, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref63">20</reflink>]; Turner &amp; Richards, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref64">31</reflink>]; Walker, Ackland, &amp; Dawson, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref65">33</reflink>]) where drivers competed at 82 ± 6% of their max heart rate. The blood glucose response during Green in Car condition was higher for AM than PRO (AM: 150.9 ± 34.6 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 124.9 ± 16.0 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> &lt;.0001). The glucose responses in this investigation were higher than Schwarberger's initial findings on blood glucose during racing (112.9 ± 20.0 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>), who concluded the increase in blood glucose occurred due to emotional and physical stress stimulating glycogenolysis (Schwaberger, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref66">29</reflink>]). Our data indicate that potentially the AM had higher stimulation of glycogenolysis. The cardiovascular and metabolic responses to racing enable the driver to physically pilot the car by increasing glucose delivery and availability to the working tissues.</p> <p>The thermal strain on racing drivers stems from the required insulating safety equipment that prevents heat dissipation via sweating (Potkanowicz &amp; Mendel, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref67">27</reflink>]). Once drivers put on the safety equipment, there was an increase in T<subs>core</subs> from Pre-race conditions (AM: 36.8 ± 1.7°C; PRO: 37.5 ± 1.4°C) to peak T<subs>core</subs> (AM: 38.4 ± 0.4°C; PRO: 38.4 ± 0.3°C). As peak T<subs>core</subs> did not differ between PRO and AM, these results indicate that thermal load was similar for all drivers. Thus, indicating the drivers were exposed to near-identical environments (strength of this investigation). Over the course of the racing event, there was no difference in mean T<subs>core</subs> between the AM and PRO groups, except for the Pit in Car condition (AM: 36.1 ± 2.5°C, PRO: 38.4 ± 0.3°C, <emph>p</emph> &lt;.0001) which we attribute to an observation that AM drivers often consumed cold fluids during pit stops, resulting in a lower core temperature measurement. Because core temperature was measured via an ingestible pill, it was observed that if the pill was not in the small intestine during the data collection time, it was subjected to temperature variation due to ingestions of fluids and food. Our participants swallowed the pill 3 hr prior to competition as per the manufacturer's recommendations for measurement. Yet, emotional stress of the AM drivers could have delayed gastric emptying (de Oliveira, Burini, &amp; Jeukendrup, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref68">12</reflink>]).</p> <p>The emotional stress delaying gastric emptying can be represented by the blood glucose responses to racing. As drivers did not consume carbohydrates during Green in Car conditions, blood glucose results (AM: 150.9 ± 34.6 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, PRO: 124.9 ± 16.0 mg·dl<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.0018) indicate that AM drivers may have experienced a more significant emotional response to racing. Similar results were observed in the pre to post change in blood lactate (Table 7), where AM drivers showed a significantly higher change (+3.3 ± 1.7 mmol·dl<sups>−1</sups>) compared to PRO drivers (+1.7 ± 2.6 mmol·dl<sups>−1</sups>, <emph>p</emph> =.0491). While these results are consistent with previous literature (Schwaberger, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref69">29</reflink>]), all drivers had similar percent of max HR during Green in Car measurement, meaning this rise in blood lactate cannot be wholly contributed to metabolic demand but also to the catecholamine release from emotional stress.</p> <p>As stated above, the stress on a racing driver is a result of metabolic demand to drive the car, thermal strain, and psychoemotional stress. To account for these factors we evaluated physiological strain index (PSI, Table 5). AM drivers had statistically higher PSI under yellow conditions (AM: 6.6 ± 1.3, PRO: 4.7 ± 1.1, <emph>p</emph> =.0012) and biologically relevant higher PSI during Green in Car conditions (AM: 7.2 ± 1.3, PRO: 5.9 ± 1.0, <emph>p</emph> =.1190). The trend in PSI difference between the two groups is also shown in Figure 1c. The literature on PSI suggests a value of 5.0–6.0 as moderate strain, 6.0–8.0 as a high strain, and a score above 8.0 being categorized as a very high strain, thus showing the biological significance between PRO and AM driver responses (Tikuisis, Mclellan, &amp; Selkirk, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref70">30</reflink>]). The elevated heart rates and associated PSI (no difference in core temperature) responses by driver experience level are thought to be attributed to differences in sweat loss (reduced plasma volume decreasing stroke volume eliciting an increase in heart rate to match cardiac output) lost during the racing event (PRO: 1.72% ± 0.68%, AM: 2.34% ± 0.66%, <emph>p</emph> =.0214). ACSM guidelines on hydration specify that over 2% of body mass lost via sweating results in decreased performance (Convertino et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref71">11</reflink>]). It should be noted that the fluid loss results do include <emph>ad libitum</emph> pre and post hydration that occurred while driver was in their protective uniform. Interestingly, the AM group consumed more fluids out of the car compared to the PRO group (AM: 1.26 ± 0.49L, PRO: 0.85 ± 0.35L; <emph>p</emph> &lt;.05), yet it was not enough to re-hydrate.