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Relations of Copying Skills to Korean Word Reading and Spelling among Korean Kindergartners

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Title: Relations of Copying Skills to Korean Word Reading and Spelling among Korean Kindergartners
Language: English
Authors: Cho, Jeung-Ryeul (ORCID 0000-0003-4172-717X)
Source: Journal of Research in Reading. May 2021 44(2):247-263.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 17
Publication Date: 2021
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Elementary Education
Kindergarten
Primary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Kindergarten, Young Children, Reading Skills, Writing Skills, Spelling, Word Recognition, Chinese, Korean, Thinking Skills, Syllables, Phonemic Awareness, Orthographic Symbols, Vietnamese
Geographic Terms: South Korea
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9817.12332
ISSN: 0141-0423
Abstract: Background: Recent research suggests that diverse types of copying, including pure copying, copying fluency and delayed copying, contributed to children's spelling of Chinese characters and English words but not to word recognition. This study examined the relations of pure copying, copying fluency and delayed copying to beginning word reading and spelling in Korean Hangul. Methods: One hundred and five Korean kindergarten children aged 5 and 6 years were tested on pure copying of unfamiliar print of Vietnamese, copying fluency and delayed copying of Korean Gulja (written syllable) and cognitive skills including nonverbal reasoning, syllable and phoneme awareness and orthographic awareness. Results: Hierarchical regression analyses showed that copying fluency and delayed copying of Korean Gulja uniquely explained Korean word reading and spelling after controlling for age, cognitive skills and Vietnamese copying. In addition, squared semi-partial correlations revealed that orthographic and phonological awareness significantly and uniquely contributed to Korean word reading and spelling. Conclusion: The findings highlight that copying fluency and delayed copying of Hangul Gulja are the most important factors in early Korean word recognition and spelling. Similar cognitive correlates such as syllable and orthographic awareness and orthographic working memory contributed to the initial reading and spelling of Korean words.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2021
Accession Number: EJ1291604
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0149707028;d8c01may.21;2021Apr10.02:31;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0149707028-1">Relations of copying skills to Korean word reading and spelling among Korean kindergartners </title> <p>Background: Recent research suggests that diverse types of copying, including pure copying, copying fluency and delayed copying, contributed to children's spelling of Chinese characters and English words but not to word recognition. This study examined the relations of pure copying, copying fluency and delayed copying to beginning word reading and spelling in Korean Hangul. Methods: One hundred and five Korean kindergarten children aged 5 and 6 years were tested on pure copying of unfamiliar print of Vietnamese, copying fluency and delayed copying of Korean Gulja (written syllable) and cognitive skills including nonverbal reasoning, syllable and phoneme awareness and orthographic awareness. Results: Hierarchical regression analyses showed that copying fluency and delayed copying of Korean Gulja uniquely explained Korean word reading and spelling after controlling for age, cognitive skills and Vietnamese copying. In addition, squared semi‐partial correlations revealed that orthographic and phonological awareness significantly and uniquely contributed to Korean word reading and spelling. Conclusion: The findings highlight that copying fluency and delayed copying of Hangul Gulja are the most important factors in early Korean word recognition and spelling. Similar cognitive correlates such as syllable and orthographic awareness and orthographic working memory contributed to the initial reading and spelling of Korean words.</p> <p>Keywords: delayed copying; copying fluency; Korean word reading; Korean word spelling</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Abbreviations</item> <p></p> <item> CV consonant–vowel</item> <p></p> <item> CVC consonant–vowel–consonant</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0149707028-2">Highlights</hd> <p> <emph>What is already known about this topic</emph> </p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Diverse aspects of copying assess various skills such as visual‐motor integration, orthographic processing, visual chunking and orthographic working memory, which are central to literacy acquisition.</item> <p></p> <item> Delayed copying is recognised as a measure of orthographic working memory.</item> <p></p> <item> Although there is considerable evidence to demonstrate the role of diverse aspects of copying skills in spelling in English and Chinese, few studies have reported significant associations of copying skills with children's word recognition.</item> </ulist> <p> <emph>What this paper adds</emph> </p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Copying fluency and delayed copying of Korean Gulja accounted for the unique variance in early word recognition and spelling in Korean.</item> <p></p> <item> In addition, syllable awareness and orthographic awareness uniquely contributed to both Korean word reading and spelling.</item> <p></p> <item> The components of the processes underlying Korean word reading and spelling are similar.</item> </ulist> <p> <emph>Implications for theory, policy or practice</emph> </p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Theoretically, this is one of the first studies to demonstrate the unique contribution of orthographic working memory and orthographic awareness to early Korean word reading as well as spelling.</item> <p></p> <item> Practically, training in copying has a direct bearing on instruction in the classroom in Korea, where whole‐word method has been popular since the 1990s.</item> <p></p> <item> In particular, it is important to recognise the impact of copying practice in situations where some working memory load is created, such as delayed copying.</item> </ulist> <p>Copying has long been used as a practice for early acquisition of Hangul, the Korean writing system. Young Korean children have often been trained to copy Korean Gulja (written syllables) and words three or four times in grid‐printed notes, often pronouncing loudly (Cho, 2017, for a review). However, there has been little research regarding the effect of copying on Hangul acquisition among Korean children. Recently, copying skills were found to be strongly related to the spelling development in Chinese and English studies (Bourke, Davies, Sumner, & Green, 2014; Lam & McBride, 2018; Mo, McBride, & Yip, 2018; Wang, McBride‐Chang, & Chan, 2014). However, few studies have reported significant associations of copying skills with children's word recognition (e.g., Schatschneider, Fletcher, Francis, Carlson, & Foorman, 2004; Wang et al., 2014). Because there is less evidence of the role of copying skills in word recognition and spelling in Korean, this study aimed to investigate whether copying skills are significantly associated with word reading as well as spelling in Korean Hangul, which is a shallow orthography.