Supporting Self-Concept in School Settings Targeting Migrant Background Boys
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| Title: | Supporting Self-Concept in School Settings Targeting Migrant Background Boys |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Ryom, Knud (ORCID |
| Source: | Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. 2021 65(4):676-692. |
| Availability: | Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 17 |
| Publication Date: | 2021 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Research |
| Education Level: | Elementary Education Grade 6 Intermediate Grades Middle Schools Grade 7 Junior High Schools Secondary Education Grade 8 |
| Descriptors: | Immigrants, Males, Coaching (Performance), Self Concept, Team Sports, Athletics, Athletes, Skill Development, Interpersonal Relationship, Intervention, Physical Fitness, Social Environment, Foreign Countries, Low Income Students, Grade 6, Grade 7, Grade 8, Program Effectiveness |
| Geographic Terms: | Denmark |
| Assessment and Survey Identifiers: | Self Description Questionnaire |
| DOI: | 10.1080/00313831.2020.1739136 |
| ISSN: | 0031-3831 |
| Abstract: | This study investigated the experience of and effect created by a team sport and coaching intervention upon the self-concept of male school students (age: 12-16; n = 129) from diverse backgrounds. A convergent parallel mixed-method design was used to compare and relate a questionnaire study and an interview study in a quasi-experimental design, based on a two-year intervention period. Quantitative results showed a significant effect on (1) general self-concept, (2) physical skills, and (3) social relations. Qualitative interviews showed participants experiencing (1) a stronger and more confident self, (2) a better physical condition, and (3) a stronger and more supportive social environment. Implications of the results are discussed alongside strategies for working with self-concept in school settings targeting migrant background boys. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Entry Date: | 2021 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1298321 |
| Database: | ERIC |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwGdeUyYq1T5WsdiP2pY7B6AAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDINB--VgvxtnSrzM-gIBEICBm084igHhBJXt3mUWSijtrVgxVSyL7TJBYFOXreE2qxIWBxVFC3vLblF5UQuHL_0Y0AVw1Wq8GiBLXBgDCM-Rclar37qX4m0-opzUwhpOSaer9uJj0YFu_8E7BPK7QcGHlc0EyRMFb5WW0bpePd7VvdWJdWK7TBoBj5Uje2qbq6SVZ7gWVUecIXpRUBfhPrQOtCV4LIrqCaU-x0y_ Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0150389441;55b01jun.21;2021May21.03:44;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0150389441-1">Supporting Self-Concept in School Settings Targeting Migrant Background Boys </title> <p>This study investigated the experience of and effect created by a team sport and coaching intervention upon the self-concept of male school students (age: 12–16; n = 129) from diverse backgrounds. A convergent parallel mixed-method design was used to compare and relate a questionnaire study and an interview study in a quasi-experimental design, based on a two-year intervention period. Quantitative results showed a significant effect on (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>) general self-concept, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>) physical skills, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>) social relations. Qualitative interviews showed participants experiencing (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref4">1</reflink>) a stronger and more confident self, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref5">2</reflink>) a better physical condition, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref6">3</reflink>) a stronger and more supportive social environment. Implications of the results are discussed alongside strategies for working with self-concept in school settings targeting migrant background boys.</p> <p>Keywords: Group coaching; mixed methods; school; self-concept; team sport</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-2">Introduction</hd> <p>For many years, self-concept has been of interest in school research with regards to school motivation, development and achievement (Hay et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref7">27</reflink>]), and it has been linked to positive educational factors as well as the wellbeing of children and adolescents (Tabbah et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref8">59</reflink>]).</p> <p>Generally, self-concept refers to the ordered set of attitudes and perceptions that individuals hold toward and of themselves (Wolffe, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref9">63</reflink>]; Woolfolk, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref10">64</reflink>]). Thus, it constitutes the value that an individual places on his or her own characteristics, qualities, abilities, and actions (Woolfolk, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref11">64</reflink>]). Harter ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref12">26</reflink>]) defines self-concept as the general judgments one may demonstrate in relation to personal characteristics and daily living; hence, it includes social skills, cognitive abilities, and physical state. A person's perception of his or her individual self is gradually constituted and defined through interactions with the surroundings in which the individual may either accept or reject the opinions of others. Thus, self-concept can be regarded both as changeable and as a fairly stable entity (Kaur &amp; Kumar, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref13">30</reflink>]). Research has shown that school students with a strong, positive self-concept tend to (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref14">1</reflink>) be more confident in their own abilities when it comes to decision making, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref15">2</reflink>) have clearer expectations of successful outcomes, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref16">3</reflink>) have social relationships characterized by respect and dignity (Wolffe, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref17">63</reflink>]; Woolfolk, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref18">64</reflink>]). Therefore, a positive self-concept seems important if children and adolescents are to thrive and perform in school (Ryberg, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref19">44</reflink>]).</p> <p>Developing a healthy self-concept is important for all children and adolescents, but even more so for individuals from a cultural minority background (Dyson, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>]; Singh et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref21">50</reflink>]), who are often more vulnerable than their peers due to various social factors that affect the lives of these individuals (Morville &amp; Erlandsson, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref22">40</reflink>]). In a Danish context, many young boys with a non-Western ethnic background are in danger of staying on the periphery of Danish society, in part because of their ethnic background and socioeconomic factors. This challenge exists not only in Denmark but also in neighboring countries such as Sweden and Norway (Hammarén, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref23">25</reflink>]; Kristen et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref24">32</reflink>]). In addition, Scandinavian research documents an inability to finish secondary school and a notably lower rate of reaching advanced level/high school (pre-college), compared with the majority (Kristen et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref25">32</reflink>]). Furthermore, young ethnic minority boys are facing an above-average rate of unemployment (Hammarén, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref26">25</reflink>]). Many national initiatives have been attempted to break this pattern, such as additional Danish lessons and help with homework (Andersen [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref27">3</reflink>]). Unfortunately, these initiatives have been to no avail – neither in terms of academic level nor wellbeing at school (Andersen [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref28">3</reflink>]).