</p> <p>There were several statistically significant results that can be attributed to the logistics of racing in the CTSC. Commonly the AM driver drove first in each race followed by the PRO. PSI differences during Green Out of Car, Yellow Out of Car, Pit Out of Car and Driver Change can all be attributed to the fact that AM drivers were recently removed from the heat and stress of racing while the PRO driver had not yet been exposed to the same stimulus. Results relating to skin temperature and % of Max HR in Post-race out of car condition were significantly higher for the PRO driver because the AM had 45 min to "cool down" after exposure to the racing stimulus while the PRO driver was only minutes out of the car after the race. This led to observed differences in PSI as well. Another racing specific explanation can be applied to breathing rate during the Pit in Car condition where the PRO drivers had more breaths·minute<sups>−1</sups> compared to the AM drivers because the PRO driver was providing verbal feedback over the team radio (about the car, race, strategy, etc.).</p> <p>The foundational paper in motorsport physiology showed that drivers had differing physiological responses to driving on road versus oval course (Jacobs et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref72">19</reflink>]). We initially hypothesized that while all the race venues in this investigation were road courses, there would be different physiological responses at various race venues due to the anecdotal evidence of drivers describing certain tracks as "more difficult". However, we did not find a significant main effect in race venue, as such we were able to pool lap data due to consistency in race length, car, ambient temperature, and fire protective clothing to elucidate differing physiological responses at key events during the race. While this may appear as a limitation, the previously established pooling methods (Leger &amp; Didrichsons, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref73">22</reflink>]) allowed for the representation of data across a race season which to date has not been done before. Future studies should expand the sample size and collect data from differing cars as the structure of the car (able to generate more or less down force) may elicit differing physiological responses.</p> <hd id="AN0146972016-12">Conclusions</hd> <p>The results of this study describe the physiological responses to racing sports cars. Additionally, we present key race conditions where experience level elicits varying physiological responses. Allied health personnel working in racing can benefit from the knowledge that drivers with less experience lose more sweat and could potentially fatigue quicker than professional drivers leading to increased lap times or a crash. Evidence-based recommendations from this investigation show drivers must hydrate before during and after competition to limit fluid loss in a race, focus on sport-specific physical fitness, specifically glycolytic power output to resist the gravitational loads during racing, and seek the help of a sport psychologist to limit emotional stress to improve on-track performance.</p> <hd id="AN0146972016-13">What does this article add?</hd> <p>The results of the current investigation are the first to show that amateur and professional racing drivers have varying physiological responses to competitive automobile racing. These documented racing performance differences suggest that amateur drivers could benefit from physical conditioning and hydration practices/education to improve their performance. Our data demonstrated that amateur drivers had reduced glycolytic capacity compared to the professional drivers. A program focusing on skeletal muscle power development would be beneficial. As drivers often report fatiguing core, shoulders, and neck (Ebben &amp; Suchomel, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref74">13</reflink>]) during competition we recommend a program designed around these body parts. It should be noted that drivers compete at 60–80% their max heart rate therefore aerobic conditioning should not be sacrificed for the driver athlete. Previous literature has suggested drivers focus on skeletal muscle power development during the offseason and aerobic conditioning in the season (Ferguson &amp; Myers, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref75">17</reflink>]; Ebben &amp; Suchomel, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref76">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>Additionally, training can be complimented with proper hydration and cooling strategies. Specifically, an extremity ice bath immersion, up to the elbow or knee, in water that is below 5°C for at least 5 min before and after a driving session would help an amateur drivers' tolerance to high (greater than 25°C) temperatures (Tikuisis et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref77">30</reflink>]). This tolerance can also be aided by emphasizing adequate fluid intake both surrounding and during competition. We recommend that amateur drivers consume between 500 ml/hour before a driving session, 1500 ml/hour during a session and 1000 ml/hour after a session or until fluid losses are adequately replenished, or the participants' urine is once again clear (Convertino et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref78">11</reflink>]).</p> <ref id="AN0146972016-14"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref21" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> American College of Sports, M. (2013). ACSM's guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. 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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: A Comparison of the Physiological Responses in Professional and Amateur Sports Car Racing Drivers – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Barthel%2C+S%2E+C%2E%22">Barthel, S. C.