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-3">Early word reading and spelling in Korean Hangul</hd> <p>Hangul is an alphabetic script consisting of 19 consonant letters (e.g., ㄱ, ㄲ, ㄴ, ㄷ, ㄹ, ㅁ) and 21 vowel letters (e.g., ㅏ, ㅑ, ㅓ, ㅗ, ㅜ). Each alphabet letter represents a phoneme, depicting transparent letter–phoneme correspondences. Hangul letters are written in a square block, or Gulja, to represent each Korean syllable, which includes letters systematically from left to right (e.g., 서, /sə/ 'west'; 사, /sa/ 'four') or from top to bottom (e.g., 소 /so/ 'cow'; 오 /o/ 'five'). In Hangul Gulja, the first consonant is written in the top or in the left position, the vowel is in the middle and/or in the right position and the last consonant is written in the bottom position (e.g., 삼 /sam/ 'three', 솜 /som/ 'cotton'). The Korean Gulja structure is simple, having mostly consonant–vowel (CV) and consonant–vowel–consonant (CVC) structures. Because individual letters are combined into a Gulja, Hangul is also called an alphasyllabary (Taylor & Taylor, 2014). Korean syllable and Gulja are salient as a basic unit of spoken and written word recognition, respectively (Simpson & Kang, 2004). Although Korean syllables and some words are phonologically transparent, some multi‐syllable words are subject to phonological alterations that result in inconsistency between letters and phonemes because Korean orthography adopted a morphophonemic principle in that orthographic forms are kept in the case of conflict with phonology (Cho, McBride‐Chang, & Park, 2008; Kim, 2010).</p> <p>Most Korean children learn to read and write Hangul at age 4 or so. Korean children first learn to read beginning with easy CV and CVC Gulja in high‐frequency words. Only later do children learn to divide these Gulja into individual alphabetic letters (Cho, 2009). Most children master reading phonologically regular Korean words before they enter primary school at age 6. Children learn to read irregular words that are subject to phonological transformations in elementary school (Cho et al., 2008). Korean children spell phonologically consistent words more accurately than inconsistent words (Kim, 2010).</p> <p>Before 1990, in Korea, young children learned to draw lines and copy Gulja with drill and practice (Cho, 2017, for a review). Children's writing was based on directive instruction methods, and activities included copying Gulja, consonant and vowel letters and words repetitively. However, since the 1990s, the whole language perspective and informal play‐oriented methods have been adopted as an educational policy for early Korean literacy. Since then, the kindergarten curriculum has so far stipulated that children should not be taught to read and write Gulja, rather strengthen their interest and motivation in reading and writing (Ministry of Education and Human Resource Department, 1998). In practice, however, according to a survey (Choi, 2009), 79% of Korean teachers at kindergartens and daycare centres taught their children to copy Korean alphabet letters and Gulja or write their own and friend's names in activities such as making birthday cards. A recent Korean training study reported that copying instruction facilitated Hangul learning among emergent readers of 4‐year‐old children, compared with instructions focused on whole‐Gulja and alphabet letters (Cho, McBride, & Kim, in press), suggesting that copying might strengthen the internal structure and orthographic knowledge of Korean Gulja, as in Chinese training studies (e.g., Wang, McBride, Zhou, Joshi, & Farver, 2018). Studying the roles of various aspects of the copying skills in early reading and spelling in Korean will have practical implications for developing effective teaching methods of Hangul.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-4">Copying skills in literacy development</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0149707028-5">Copying fluency</hd> <p>Copying entails diverse skills such as visual perception and analysis, visual‐motor integration, orthographic coding, visual chunking, working memory and handwriting (Berninger et al., 1992; Mo et al., 2018). In a typical copying practice at home or at school when children begin to write, children are often asked to copy letters, words or sentences as soon as possible within a given time. This type of copying is recognised as a measure of copying fluency. Copying fluency reflects automatic and efficient processes of handwriting and orthographic processing (Berninger et al., 1992; Lam & McBride, 2018). For example, Lam and McBride (2018) examined Hong Kong Chinese kindergartners with the task of handwriting fluency where children were to write Arabic numbers in order as fast as possible for 1 minute. They found that handwriting fluency uniquely explained spelling of Chinese words after controlling for cognitive measures including phonological, orthographic and morphological awareness.</p> <p>To examine the relation of copying fluency to Chinese reading fluency, Tan, Spinks, Eden, Perfetti, and Siok (2005) tested Chinese children with the tasks of copying as many Chinese characters as possible from samples for 3 minutes and copying pseudo‐characters and picture drawing for 5 minutes. The results indicated that the copying of Chinese characters was associated with Chinese reading after controlling for phonological awareness and RAN skills, and pseudo‐character copying explained a greater amount of the variance in Chinese reading than did object copying. Tan et al. (2005) suggested that through the copying of Chinese characters, children learn to decode at the visual‐orthographic level, which facilitates orthographic knowledge of the internal structure of Chinese characters.</p> <p>Apart from the copying of familiar orthographic forms, a line of research examined how accurately and quickly children copy novel and unfamiliar materials, such as picture drawings, objects and unfamiliar foreign scripts, within a limited time. This type of copying is called a print‐independent and pure copying in that the children do not have prior knowledge of the materials. One main process involved in pure copying is likely to be children's basic visual‐motor integration skill. For example, Berninger et al. (1992) reported that copying of geometric patterns was related to English word spelling, along with nonword reading, among first to third graders. Wang et al. (2014) examined copying skills for visually unfamiliar print written in Hebrew, Korean and Vietnamese among Chinese kindergartners and indicated that pure copying of foreign scripts contributed to the writing of Chinese words. Similarly, Lam and McBride (2018) found that Vietnamese copying explained Chinese spelling.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-6">Delayed copying</hd> <p>Another line of research analysed the error performance of children found in delayed copying, which requires children to remember and write Chinese characters or English words that were previously presented to them for 2 to 3 seconds. For instance, Anderson, Ku, Li, Wu, and Hao (2002) reported that Chinese first‐grade children in Beijing encoded characters into major component chunks of semantic and phonetic radicals, while performing a delayed copying task, suggesting that Chinese first graders have considerable knowledge about the internal structure of Chinese characters. Similarly, Pak et al. (2005) demonstrated the development of visual chunking of Chinese characters by using a delayed copying task among first, second and fourth graders in Hong Kong. Pak et al. suggested that older and better readers employed efficient chunking skills, which lowers working memory load.