</p> <p>Thus, experiences of inability (for instance, in school) may in turn harm migrant boys' general wellbeing and especially their self-concept (Tabbah et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref29">59</reflink>]). Therefore, adolescent migrant boys in Danish society may be at risk of developing a negative self-concept, which may inhibit their inclusion in society.</p> <p>In addition, prejudice and discrimination have also been found to negatively affect self-concept (Moradi &amp; Hasan, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref30">38</reflink>]). This further increases the risk of attaining a negative self-concept, since minorities in Denmark (and other Western countries) receive a great deal of attention and are often targeted by negative political campaigns, a situation that unavoidably leads to prejudice and discrimination (Hussain, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref31">28</reflink>]; Schmidt, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref32">49</reflink>]). A result of this may be that minority groups are disadvantaged with regards to the development of a positive self-concept (Berger &amp; Milem, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref33">8</reflink>]; Kenny &amp; McEachern, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref34">31</reflink>]) compared to the majority population.</p> <p>Research has highlighted the influence of family, peers, and mentors and involvement in community groups on the adolescent self-concept, generally speaking (Gibson &amp; Jefferson, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref35">24</reflink>]). An important part of local community is the school, which is moreover a very influential space in the lives of children and adolescents (Tucker &amp; Bernstein, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref36">61</reflink>]). Hence, the school environment is considered a very important arena in the process of personal development, including self-concept. The (importance of the) relationship between self-concept and school environment has been extensively researched (Baumrind, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref37">7</reflink>]; Tucker &amp; Bernstein, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref38">61</reflink>]; Ybrandt, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref39">65</reflink>]). For instance, Ybrandt ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref40">65</reflink>]) finds that a positive self-concept is a factor that protects individuals from developing behavioral problems.</p> <p>One way of improving self-concept is by means of a group coaching intervention. Coaching has gained increasing recognition, in various areas of life, as a way of supporting learning and development for the individual as well as the group (Cox et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref41">16</reflink>]), and group coaching seems to provide similar benefits (e.g., Stelter et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref42">57</reflink>]). Group coaching can be understood as a coach participating in the group's development and learning process (Stelter, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref43">54</reflink>]). The coach and the group together function as both participants and resource partners in the shared dialogue, whereby the overall aim is to bring the individual dialogue partners to the point that he or she wishes to reach. Through the social processes involved, participants support each other and create new outlooks for themselves as well as each other. Research suggests that group coaching increases participants' involvement (motivation) individually and as a group (Stelter et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref44">57</reflink>]). Similarly, research has found that group coaching yields clear benefits with regards to social fulfillment, general wellbeing, and the experience of success (Stelter, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref45">56</reflink>]; Stelter et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref46">57</reflink>]). Furthermore, group coaching has previously been found to help people accumulate social capital, which in turn may enhance the individual participant's experience of social integration and overall life satisfaction (Stelter et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref47">57</reflink>]). Social capital (Putnam, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref48">43</reflink>]) is a theoretical concept that is considered useful in terms of understanding the importance of social relationships and the formation of societies. Social capital, particularly when developed within group coaching (Stelter et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref49">57</reflink>]), supports the development of strong social communities. In sum, group coaching has been shown to enhance aspects associated with the development of a positive self-concept and therefore an intervention including group coaching was chosen for this study.</p> <p>In addition, mentoring was included to supplement coaching. Mentoring can be understood as broad, holistic personal development and/or career development (Clutterbuck, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref50">15</reflink>]). The distinction between coaching and mentoring is often unclear and characterized by a perceived dichotomy (Ryom, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref51">45</reflink>]). The general understanding is that coaching and mentoring are, to some degree, opposites, as per Clutterbuck's ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref52">15</reflink>]) definition: "Coaching in most applications addresses performance in some aspect of an individual's work or life; while mentoring is more often associated with much broader, holistic development and with career progress" (p. 9).</p> <p>Nevertheless, new forms of coaching, as well as mentoring, suggest viewing the individual from a holistic and ecological perspective wherein mentoring is considered an important part of coaching and vice versa (Ryom et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref53">46</reflink>]). Furthermore, research suggests that a combination of coaching and mentoring can embrace the diversity of ethnic minority groups and the approaches that are widespread in the community in which they live (Abbott et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref54">1</reflink>]). Ethnic minority groups from non-Western backgrounds often demonstrate prior knowledge and acceptance of the master doctrine that underlies mentoring. Coaching, on the other hand, can be seen as a representation of the individualistic and self-realizing Western world (Stelter, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref55">56</reflink>]). Thus, the combination of coaching and mentoring is at once familiar and challenging.</p> <p>While both coaching and mentoring were part of this study, it was decided, however, not to distinguish between these approaches. Third-generation coaching (which was used in this study) in particular adheres to the ambition of moving coaching away from problem solving and towards a holistic and ecological approach that is closer to mentoring (Clutterbuck, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref56">15</reflink>]; Stelter, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref57">56</reflink>]). Thus, coaching and mentoring grow together in this study rather than adhere to the normal definitions applied by those such as Clutterbuck ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref58">15</reflink>]). As a result of this choice, mentoring elements have also been included in several coaching groups, dependent on participants needs.</p> <p>Sport and physical activity are generally considered important to ensuring positive youth development across ages and gender (Bailey, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref59">4</reflink>]; Bailey et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref60">5</reflink>]; Bangsbo et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref61">6</reflink>]; Danish et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref62">18</reflink>]; Fraser-Thomas et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref63">22</reflink>]). Recent research suggests that team sports have greater potential in this respect than individual-oriented sports (Nielsen et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref64">41</reflink>]; Wikman et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref65">62</reflink>]), which makes team sport interesting to this study. Thus, a football community at school could prove a fruitful approach to enhancing participants' self-concept; it is also the case that the majority of immigrant boys in Denmark prefer football to other physical activities (Agergaard, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref66">2</reflink>]).