</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0253-2428">0000-0002-0253-2428</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Buckingham%2C+T%2E+M%2E%22">Buckingham, T. M.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Haft%2C+C%2E+E%2E%22">Haft, C. E.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Bechtolsheimer%2C+J%2E+E%2E%22">Bechtolsheimer, J. E.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Bechtolsheimer%2C+T%2E+A%2E%22">Bechtolsheimer, T. A.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ferguson%2C+D%2E+P%2E%22">Ferguson, D. P.</searchLink> – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Research+Quarterly+for+Exercise+and+Sport%22"><i>Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport</i></searchLink>. 2020 91(4):562-573. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 12 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2020 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physiology%22">Physiology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Responses%22">Responses</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Motor+Vehicles%22">Motor Vehicles</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Fitness%22">Physical Fitness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Tests%22">Tests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Metabolism%22">Metabolism</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Biochemistry%22">Biochemistry</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Athletes%22">Athletes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Fatigue+%28Biology%29%22">Fatigue (Biology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Variables%22">Stress Variables</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1080/02701367.2019.1690120 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 0270-1367 – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: Purpose: Automobile racing is physically challenging, but there is no information related to experience level and physiological responses to racing. The aim of this study was to compare physiological responses of professional (PRO) and amateur (AM) sportscar drivers. Methods: Four male racing drivers (PRO n = 2, AM n = 2), completed a physical fitness assessment and had heart rate (HR), breathing rate 10 (BR), skin temperature (T[subscript sk]), core temperature (T[subscript core]), physiological strain index (PSI) and blood glucose (BG) measured continuously during six races. Rate of perceived exertion (RPE), blood lactate, and fluid loss were measured post-race. Results: AM had higher HR compared to PRO during driver changes (AM: 177 ± 12 beats·min[superscript -1], PRO: 141 ± 16 beats·min[superscript -1], p < 0.0001), pit stops (AM: 139 ± 14 beats·min[superscript -1], PRO: 122 ± 1 beats·min[superscript -1], p = 0.0381) and cautions (AM: 144 ± 13 beats·min[superscript -1], PRO: 15 123 ± 11 beats·min[superscript -1], p = 0.0059). During pit stops, PRO (26 ± 6 respirations·min[superscript -1]) displayed a significantly greater BR than AM (AM: 18 ± 7 respirations·min[superscript -1], p = 0.0004). T[subscript core] was greater for PRO (38.4 ± 0.4°C) drivers while in the car during pit stops than AM (36.1 ± 2.5°C, p < 0.0001). AM displayed elevated PSI during cautions (AM: 5.5 ± 1.8, PRO: 3.2 ± 1.3, p < 0.0001) and pit stops (AM: 5.6 ± 1.4, PRO: 2.8 ± 1.1, p < 0.0001). BG was increased for AM versus PRO during pit stops (AM: 20 132.9 ± 20.2 mg·dl[superscript -1], PRO: 106.5 ± 3.5 mg·dl[superscript -1], p = 0.0015) and during racing (AM: 150.9 ± 34.6 mg·dl[superscript -1], PRO: 124.9 ± 16.0 mg·dl[superscript -1], p = 0.0018). AM (3.3 ± 1.7 mmol·dl[superscript -1]) had a higher blood lactate than PRO (1.7 ± 2.6 mmol·dl[superscript -1], p = 0.0491) from pre to post-race. AM (1.90 ± 0.54 kg) lost more fluids over the race than PRO (1.36 ± 0.67 kg, p = 0.0271). Conclusions: Amateur drivers could fatigue faster in the car which results in a decreased driving performance. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2020 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1275526 |
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| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1080/02701367.2019.1690120 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 12 StartPage: 562 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Physiology Type: general – SubjectFull: Responses Type: general – SubjectFull: Motor Vehicles Type: general – SubjectFull: Physical Fitness Type: general – SubjectFull: Tests Type: general – SubjectFull: Metabolism Type: general – SubjectFull: Biochemistry Type: general – SubjectFull: Athletes Type: general – SubjectFull: Fatigue (Biology) Type: general – SubjectFull: Stress Variables Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: A Comparison of the Physiological Responses in Professional and Amateur Sports Car Racing Drivers Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Barthel, S. C. – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Buckingham, T. M. – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Haft, C. E. – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Bechtolsheimer, J. E. – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Bechtolsheimer, T. A. – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Ferguson, D. P. IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 01 Type: published Y: 2020 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 0270-1367 Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 91 – Type: issue Value: 4 Titles: – TitleFull: Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Type: main |
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