</p> <p>Likewise, Costa, Fischer‐Baum, Capasso, Miceli, and Rapp (2011) analysed English spelling errors in two individuals with an acquired dysgraphia. Spelling errors were affected by the letter positions of English words, and the disruption of delayed copying resulted in segmental errors (letter substitution and omissions) rather than lexical errors or phonological errors. According to Costa et al., delayed copying measures orthographic working memory, which refers to a limited capacity to temporarily store and retrieve visual‐orthographic representations in order to perform complex cognitive activities. Other researchers conceptualised delayed copying to tap a combination of orthographic loop with executive functions (Berninger et al., 2006) or as an orthographic buffer where it is a mental platform to store the retrieved orthographic forms and bind the features associated with them for reading and spelling (Han, Zhang, Shu, & Bi, 2007). Similarly, in a famous working memory model, Baddeley (2000) assumed episodic buffer with the capacity to temporarily store information in a multidimensional code and bind information from multiple sources to coherent episodes.</p> <p>Recently, Bourke et al. (2014) examined the role of visuospatial and orthographic working memory in English word spelling in first‐grade children in the United Kingdom. Their results indicated that visuospatial working memory of shapes and orthographic working memory of English words contributed to English word spelling after controlling for phonological working memory, letter knowledge and nonverbal intelligence whereas working memory of nonwords was not significant. The authors suggested that phonological codes of printed words could be accessed obligatorily during orthographic working memory of English words and orthographic and phonological coding might contribute to produce correct and accurate spelling. Recently, using a delayed copying task, Mo et al. (2018) identified orthographic working memory as an independent cognitive construct that is different from orthographic knowledge, semantic knowledge and visual‐motor skills and found that orthographic working memory was the strongest correlate of written spelling of Chinese characters among Chinese kindergartners.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-7">Word reading and spelling</hd> <p>Although copying skills were related to the spelling of Chinese characters and English words in previous correlational studies (Bourke et al., 2014; Lam & McBride, 2018; Mo et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2014), few studies have reported significant associations of copying skills with children's word recognition (e.g., Schatschneider et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2014). Wang et al. (2014) have suggested that different correlates contributed to reading and spelling in Chinese such that copying skills was a strongly correlated construct of spelling but not reading whereas morphological awareness and phonological coding knowledge were significant correlates of Chinese word reading among Chinese kindergartners. However, it is proposed that reading and spelling in alphabetic languages, such as German, Dutch and English, rely on similar knowledge and processes although spelling rules are more complex than reading rules (Fitzgerald & Shanahan, 2000, for a review). In particular, the components of the processes underlying reading and spelling are similar at the word level (Verhoeven, 2000; Wagner, Torgesen, Laughon, Simmons, & Rashotte, 1993). Both reading and spelling in alphabetic languages require phonological awareness to form and access multiple associations between the sounds and letters of words (Landerl & Wimmer, 2008) as well as access to a specified orthographic representation (Savage, Pillay, & Melidona, 2008).</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-8">The current study</hd> <p>The current study examined three types of copying: Vietnamese copying, copying fluency of Hangul and delayed copying of Hangul. Vietnamese words (e.g., quốc ngữ, meaning 'Vietnamese') were written as an adaptation of the Roman alphabet with nine diacritics (e.g.,</p> <p>GRAPH</p> <p>). The Vietnamese task required children simply to copy these diacritics from samples onto the parts of the word where they belonged, thus demanding a focus on location and small details within the writing. Vietnamese copying is considered to reflect pure visual‐motor integration that is not biased by previous orthographic knowledge of the materials (Berninger et al., 1992; Wang et al., 2014). Copying fluency of Hangul was measured by copying the familiar Korean number words of one to ten, all of which are one‐syllable words in Korean. Children were asked to copy as many Korean number words as possible for a minute while looking at the samples. In delayed copying of Hangul, children were shown a Hangul Gulja that is complex and relatively unfamiliar to them for 3 seconds, and then they were asked to write the Gulja from memory. Copying fluency of familiar Hangul would include automatic handwriting and efficient orthographic processing, referring to the mental lexicon in long‐term memory, whereas delayed copying of unfamiliar Gulja would assess orthographic working memory in the context of some working memory loads.</p> <p>In addition to the copying tasks, this study included skills that have more traditionally been linked to early literacy in Korean. Among these was phonological awareness of syllables and phonemes. Previous Korean studies have shown that both syllables and phonemes play a key role in the early learning of Korean word reading (e.g., Cho & McBride‐Chang, 2005a; Cho et al., 2008), which are also similar to the findings from another study of the alphasyllabic script of Kannada (Nag & Snowling, 2012).</p> <p>Apart from phonological awareness, a task related to orthographic knowledge was included in the present study. Orthographic awareness refers to the use of orthographic knowledge that can be defined as the graphic patterns of a written language, frequency of letter sequences and spatial position patterns in words (McBride, 2016). Orthographic awareness determines progress in learning to read phonologically opaque writing systems such as Chinese and English (McBride, 2016, for a review). Accordingly, as orthographic awareness was not considered to be a major factor to influence Hangul acquisition, only a limited number of studies have dealt with orthographic awareness in Korean reading (Kim, Cho, & Park, 2018) and spelling (e.g., Kim, 2010). Note that many Korean alphabet letters consist of horizontal and vertical lines and many vowel letters are mirror images as in ㅏ /a/, ㅓ /ə/, ㅑ /ja/, ㅕ /jə/. Just one stroke may make different words such as in 발 /bal/, 벌 /bəl/, 별 /bjəl/ and 벨 /bel/ representing the meanings of foot, punishment, star and bell, respectively. Therefore, orthographic awareness would be important in early Hangul acquisition.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-9">Purpose of this study</hd> <p>This study had three specific purposes. The first aim was to examine the extent to which pure copying of Vietnamese, copying fluency of Hangul and delayed copying of Hangul uniquely account for Korean word reading and spelling after controlling for cognitive skills. It was expected that copying fluency would contribute to Korean word reading and spelling beyond cognitive skills and pure visual‐motor integration given that copying of familiar orthographic forms contributed to spelling in Chinese and English more strongly than did print‐independent copying (Bourke et al., 2014; Lam & McBride, 2018; Tan et al., 2005). In addition, delayed copying would uniquely explain Korean word reading and spelling over and above copying fluency of Hangul due to the significant effect of orthographic working memory or orthographic buffer in literacy development (e.g., Costa et al., 2011; Han et al., 2007; Mo et al., 2018).</p> <p>The second purpose was to investigate whether well‐established cognitive correlates of literacy acquisition contributed to reading and spelling when different aspects of copying skills were included in the regression analysis. It was expected that both syllable and phoneme awareness would contribute to Korean reading (e.g., Cho & McBride‐Chang, 2005a) as well as spelling if young children in Korea developed alphasyllabic principles to learn Hangul, an alphasyllabary (e.g., Nag & Snowling, 2012). In addition, it would be interesting to examine whether orthographic awareness, which has been scarcely investigated, accounts for Korean reading and spelling after controlling for other copying skills.