</p> <p>In brief, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a joint team sport (football) and coaching intervention upon minority boys' self-concept within a school setting.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-3">The Intervention</hd> <p>To investigate whether a two-pronged intervention focusing on football and coaching/mentoring could have an effect on minority boys' self-concept, we conducted a two-year group coaching/mentoring and football intervention. The intention of this intervention was to involve the participants in two new arenas (football and coaching/mentoring), which could serve as a small dense network (coaching/mentoring) and a larger open network (football). Coaching/mentoring and football offer the possibility of enhancing subjective wellbeing and social capital (Bangsbo et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref67">6</reflink>]; Stelter, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref68">55</reflink>]). Such factors have previously been described as linked with academic success and positive school functioning (Bird &amp; Markle, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref69">11</reflink>]). Thus, the aim of this study was to examine how group coaching/mentoring and football in a school setting affected minority ethnic boys and how the participants experienced it. We hypothesized that football and group coaching/mentoring could be valid tools for addressing this group: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref70">1</reflink>) by offering shared neutral spaces in a school environment where ethnic minority boys otherwise feel estranged, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref71">2</reflink>) by strengthening the overall motivation for school and enhancing social capital through collaborative practices, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref72">3</reflink>) by using such a two-pronged intervention to develop subjective self-concept.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-4">Methods</hd> <p>This study was conducted as part of a larger project in which the research team also initiated participation in various social and technical learning activities at the chosen schools (Ryom, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref73">45</reflink>]). The overall aim of the larger project was to strengthen social resilience, collaboration, and active citizenship (Ryom et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref74">46</reflink>]). In order to address active citizenship (Biesta, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref75">9</reflink>]), in particular, self-concept was vital, since the participants often found themselves on the outskirts of society (Bloemraad et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref76">13</reflink>]; Gerritsen, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref77">23</reflink>]). However, neither citizenship nor other parts of the project besides self-concept are included or discussed further in this article (for more information, see Ryom, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref78">45</reflink>]; Ryom &amp; Stelter, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref79">47</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-5">Mixed-method Design</hd> <p>To capture the complexity of the intervention and its effects, a mixed-methods research (MMR) design using a questionnaire and interview data was chosen (Ostlund et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref80">42</reflink>]). The overall aim of MMR is to combine quantitative and qualitative methods (Moran et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref81">39</reflink>]). The core characteristics of MMR are: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref82">1</reflink>) using both quantitative and qualitative data to investigate a given phenomenon, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref83">2</reflink>) analyzing both types of data (often separately), (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref84">3</reflink>) adhering to strict data collection procedures and analyses, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref85">4</reflink>) integrating both types of data into an overall analysis, and (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref86">5</reflink>) presenting a transparent mixed-method design that includes the timing of data collection (continuously or in sequences) and the weighting of different kinds of data (Moran et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref87">39</reflink>]). The MMR approach was chosen for this study because narrow views of complex problems (such as how a self-concept develops) often tend to be misleading, whereas approaching the central problem from different perspectives may help researchers gain a more holistic and valid understanding.</p> <p>For this study, the convergent parallel mixed-method design (CPMMD; Ostlund et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref88">42</reflink>]), in which questionnaire and interview data are analyzed independently (see below), was chosen as the overall design (Figure 1). CPMMD is one of the most commonly used approaches in MMR (Creswell, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref89">17</reflink>]), which makes it a good choice with regards to readability, recognition, and accessibility for the reader. Its simplicity is its strength and the process acknowledges the unique differences between the two research approaches (QUAN and QUAL). It is based on Campbell and Fiske's ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref90">14</reflink>]) multi-trait–multi-method, whereby they argue that psychological traits are best understood by gathering different forms of data. In CPMMD, both quantitative and qualitative data are collected and analyzed separately before being compared and related, which then leads to the final interpretation. Findings are usually displayed together (see Table 5, later in this article) in order to present an overview for the purpose of comparison (Creswell, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref91">17</reflink>]). This process is further described in the 'Mixed-methods Data Integration section (see also Figure 1).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Convergent parallel mixed-methods design (Creswell, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref92">17</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-6">Participants</hd> <p>A non-probability sample of 129 boys aged 12–16 (mean = 14.2 years) was recruited from two adjacent public schools in an area of Copenhagen with a low socioeconomic status. The participants were in grades six–eight at the beginning of the intervention. The Danish school system (in Danish: Folkeskolen) involves nine or ten years of non-streamed comprehensive education; the tenth year is optional (Dolin &amp; Krogh, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref93">19</reflink>]). Children are placed in classes according to age, not ability, and are usually in the school system between the ages of six and sixteen. For the intervention, the boys were assigned to a coaching and football group (<emph>n</emph> = 89) or a control group (<emph>n</emph> = 40) based on their membership of either the intervention or control school, making the study quasi-experimental. At the intervention school, 55% of the pupils were from an ethnic minority background (approximately 80% in grades six–nine). At the control school, 70% of the pupils were from an ethnic minority background (Ministry of Education [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref94">37</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-7">Procedure</hd> <p>Together with 26 volunteer coaches and four local football coaches, the research team conducted a two-year group coaching and football intervention. The group of volunteer coaches and football coaches was carefully selected according to the following criteria: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref95">1</reflink>) extensive experience as a coach or football coach, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref96">2</reflink>) cultural background, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref97">3</reflink>) ability to tackle adolescents. Table 1 presents an overview of the volunteer coaches whereby percentages relate to the selection criteria.