</p> <p>The third aim was to investigate whether the components of the processes underlying Korean word reading and spelling were similar or different. Because reading and spelling in alphabetic scripts, especially in a shallow orthography such as Korean Hangul, are supposed to share similar knowledge and processes at the word level (Fitzgerald & Shanahan, 2000; Verhoeven, 2000), it is expected that somewhat similar cognitive correlates would contribute to Korean word reading and spelling.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-10">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0149707028-11">Participants</hd> <p>Participants were 105 Korean kindergarten children (51 girls and 54 boys) consisting of 50 first year (the mean age = 54.78 months, <emph>SD</emph> = 4.36) and 55 second year (the mean age = 66.15 months, <emph>SD</emph> = 3.48) kindergarten children. The mean age of these children was 60.73 months (<emph>SD</emph> = 6.91). All of these children were recruited from a single private kindergarten in Masan, a medium‐sized city in South Korea. Children were mainly from middle‐class backgrounds. In general, Korean kindergartens are for children from middle‐income families, whereas Children's House is for welfare and childcare facilities especially for working mothers and lower‐income families (Cho, 2017). All the children were native Korean speakers. This study did not measure parental education and household monthly income, and the level of literacy training at home.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-12">Procedure</hd> <p>Prior to testing, parents gave informed consent for supervised testing, all of which was conducted at school. Except for the pure copying measure, which was tested in a group format, all other tasks described in the succeeding text were administered individually. The group and individual tests typically lasted approximately 10 and 40 minutes, respectively.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-13">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0149707028-14">Korean word reading</hd> <p>A Hangul reading subtest of the Korean Test of Literacy Diagnosis (Cho, Kim, & Park, 2017) was administered. A list of 96 words, arranged from easier to more difficult items, was given to the children, and they were asked to read each word aloud. The task was stopped if the child failed to read five consecutive items. One point was given for reading a word correctly. The maximum possible score was 96. Cronbach's alpha was.98.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-15">Korean word spelling</hd> <p>The experimenter dictated the words twice, loudly, and the child was asked to write them independently on a sheet of paper with a pen. The 15 words tested were selected from story books and standard textbooks in kindergarten and primary schools. The 15 words consisted of 6 two‐syllable words and 9 three‐syllable words, and 3 phonologically regular words and 12 irregular words. The mean number of alphabet letter in each word was 7.3 (range: 4–9). The mean word frequency was 987.2 out of 15 million words (range: 3–5,439) according to the corpus of Korean adults (Kang & Kim, 2009) because there was no children's corpus available. One point was awarded if the whole Gulja included in a word was correct. Forty Gulja were included in the task, and the maximum score was 40 points. Cronbach's alpha was.94.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-16">Vietnamese copying</hd> <p>A copying task of a foreign script of Vietnamese diacritics (</p> <p>GRAPH</p> <p>) was adopted from Wang et al. (2014) to test the children's basic copying skills. The children were allotted 7 minutes to finish the Vietnamese task. Children were given two pages of paper. A model paper contained nine correct Vietnamese sentences, showing both the Roman letters and diacritics together. The answer paper contained the same nine sentences but was missing the required diacritics. Children were asked to copy the diacritics displayed on the model paper onto the answer paper. There was a total of 60 missing symbols in the sentences on the answer sheet. One point was allocated when the copying was either of a correct shape or in the correct position for each missing symbol. Thus, for each missing symbol, the maximum score was 2 points and the minimum was 0. In addition, 1 point was deducted when a child incorrectly added a symbol to a Roman letter that did not contain a diacritic. The total score for this task was the number of correct shapes and positions for missing symbols minus the number of symbols in incorrect positions. Thus, the maximum possible total score for this task was 120. The inter‐rater reliability was.98.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-17">Copying fluency of Hangul</hd> <p>Children were presented with two pages of paper where Korean numeric words from one to ten (e.g., 일, 이, 삼, 사, 오, 육, 칠, 팔, 구, 십) were written in random order. There were a total of 32 words on each page, eight words in a row with four columns. They were asked to copy the words as accurately and quickly as possible for 1 minute in the blank space below each word, looking at the words. All of the digit words consist of one syllable with CV and CVC, and the mean word frequency was 515.8 (range: 40–1,449) (Kang & Kim, 2009). Digit words were chosen because kindergartners are relatively familiar with these in print, so that children's performance is not confounded with difficulty levels of the task, which more accurately reflects automaticity underlying orthographic processing and handwriting (e.g., Lam & McBride, 2018). One point was awarded to a correctly written word. The total number of correctly written words constituted each child's score. The maximum possible total score was 64. The inter‐rater reliability of this task was.99.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-18">Delayed copying of Hangul</hd> <p>The copying task consisted of five Hangul Gulja that are not familiar to young children (츄, 패, 쥣, 뻗, 휑), each of which comprised CV or CVC. The mean word frequency was 45.8 (range: 0–224) according to the Corpus of Korean adults (Kang & Kim, 2009). In the task, each visual Gulja was displayed for 3 seconds and then removed from view; children were then asked to write down the whole Gulja from memory. Scores were given according to the accuracy of each alphabet letter included in each Gulja: 1 point was given when a consonant, a horizontal vowel (e.g., ㅠ, ㅜ) in the middle position or a vertical vowel letter in the right position (e.g., ㅐ, ㅣ, ㅓ, ㅔ) was correctly written, and 0 points were allotted when a letter was not correctly written (e.g., see Taylor & Taylor, 2014, for Hangul Gulja patterns). Two points were allotted if both the horizontal and vertical vowel letters were correctly written in the vowel combinations (e.g., ㅟ, ㅞ). The total possible score for this task was 15. The inter‐rater reliability was.99.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-19">Nonverbal reasoning</hd> <p>The Matrix Analogies Test – Short Form (Naglieri, 1985) involves 36 coloured plates of design elements from which a part is removed. Children were asked to choose the best option from a set of possible alternatives to complete the pattern. The test was stopped if the child made three mistakes within five responses. One point was given for a correct choice, for a maximum score of 36 points. Cronbach's alpha was.91.