</p> <p>Table 1. Overview of volunteer coaches participating in the project.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead valign="bottom"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Coaching experience&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Cultural background&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Experience with adolescent&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Gender&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1&amp;#8211;5 years: 4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Danish: 15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Experienced: 6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Male: 15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;6&amp;#8211;10 years: 15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;European: 5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Some experience: 13&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Female: 11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;11+ years: 7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Other: 6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;No experience: 7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>The coaching intervention was conducted in groups consisting of 4–8 boys (12 groups in total) from the same school class. Two coaches were assigned to each group, with the following characteristics: male, female; preferably one younger, one older; one immigrant background, one Danish background. The coaches engaged in frequent coaching with their assigned group (<emph>n</emph> = 20–25 sessions per year per group, each session lasting 45 minutes). Coaching was arranged for all boys in grades six–eight on a voluntary basis (all 89 boys at the intervention school took part). The typical coaching session involved five boys and two coaches who met during a normal school day. Before each session, the coaches met and planned the content. In addition, all the volunteer coaches met and shared information and challenges in regular group supervision. Each group had a specific room in which they met for all sessions, and specific rituals and structures were negotiated in each group. Themes, conversations, and excursions were planned by the coaches and the boys in each group to ensure motivation and alignment with the overall theme of the intervention. Among the important themes that were addressed were society, school, family, life history, religion, and friendship. Furthermore, all participants, including the coaches, shared their life stories and the group bore witness to each other's stories throughout the process (see Ryom et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref98">46</reflink>] for more information).</p> <p>All 89 boys in the intervention group were askedto participate in the football intervention on a voluntary basis. Of these, 40 boys accepted and subsequently showed up for the football sessions. Four local football coaches were responsible for training and other activities (matches, social events, and education programs). The coaching team consisted of one older and one younger coach, one female coach and one coach who took on the role of manager of the team (a sort of project leader). The boys were offered three weekly training classes: two in the morning before school hours (7–8 am) and one midweek (Wednesday 3–4.30 pm) after school hours. Training lasted for 1–1.5 hours. The training emphasized the social climate while also focusing on technical skills, which means that it contrasted with the competitive environment characteristic of much football training for that age group in Denmark.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-8">Participant Flowchart</hd> <p>Based on the above-mentioned procedure, 129 participants were enrolled in the study. Since this study was conducted in a real-life setting with ethnic minority groups and in a socially deprived area, drop-outs were expected. The use of questionnaires was expected to create significant challenges in particular, such as translation issues, general problems of understanding, inaccessibility, and the participants having little or no research experience (Morville &amp; Erlandsson, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref99">40</reflink>]).</p> <p>Figure 2 depicts a flowchart illustrating the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study, as well as the number of drop-outs throughout the intervention period. The chart focuses on questionnaire participation.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Flowchart – inclusion, exclusion, and drop-out.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-9">Questionnaires</hd> <p>To assess personal and social development, an overall questionnaire composed of two validated questionnaires was distributed to the participants at three different points in time: before, during, and after the intervention.</p> <p>The Self-Description Questionnaire II (SDQ-II; Marsh, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref100">36</reflink>]) measures the individual's self-concept and is generally considered the best suited questionnaire for this purpose. The original version contains 102 questions that measure 11 subscales of a person's self-concept, namely: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref101">1</reflink>) math skills, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref102">2</reflink>) physical appearance, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref103">3</reflink>) general, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref104">4</reflink>) honesty, (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref105">5</reflink>) physical abilities, (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref106">6</reflink>) verbal abilities, (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref107">7</reflink>) relations to peers, (<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref108">8</reflink>) parent relations, (<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref109">9</reflink>) school, (<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref110">10</reflink>) same-sex relations, and (<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref111">11</reflink>) opposite-sex relations.</p> <p>However, as this study did not intend to investigate (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref112">1</reflink>) changes in school performance (grades), (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref113">2</reflink>) gender-related issues (the relationship between sexes), or (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref114">3</reflink>) appearance (the individual's perception of his or her own appearance), the subscales math, appearance, verbal abilities, and opposite-sex relations were removed. This reduced the questionnaire to 64 items.</p> <p>The Youth Sport Environment Questionnaire (YSEQ) is a validated questionnaire designed to measure group dynamics in sport (Eys et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref115">21</reflink>]). The YSEQ has been specifically developed for a young population, an area in which measuring instruments of this sort did not previously carry validity. The questionnaire consists of 18 statements, distributed on a nine-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree". Eight statements cover social cohesion and eight cover task cohesion; two statements are negatively charged and do not cover any of the categories (Eys et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref116">21</reflink>]). For the purposes of this study, the full version of the YSEQ was translated into Danish. In addition, the term "sport" was replaced with "class" because since this study was conducted with school classes instead of actual teams, and the project team estimated that the term "class" would create less confusion among respondents.