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-20">Phonological awareness</hd> <p>Phonological awareness subtests of the Korean Test of Literacy Diagnosis (Cho et al., 2017) were administered. The subtests included syllable deletion and phoneme deletion tasks. Items in all the tasks were orally presented to children by an experimenter.</p> <p>This task had 18 items including 6 three‐syllable words, 6 three‐syllable nonwords and 6 four‐syllable nonwords. From each item, children were asked to delete one syllable.</p> <p>Phoneme deletion included coda and onset deletion tasks. Each task had 18 items. For the coda deletion task, children were orally presented with nine one‐syllable CVC real words and nine CVC nonwords from which they were asked to delete the final phoneme. For the onset deletion task, children were orally presented with six one‐syllable CV real words, six CVC words and six CVC nonwords from which they were asked to delete the first phoneme.</p> <p>In the deletion tasks, items were ordered by increasing difficulty level. Experimenters stopped the test if a child failed on five consecutive items. For each item correctly answered, 1 point was allotted. The maximum score was 18 in the syllable deletion and 36 in phoneme deletion. Cronbach's alphas were.90 and.93 in the syllable and phoneme deletion tasks, respectively.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-21">Orthographic awareness</hd> <p>The children were presented a page of 80 items, which included numbers, the Korean alphabet, simple Korean syllables and the English alphabet. Half of these items had correct directional orientations whereas the last half were left–right reversed. Children were asked to select items that had correct orientations. Nineteen English alphabet letters were excluded because children were not familiar with the English alphabet, while the remaining 61 items were used for further analyses. One point was awarded for a correct choice, for a maximum score of 61 points. Cronbach's alpha was.89.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-22">Results</hd> <p>Means, standard deviations and reliabilities for all the measures are reported in Table 1. All the measures were normally distributed with good variability as indicated by skewness and kurtosis values, which were within ±3. Reliabilities for all the measures were in a normal range.</p> <p>1 TableReliabilities, means and standard deviations for all tasks for children.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left">Variable</th><th align="left">Reliability</th><th align="left">M</th><th align="left">SD</th><th align="left">Min</th><th align="left">Max</th><th align="left">Skewness</th><th align="left">Kurtosis</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Korean word reading<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn2" /> (96)</td><td>.98</td><td>25.10</td><td>19.30</td><td>0</td><td>68</td><td>.360</td><td>−.928</td></tr><tr><td>Korean word spelling<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn2" /> (40)</td><td>.94</td><td>11.02</td><td>9.23</td><td>0</td><td>34</td><td>.362</td><td>−1.136</td></tr><tr><td>Nonverbal reasoning<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn2" /> (36)</td><td>.91</td><td>9.11</td><td>6.76</td><td>0</td><td>29</td><td>.733</td><td>−.217</td></tr><tr><td>Syllable awareness<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn2" /> (18)</td><td>.90</td><td>4.91</td><td>4.32</td><td>0</td><td>16</td><td>.788</td><td>−.501</td></tr><tr><td>Phoneme awareness<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn2" /> (36)</td><td>.93</td><td>5.94</td><td>6.86</td><td>0</td><td>24</td><td>.868</td><td>−.530</td></tr><tr><td>Orthographic awareness<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn2" /> (61)</td><td>.89</td><td>42.30</td><td>9.91</td><td>26</td><td>60</td><td>.111</td><td>−1.331</td></tr><tr><td>Vietnamese copying<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn3" /> (112)</td><td>.98</td><td>21.09</td><td>16.75</td><td>−1</td><td>83</td><td>.920</td><td>.897</td></tr><tr><td>Copying fluency of Hangul<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn3" /> (64)</td><td>.99</td><td>15.72</td><td>5.52</td><td>5</td><td>32</td><td>.41</td><td>−.18</td></tr><tr><td>Delayed copying of Hangul<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn3" /> (15)</td><td>.99</td><td>10.28</td><td>2.99</td><td>0</td><td>15</td><td>−.486</td><td>−.148</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph>: <emph>N</emph> = 105. Total number possible is indicated in parentheses.</p> <ulist> <item>2 a Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient.</item> <item>3 b Inter‐rater reliability.</item> </ulist> <p>Table 2 shows bivariate correlations between variables. Word reading and spelling were moderately associated with nonverbal reasoning (.39 < <emph>r</emph>s < .43, <emph>p</emph>s < .001) and Vietnamese copying (.33 < <emph>r</emph>s < .46, <emph>p</emph>s < .001) and strongly correlated with delayed copying of Hangul (.69 < <emph>r</emph>s < .78, <emph>p</emph>s < .001), copying fluency of Hangul (.55 < <emph>r</emph>s < .62, <emph>p</emph>s < .001), syllable awareness (.61 < <emph>r</emph>s < .64, <emph>p</emph>s < .001), phoneme awareness (.65 < <emph>r</emph>s < .71, <emph>p</emph>s < .001) and orthographic awareness (.69 < <emph>r</emph>s < .70, <emph>p</emph>s < .001).</p> <p>2 TableCorrelations among all variables.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left">1</th><th align="left">2</th><th align="left">3</th><th align="left">4</th><th align="left">5</th><th align="left">6</th><th align="left">7</th><th align="left">8</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1 Nonverbal reasoning</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2 Korean word reading</td><td>.39<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>3 Korean word spelling</td><td>.43<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.89<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>4 Syllable awareness</td><td>.37<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.61<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.64<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>5 Phoneme awareness</td><td>.47<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.65<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.71<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.66<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>6 Orthographic awareness</td><td>.46<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.69<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.70<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.51<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.56<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>1</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>7 Vietnamese copying</td><td>.47<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.33<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.46<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.38<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.38<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.40<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>1</td><td /></tr><tr><td>8 Copying fluency of Hangul</td><td>.36<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.55<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.62<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.47<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.49<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.44<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.53<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td /></tr><tr><td>9 Delayed copying of Hangul</td><td>.43<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.69<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.78<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.46<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.58<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.66<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.51<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td><td>.56<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn5" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>4 <emph>Note</emph>: <emph>N</emph> = 105.