</p> <p>The fused questionnaire was translated and back-translated in order to ensure the quality of the translation (Streiner &amp; Norman, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref117">58</reflink>]). Three experts – in psychometrics, questionnaires, and the English language, respectively – completed this process. A pilot test of the questionnaire was performed and, due to concerns about its length and accessibility resulting from the pilot test, reliability analyses were carried out on the subscales of the Danish versions of the SDQ-II and YSEQ. Based on these analyses, the three-person expert group scrutinized the items that seemed to covary poorly with the other items in the subscale and, of these, items that were shown to have poor validity (i.e., seemed only to a poor extent to capture the latent variable for the participant group) were removed. The expert group also used rational assessment of the content of removed items to ensure precision within the fused questionnaire. Furthermore, negatively-worded questions were removed, as the participants in the pilot test appeared to find them hard to understand. The fused and translated questionnaire contained 47 items, which together measured eight subscales: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref118">1</reflink>) general self-concept, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref119">2</reflink>) honesty, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref120">3</reflink>) physical abilities, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref121">4</reflink>) relations to peers, (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref122">5</reflink>) parent relations, (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref123">6</reflink>) same-sex relations, (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref124">7</reflink>) social cohesion, and (<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref125">8</reflink>) task cohesion. A Likert scale answering format was used in this study, ranging from 1 (Does not correspond at all) to 5 (Corresponds completely).</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-10">Statistical Analyses</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0150389441-11">Reliability</hd> <p>To test the reliability of the Danish fused version of the SDQ-II and YSEQ, a Cronbach's α (alpha) test was used.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-12">Intervention Effects</hd> <p>To assess the effects of the intervention, linear regression analyses were employed, in which measurements at the end of the intervention were used as dependent variables, and measurements before the intervention and group affiliation (intervention or control) were used as independent variables. As these analyses control for baseline levels, no testing of baseline-level differences was used. The entire intervention group is analyzed together, regardless of whether or not they participated in the football training.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-13">Semi-structured Interviews</hd> <p>Qualitative data for this study were gathered through interviews with 12 boys (in grades six–eight) from the same group of participants as the quantitative dataset. Conducting qualitative research involves relatively small samples, which makes random selection impossible. Thus, selection is generally analytically selective (Kuzel, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref126">33</reflink>]). This emphasizes the need to ensure that important characteristics are represented in the selection so that difficulties are not generated in terms of interpreting empirical patterns (Blaikie, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref127">12</reflink>]). This study used maximal variation as a strategy to ensure that a valid selection of participants occurred. The criteria included: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref128">1</reflink>) that all age groups should be involved, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref129">2</reflink>) that boys with different ethnic backgrounds (including Danish, Middle Eastern, Eastern European, and African) should be involved, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref130">3</reflink>) that all should have participated in both coaching and football. All the boys were interviewed at the end of the intervention period. The interviews were 25–45 minutes in duration. Semi-structured interviews were used (Kvale &amp; Brinkmann, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref131">34</reflink>]) to gain insights into the boys' lived experience of the overall project, including their opinions on the coaching and football intervention and their thoughts on their own personal development. Language barriers (caused by the different cultural backgrounds of interviewer and interviewee) were counteracted by using clear language and short questions. To avoid brief replies, avoidance and/or non-reflective answers, the questions were worded as open questions followed by in-depth questions to ensure detailed descriptions (Kvale &amp; Brinkmann, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref132">34</reflink>]); for example: "How do you perceive the social environment in school? And what is a good social environment [for]you?" (Ryom, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref133">45</reflink>], p. 298).</p> <p>Furthermore, the interviews were supplemented with pictorial material illustrating a variety of situations, expressions, and feelings; this material was used to elaborate on and further explore individual experiences. Other cross-cultural studies have used this approach successfully because pictures can "break the ice" and help participants to elaborate on their experiences (Bignante, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref134">10</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-14">Qualitative Data Analysis</hd> <p>This study was inspired by interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA), as defined by Smith et al. ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref135">52</reflink>]) and Sparkes and Smith ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref136">53</reflink>]). The intention was to use the strengths of this analytic approach, particularly its detailed process. However, this study is not particularly phenomenological and also relies heavily on interpretation. Thus, the phenomenological approach is evident particularly in familiarization with the material and rigid coding, whereas the subsequent analysis is with an interpretative approach (including the results presented). The number of interviews (12 in total) was a result of the researchers' desire for saturation of the themes (Kvale &amp; Brinkmann, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref137">34</reflink>]). This means that the research team continued to gather qualitative data until themes were perceived as entirely saturated and the central themes were visible across interviews. The researchers adhered to comprehensive guidelines throughout the analysis, which included the following steps: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref138">1</reflink>) transcription and reading (each interview was transcribed following a transcriptional guide and read a number of times to gain knowledge of the material); (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref139">2</reflink>) computerized coding of statements (an exploratory coding of each interview was applied, where immediate thoughts upon reading were written in short sentences); (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref140">3</reflink>) identification of links between codes (investigating whether the codes could be connected to each other); (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref141">4</reflink>) hierarchical division of codes (the exploratory codes from each interview were inserted in individual tables); (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref142">5</reflink>) cross-case investigation of interviews; and (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref143">6</reflink>) collapse of findings (the last step consisted of comparing the findings, which are presented in the Results section).</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-15">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0150389441-16">Questionnaires</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0150389441-17">Reliability</hd> <p>Cronbach's alpha values for the subscales of the SDQ-II and YSEQ are presented in Table 2.