</item> <item>5 ** <emph>p</emph> < .001.</item> </ulist> <p>A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to determine whether different aspects of copying were uniquely associated with reading. Table 3 represents the beta weights, change in <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> and the squared semi‐partial correlation coefficients. In the regression, age and nonverbal intelligence were entered in the first step, and then phoneme awareness, syllable awareness and orthographic awareness were entered in the second step to find the contribution of cognitive skills. And Vietnamese copying, copying fluency of Hangul and delayed copying of Hangul were entered in the third, fourth and fifth steps, respectively, to find the contribution of visual‐motor integration, copying fluency or orthographic working memory skill to each corresponding step. This analysis revealed that copying fluency of Hangul explained 2.3% unique variance (<emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> change = .023, <emph>p</emph> < .05) and delayed copying of Hangul explained 3.4% unique variance in Korean reading (<emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> change = .034, <emph>p</emph> < .01), whereas Vietnamese copying was not significant. The negative beta value for Vietnamese copying is attributed to a suppressor effect as a result of shared variance with copying fluency and delayed copying of Hangul. Note that Vietnamese copying was strongly correlated with copying fluency (<emph>r</emph> = .53, <emph>p</emph> < .001) and delayed copying (<emph>r</emph> = .51, <emph>p</emph> < .001) in Table 2. The squared semi‐partial correlations represent the percent of total variance in reading explained by the given predictor, over and above other predictors. Thus, the squared semi‐partial correlations indicate that copying fluency (<emph>p</emph> < .05), delayed copying (<emph>p</emph> < .01), syllable deletion (<emph>p</emph> < .05) and orthographic awareness (<emph>p</emph> < .01) made significant and unique contributions to reading.</p> <p>3 TableHierarchical regression explaining Hangul word reading and spelling from age and cognitive skills controlled.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left">Step</th><th align="left">Variable</th><th align="left">Korean word reading</th><th align="left">Korean word spelling</th></tr><tr><th align="left">R<sup>2</sup></th><th align="left">R<sup>2</sup> change</th><th align="left">β</th><th align="left">Squared semi‐partial correlations</th><th align="left">R<sup>2</sup></th><th align="left">R<sup>2</sup> change</th><th align="left">β</th><th align="left">Squared semi‐partial correlations</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1</td><td>Age</td><td>.348</td><td>.348<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn9" /></td><td>.095</td><td>.004</td><td>.401</td><td>.401<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn9" /></td><td>.079</td><td>.003</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Nonverbal reasoning</td><td /><td /><td>−.036</td><td>.001</td><td /><td /><td>−.056</td><td>002</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Syllable awareness</td><td>.623</td><td>.275<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn9" /></td><td>.189<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn7" /></td><td>.018</td><td>.682</td><td>.281<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn9" /></td><td>.163<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn7" /></td><td>.014</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Phoneme awareness</td><td /><td /><td>.165</td><td>.012</td><td /><td /><td>.208<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn8" /></td><td>.019</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Orthographic awareness</td><td /><td /><td>.273<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn8" /></td><td>.035</td><td /><td /><td>.175<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn7" /></td><td>.014</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Vietnamese copying</td><td>.625</td><td>.002</td><td>−.167<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn7" /></td><td>.017</td><td>.689</td><td>.007</td><td>−.031</td><td>.001</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Copying fluency of Hangul</td><td>.648</td><td>.023<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn7" /></td><td>.157<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn7" /></td><td>.013</td><td>.712</td><td>.023<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn8" /></td><td>.139<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn7" /></td><td>.010</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Delayed copying of Hangul</td><td>.682</td><td>.034<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn8" /></td><td>.287<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn8" /></td><td>.034</td><td>.775</td><td>.063<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn9" /></td><td>.389<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn9" /></td><td>.063</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>6 <emph>Note</emph>: <emph>N</emph> = 105.</item> <item>7 * <emph>p</emph> < .05.</item> <item>8 ** <emph>p</emph> < .01.</item> <item>9 *** <emph>p</emph> < .001.</item> </ulist> <p>Similarly, a hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to determine whether copying skills were uniquely associated with word spelling. Results are shown in Table 3. This analysis revealed that copying fluency of Hangul explained 2.3% unique variance (<emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> change = .023, <emph>p</emph> < .01) and delayed copying of Hangul explained 6.3% unique variance in Korean spelling (<emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> change = .063, <emph>p</emph> < .001), whereas Vietnamese copying was not significant. The squared semi‐partial correlations indicate that copying fluency (<emph>p</emph> < .05), delayed copying (<emph>p</emph> < .001), syllable awareness (<emph>p</emph> < .05), phoneme awareness (<emph>p</emph> < .01) and orthographic awareness (<emph>p</emph> < .05) made significant and unique contributions to spelling.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-23">Discussion</hd> <p>This study examined whether diverse aspects of copying skills contributed to Korean word reading and spelling in Korean kindergartners after taking into account children's age and cognitive skills such as phonological and orthographic awareness. The results indicated that copying fluency and delayed copying of Hangul Gulja uniquely accounted for word reading and spelling over and above age, cognitive skills and Vietnamese copying. However, Vietnamese copying was not significant. Squared semi‐partial correlations showed that orthographic awareness accounted for the unique variance in reading and spelling. In addition, echoing some previous research on Korean word recognition among young Korean children (e.g., Cho & McBride‐Chang, 2005a; Cho et al., 2008), phoneme and syllable awareness were uniquely associated with Korean word spelling whereas only syllable awareness was related to reading.