</p> <p>Table 2. Reliability analyses for all subscales of SDQ-II and YSEQ.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead valign="bottom"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Subscale&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pre&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Post&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ general&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.747&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.789&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ honesty&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.743&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.717&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ physical abilities&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.782&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.807&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ peer&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.788&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.761&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ parents&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.771&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.828&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ same-sex relations&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.674&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.768&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;YSEQ task&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.824&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.812&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;YSEQ social&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.904&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.882&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0150389441-18">Intervention Effects</hd> <p>There were significant group differences in the development of the SDQ subscale items "general" and "physical abilities" pre and post intervention. In addition, the YSEQ task subscale showed a significant development in the intervention group compared to the control group. Overall, it seems that the intervention group developed better than the control group with regards to three subscales. Furthermore, β-values indicate that the intervention group improved on all subscale items compared to the control group; however, only the above-mentioned subscale items were significant. All results of the analyses are presented in Table 3.</p> <p>Table 3. Intervention effect presented as B- (unstandardized coefficients) and <emph>p</emph>- values.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead valign="bottom"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Subscale&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;italic&gt;B&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;italic&gt;p&lt;/italic&gt;-value&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;italic&gt;n&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ general&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.69&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.004&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;58&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ honesty&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.18&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.363&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;50&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ physical abilities&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.74&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.002&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;49&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ peer&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.26&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.269&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;56&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ parents&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.31&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.196&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;55&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;SDQ same sex relations&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.31&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.180&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;47&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;YSEQ task&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.61&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.018&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;47&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;YSEQ social&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;0.576&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;49&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Note: Changes in <emph>n</emph> are due to missing answers in items of the respective subscales.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-19">Semi-structured Interviews</hd> <p>Based on analysis of the 12 interviews with participants from the intervention group, central themes were cross-examined. This resulted in the establishment of 12 themes, which were then divided into three topics: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref144">1</reflink>) a stronger and more confident self; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref145">2</reflink>) a stronger and more supportive social environment; and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref146">3</reflink>) a stronger perception of one's physical competencies. Each of these will now be described in more detail.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-20">A Stronger and More Confident Self</hd> <p>The participants had a more positive view of school after the project. The general perception of school seemed to be affected by the two-pronged psychosocial intervention; for example: "It gives you something different; it changes the mood. You become happier about going to school." Furthermore, the interventions markedly affected the participants' attitude towards and insights into Danish society: "I think that I have come closer to society. I understand society and its meaning better." As such, the interventions helped the participants to experience a new and more positive sense of belonging, which has been shown to affect self-concept in similar studies (see Singh et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref147">51</reflink>]).</p> <p>The participants perceived football training combined with regular coaching as important to the development of their identity: "Yes, I have gained more knowledge ... gotten more friends and I have ... I think changed a lot." The participants' saw football as a way to develop themselves and their identity:</p> <p>I have developed both personally and as a football player, including how to be in the real world and how to be on the football field. If I did not have football in my life, then I do not really know what I [would have] done. I think maybe I would be a little confused.</p> <p>The possibility to talk to one another, reflect on things together, and ask each other things out of curiosity, both within a large community (football) and in small units (coaching), proved important to the participants: "You get to know each other and also know yourself better, slowly." Being physically active was, moreover, believed to help the participants develop more discipline and commitment. The participants felt that through such dedication (being part of a team) they grew more confident in their own abilities as footballers as well as people.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-21">A Stronger and More Supportive Social Environment</hd> <p>Through the development of the two interventions, a new shared arena was co-created by coaches and participants, which resulted in a new social unity at school:</p> <p>You play with boys younger than yourself, for instance the little ones from 6th grade. I've got a lot out of it because I did not know how to play with them or how good they were, but I know that now.</p> <p>This new football community was important since it was a founding force in creating a large and supportive social environment. The participants described their perception of feeling part of something as important: "Yes, it is different. The guys I play football with, they respect me more and I respect them back." Coaching contributed to this perception by giving the participants confidence and helping them build trustful relations with each other in small units:</p> <p>Yes, it has actually bettered the social environment, especially because of that coaching. It has helped the unity very much and you dare say more to each other, especially when you're in a group together. Now you are aware that the others also have troubles, they might even know how to help you.</p> <p>In turn, this overall change in the social environment enhanced participants' overall motivation towards school. Thus, the initiation of both coaching and football in school seemed to affect the participants' social relations and cohesion, via different means but creating a collective result.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-22">A Stronger Perception of One's Physical Competencies</hd> <p>The participants believed that the overall intervention increased their motivation due to the physical activity (football) and bodily exercise involved in coaching: "I just want to keep fit, I do not want to lose control of my body, and then it is fun too." The daily football activities gave the participants something exciting to look forward to:</p> <p>You become happier as a person and it's good that you can play more football with your classmates .... The funny thing is, that I see them almost only in school, my classmates, now I feel that I see them outside of school as well.</p> <p>Furthermore, the mastering of football techniques helped participants to develop self-confidence while taking part in group activities enhanced the social relations between the participants: "I've become a much better goalkeeper, I think, and my coach says so, too. I'm glad ... I've also got some new friends." The topics described and their underlying themes are presented in Table 4.</p> <p>Table 4. Themes derived from qualitative interviews merged in three overall topics.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead valign="bottom"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Overall topic&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Derived theme based on participants experiences&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;A stronger and more confident self&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Renewed experience of school&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gaining insight into the broader society&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Football develops identity&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Talking together, reflecting and being curious&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Commitment and discipline strengthens confidence&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;A stronger and more supportive social environment&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;A shared community creates a new social unity&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Being part of something&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Learning to really, really know each other&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Confidence and trust a new feeling&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;A better social environment enhances motivation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;A stronger physical perception&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Physical activity motivates me&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;An exiting everyday with physical activities&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0150389441-23">Mixed-methods Data Integration</hd> <p>As indicated in the previous sections, a separate analysis was conducted for each dataset. Presenting two different types of data together, relating and comparing them, can be a difficult task. In order to perform this task, we have chosen to present the data jointly (Creswell, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref148">17</reflink>]). A table was thus developed (Table 5) to represent all results and make relating and comparing data easier. The aim was to provide the reader with a simple representation of the results that would be accessible and intelligible despite the complexity produced when using a mixed-methods approach (Creswell, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref149">17</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 5. Joint display of collective findings and new integrated themes.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead valign="bottom"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Questionnaire (findings):&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Interviews (overall themes):&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Integrated theme (QUAL&amp;QUAN):&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Enhanced general self-concept&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;A stronger and more confident self&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1. Development of self-concept&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Enhanced task corporation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;A stronger and more supportive social environment&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2. Stronger social relations at school&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Enhanced physical abilities&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;A stronger physical perception&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3. Feeling physically competent&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>The joint display in Table 5 illustrates the comparability between, on the one hand, findings from the interview group in terms of the themes that surfaced and, on the other hand, the results from the SDQ-II and YSEQ. QUAL and QUAN results and findings have been integrated into three overall themes that may be seen as representative of the collective findings of the study. These themes are: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref150">1</reflink>) development of a positive self-concept; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref151">2</reflink>) stronger social relations at school; and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref152">3</reflink>) feeling physically competent. These integrated themes will now be presented and their implications discussed.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-24">Discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0150389441-25">Development of Self-concept</hd> <p>Taking part in this study and the interplay between team sport and coaching affected the experience of those involved by providing new resources (personal, material and social) – resources that previously may have seemed impossible to obtain or been regarded as undesirable based on the terms on which they were given. Adults and communities firmly believing in you, noticing you in a positive way, and having no hidden agendas are examples of new resources (Illeris et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref153">29</reflink>]). Furthermore, the participants' cognitive abilities, ==which are an important factor to the development of a positive self-concept (Harter, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref154">26</reflink>]), seemed to develop favorably because of their participation (Ryom, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref155">45</reflink>]; Ryom et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref156">46</reflink>]).</p> <p>The development of the participants' general self-concept may primarily be due to these new possibilities established in the everyday life of the community. The strong p and b-values (Table 3) leave little doubt that the participants have experienced a significant development in regards to their self-concept. Combined with the themes from the qualitative interviews (Table 4), where a specific development seems to have occurred in the areas of: (a) a stronger and more confident self, (b) a stronger and more supportive social environment, and (c) a stronger physical perception of own competencies. Amalgamating the results points to the idea that a development of the self-concept takes place within a group (Stelter et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref157">57</reflink>]), which under normal circumstances would be in a precarious position (Tabbah et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref158">59</reflink>]). This is congruent with studies done with group coaching, which have ascribed great value to the group member affecting each other as well as the effect of the coach (Stelter et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref159">57</reflink>]).