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-24">Copying familiar versus unfamiliar scripts</hd> <p>In the present study, copying fluency and delayed copying of actual Korean Gulja uniquely explained the variability in Korean word reading and spelling whereas copying of unfamiliar print of Vietnamese was not significant. Vietnamese copying appears mainly to focus on fine motor skills and the positioning of details in a foreign script, thus constituting a pure visual‐motor integration task in that its copying performance was not influenced by previous knowledge. Although visual‐motor integration skill was significantly correlated with Korean reading and spelling in this study, its contribution to reading and spelling became insignificant when entered with other cognitive and copying skills in the regression equation. This finding shows that the copying of familiar Korean Gulja and words explained a greater amount of the variance in Korean reading and spelling than pure copying that do not rely on orthographic knowledge, which supports previous Chinese studies (Mo et al., 2018; Tan et al., 2005).</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-25">Immediate versus delayed copying</hd> <p>In this study, copying fluency was a measure of immediate copying, in that children had to copy as many words as possible while looking at samples. On the other hand, in the delayed copying task, children were presented with Gulja for 3 seconds and then had to write them from memory. In this study, copying fluency of Korean words uniquely explained the variability in Korean word reading and spelling after controlling for age, cognitive skills and pure visual‐motor integration skill of Vietnamese copying. Copying fluency likely taps automatic handwriting and efficient orthographic processing of Hangul. This finding suggests that Korean kindergartners have some awareness of the internal structure of Korean Gulja as similar to Chinese children (e.g., Pak et al., 2005; Tan et al., 2005). Young Korean children might utilise consonant and vowel letters or the combination of consonant and vowel letters such as CV Gulja as visual chunks in the processing of Hangul (e.g., Cho, 2009). The results also suggest that the practicing in copying fluency might strengthen the internal structure and orthographic knowledge of Gulja, as suggested in correlational and training studies of Korean and Chinese (e.g., Cho et al., in press; Lam & McBride, 2018; Pak et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2018).</p> <p>In addition, delayed copying of Gulja uniquely accounted for Korean word reading and spelling even after taking into account cognitive skills, Vietnamese copying and copying fluency. Delayed copying is recognised as a measure of orthographic working memory because it requires a degree of working memory to temporarily process orthographic information (e.g., Bourke et al., 2014; Costa et al., 2011; Mo et al., 2018). The finding suggests that orthographic working memory uniquely contributes to Hangul word reading and spelling beyond cognitive skills, visual‐motor integration, orthographic processing and automatic handwriting skills. The results of this study support previous English and Chinese studies in that delayed copying contributed to word spelling (e.g., Berninger et al., 2006; Bourke et al., 2014; Mo et al., 2018).</p> <p>Moreover, in this study, copying fluency and delayed copying of Hangul Gulja independently accounted for the unique variance in early word recognition in Korean, which is a relatively novel contribution of the present study. To our best knowledge, this is one of the first studies to demonstrate the significant link of copying fluency and delayed copying to word recognition in correlational studies. As Tan et al. (2005) proposed, copying fluency might facilitate children to decode at the visual‐orthographic level. In particular, significant link between delayed copying and reading might be related to phonological coding. As suggested by Bourke et al. (2014), it would be essential to access the phonological codes of Hangul, a shallow orthography, during orthographic working memory. Orthographic and phonological coding in working memory or episodic buffer might contribute to spelling as well as reading. Although this possibility was not explicitly investigated in this study, delayed copying was found to be strongly correlated with phoneme awareness (<emph>r</emph> = .58) and moderately with syllable awareness (<emph>r</emph> = .49). The relationship between delayed copying and phonological and orthographic awareness would be further examined in longitudinal studies in the near future.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-26">Cognitive correlates of word reading and spelling</hd> <p>In this study, orthographic awareness regarding correct directional orientation uniquely contributed to young children's Korean word reading and spelling after controlling for copying fluency, orthographic working memory and phonological awareness. It is acceptable to have the result that orthographic awareness was strongly correlated with delayed copying in this study (<emph>r</emph> = .66) given that working memory is regarded to integrate current input with linguistic knowledge from long‐term memory (Baddeley, 2000). Yet their independent contributions to early Korean reading and spelling suggest that orthographic working memory and orthographic awareness might be separate constructs as suggested by Mo et al. (2018).</p> <p>In addition, in this study, syllable and phoneme awareness have significantly contributed to Korean word spelling, while only syllable awareness has contributed to reading. Similarly, a previous Korean study reported the significant contribution of syllable awareness to Korean reading longitudinally among Korean second graders (Cho & McBride‐Chang, 2005b). The reason why both syllable and phoneme awareness contributed to spelling might be related to the morphophonemic writing convention in the Korean language. Previous studies also report that spelling requires strong phonological awareness skills in Korean and other regular orthographies (e.g., Cho, Chiu, & McBride‐Chang, 2011; Landerl & Wimmer, 2008). The results of this study contributed to broadening the application of alphasyllabic principles to early Korean spelling among young Korean children (e.g., Nag & Snowling, 2012).</p> <p>The present study suggests that cognitive correlates of Korean reading and spelling are highly comparable. Indeed, early Korean spelling has been scarcely investigated to date. Specifically, in this study, copying fluency and delayed copying of Hangul, syllable awareness and orthographic awareness uniquely contributed to both Korean reading and spelling. On the other hand, previous Chinese and English studies have reported significant associations of copying fluency and delayed copying with spelling only (Bourke et al., 2014; Lam & McBride, 2018; Mo et al., 2018). These current results are in line with previous studies showing that the components of the processes underlying reading and spelling are similar at the word level of alphabetic scripts (Verhoeven, 2000; Wagner et al., 1993). Because most previous studies have shown phoneme awareness as an important correlate of reading and spelling, this study has the advantage of extending to a variety of correlated skills such as syllable awareness, orthographic awareness and orthographic working memory.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-27">Limitations and future directions</hd> <p>There were several limitations to this study. First, pure copying was measured in a foreign script of Vietnamese in this study whereas previous Chinese studies included copying of several scripts such as Hebrew, Vietnamese and Korean (Wang et al., 2014). Future studies may need to include the copying of diverse scripts in correlational and training studies. Second, this study assessed orthographic working memory, orthographic awareness and phonological awareness but not phonological working memory. Recent studies have reported significant relations of phonological working memory and short‐term memory to Korean literacy development (Kim et al., 2018). In future studies, it would be ideal to investigate the relative contributions of the aforementioned four constructs to Korean word reading and spelling to develop Hangul acquisition models. Third, because this is a correlational study, future longitudinal studies are warranted to examine causal and bidirectional relations of predictor variables and literacy development. Fourth, small sample size is one of the limitations in this study. Future research may need to replicate and develop Hangul acquisition models using larger samples of young readers. Fifth, a 2 × 2 design would have allowed for the manipulation of familiarity (Vietnamese vs. Korean) and copying (immediate and delayed) for a future study to examine their effects in an experiment.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-28">Conclusion</hd> <p>In summary, this study demonstrated that copying fluency and delayed copying of Hangul Gulja were strongly linked to both Korean word reading and spelling. In addition, orthographic knowledge and syllable awareness significantly accounted for reading as well as spelling. These findings complement earlier findings in Korean literacy acquisition empirically and theoretically. First of all, this is one of the first studies to demonstrate the unique contributions of orthographic working memory and orthographic knowledge to early Korean word reading as well as spelling among Korean kindergartners. The results that both syllable and phoneme awareness independently accounted for Korean word spelling fit with an alphasyllabic reading model (Nag & Snowling, 2012). In addition, Korean word reading and spelling are highly comparable in their cognitive correlates such as syllable awareness, orthographic knowledge and orthographic working memory. Findings of the present study also provide practical implications. Training in the copying of Korean Gulja might facilitate more optimal learning of Hangul. In particular, training related to delayed copying, where some memory load occurs, is particularly efficient. Likewise, some previous studies have trained students to copy words from working memory, which has facilitated spelling accuracy (e.g., Zielinski, McLaughlin, & Derby, 2012). Future training and intervention studies could further validate the significant role of immediate and delayed copying in Hangul acquisition for Korean children and foreign adults.</p> <hd id="AN0149707028-29">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF‐2020S1A5A2A03044034). The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.</p> <ref id="AN0149707028-30"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Anderson, R. C., Ku, Y. M., Li, W., Wu, X., & Hao, M. (2002). 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Relations of Copying Skills to Korean Word Reading and Spelling among Korean Kindergartners
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cho%2C+Jeung-Ryeul%22">Cho, Jeung-Ryeul</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4172-717X">0000-0003-4172-717X</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Research+in+Reading%22"><i>Journal of Research in Reading</i></searchLink>. May 2021 44(2):247-263.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 17
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2021
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Primary+Education%22">Primary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Young+Children%22">Young Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Skills%22">Reading Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Writing+Skills%22">Writing Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Spelling%22">Spelling</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Word+Recognition%22">Word Recognition</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Chinese%22">Chinese</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Korean%22">Korean</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Thinking+Skills%22">Thinking Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Syllables%22">Syllables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Phonemic+Awareness%22">Phonemic Awareness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Orthographic+Symbols%22">Orthographic Symbols</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Vietnamese%22">Vietnamese</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22South+Korea%22">South Korea</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1111/1467-9817.12332
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0141-0423
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Background: Recent research suggests that diverse types of copying, including pure copying, copying fluency and delayed copying, contributed to children's spelling of Chinese characters and English words but not to word recognition. This study examined the relations of pure copying, copying fluency and delayed copying to beginning word reading and spelling in Korean Hangul. Methods: One hundred and five Korean kindergarten children aged 5 and 6 years were tested on pure copying of unfamiliar print of Vietnamese, copying fluency and delayed copying of Korean Gulja (written syllable) and cognitive skills including nonverbal reasoning, syllable and phoneme awareness and orthographic awareness. Results: Hierarchical regression analyses showed that copying fluency and delayed copying of Korean Gulja uniquely explained Korean word reading and spelling after controlling for age, cognitive skills and Vietnamese copying. In addition, squared semi-partial correlations revealed that orthographic and phonological awareness significantly and uniquely contributed to Korean word reading and spelling. Conclusion: The findings highlight that copying fluency and delayed copying of Hangul Gulja are the most important factors in early Korean word recognition and spelling. Similar cognitive correlates such as syllable and orthographic awareness and orthographic working memory contributed to the initial reading and spelling of Korean words.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2021
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1291604
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1291604
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1111/1467-9817.12332
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 17
        StartPage: 247
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Kindergarten
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Young Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Writing Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Spelling
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Word Recognition
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Chinese
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Korean
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Thinking Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Syllables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Phonemic Awareness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Orthographic Symbols
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Vietnamese
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: South Korea
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Relations of Copying Skills to Korean Word Reading and Spelling among Korean Kindergartners
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Cho, Jeung-Ryeul
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              M: 05
              Type: published
              Y: 2021
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              Value: 0141-0423
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              Value: 44
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              Value: 2
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            – TitleFull: Journal of Research in Reading
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