</p> <p>Thus, the experience of this study points in the direction of a potential for creating new co-created arenas when working with migrant boys under similar conditions (Ryom &amp; Stelter, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref160">47</reflink>]). Engaging different adults (football coaches and coaches) within the school setting can facilitate new arenas that gives rise to new motivation for school and, furthermore, such adults can take on other roles than school staff which not are bound by a regular student/teacher relation. Our results do not suggest that the boys did not have positive adults in the school system beforehand, but because of many of the boys' low academic scores and general demotivation when it comes to school, they themselves did not pursue such relationships. Additionally, with an often-weak contact to the broader society, the participants were not likely to create such relationships elsewhere.</p> <p>Hence, the favorable development of the participants' self-concept is important within the school context, because such experiences and the resulting feelings may enhance their general wellbeing as well as their academic motivation. This is especially important in light of the fact that immigrant adolescent boys' self-concept may be in a precarious position at the best of times due to experiences of things such as inability at school and discrimination in the public sphere (Tabbah et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref161">59</reflink>]). The overall explanation for the positive development in this study boils down to three factors: (a) the construction of new co-created arenas, which invited the participants to involve themselves, (b) the generation of opportunities for new adult relationships, and (c) building meaningful communities in the local environment, which were a result of the overall project (see Ryom, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref162">45</reflink>]). Through these efforts, it seems possible to affect immigrant adolescent boys, their self-concept and others in the local community and school. As such, the two-stringed intervention in this study can lead to a newfound interest in and positive perception of school and society in a population group that occupies a precarious position.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-26">Stronger Social Relations at School</hd> <p>This study laid the foundations for new communities, communities that were experienced as significant to be part of (Ryom, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref163">45</reflink>]). The subtle community-building that was thus facilitated helped to strengthen the social relationships between the boys, who could previously be characterized as partaking in a tough hierarchical environment with little social support. With new communities that focused on having something in common, such as being part of a football team or coaching group, it became apparent that the boys reinterpreted their social relations in a new and supportive way. Overall, the results support the fact that the interplay between football and coaching in the school context affected the social environment in a positive manner.</p> <p>A stronger social cohesion in school is an important factor with regards to enhancing a person's self-concept. A strong self-concept includes good social skills, which, according to our results, seem to have been strengthened during the course of the interventions central to this study. Furthermore, the self-concept is affected by interactions with the surroundings where the individual may either accept or reject the opinions of others, and this interaction gradually constitutes and defines the person's perception of self (Harter, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref164">26</reflink>]). A positive social environment is therefore important in terms of developing one's self-concept. This study shows that a positive social environment does seem to be a contributing factor to the positive development of the self-concept.</p> <p>Interestingly, the different interventions (football and coaching) seemed to strengthen different forms of social relations and cohesion, which were particularly emphasized in the qualitative interviews as described earlier. The football intervention seemed to strengthen the social relationships across classes and age at school, while the coaching intervention strengthened the close relationships within the class and in one-on-one interactions. Furthermore, football generally seemed to develop the physical condition and social skills of the participants, while coaching developed their cognitive abilities (Ryom, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref165">45</reflink>]). Thus, it appears that the two interventions complemented each other and increased the boys' overall approach to meaningful social relations and to their self-concept in general.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-27">Feeling Physically Competent</hd> <p>Bodily experiences and exercise constituted a vital part of the study, since the physical condition is an important factor of a person's self-concept (Harter, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref166">26</reflink>]). A central positive element reported by all participants during the interviews was the use of physical and sensory elements in both football and coaching. For instance, when the participants were asked to recall good experiences from coaching, they repeatedly mentioned counseling where the body and/or the senses were in play (Ryom et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref167">46</reflink>]). Combined with the participants' perception of their own increased physical abilities, it is safe to suggest that their physical state was improved due to their participation in the study. Which is also the conclusion of a recent meta-analysis, concluding that physical activity do affect self-concept in children and adolescent (Liu et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref168">35</reflink>]).</p> <p>The interplay between coaching and football was, furthermore, found to be important, as both interventions used bodily activities, which in turn may have contributed to the participants' strengthened self-concept by improving their physical condition.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-28">A two-stringed Intervention</hd> <p>Experience from the project indicated that the participants developed their social capital through participation in the interventions (Ryom, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref169">45</reflink>]; Ryom et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref170">46</reflink>]). An interesting perspective was however, that a need for strengthening small homogenous and local networks (bonding; Putnam, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref171">43</reflink>]) was a necessary and important first step to building social capital and eventually self-concept. This was a necessity, as many of the participants' did not experience immediate confidence or trust in school. Therefore, they were not immediately ready, in this context, to create larger social networks (bridging; Putnam, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref172">43</reflink>]) with, for example, other young people from the local area. This experience all so added to the fact that there are no quick fixes in working with this particular group in educational contexts. Thus, possibilities of bonding social capital was especially important in the initial part of the interventions. While more bridging-oriented activities was gradually offered (such as meeting other formal networks, e.g., in the sporting community), which eventually was welcomed by the participants, as only the close networks had been strengthened initially. The use of both coaching and mentoring was furthermore found beneficial in this study. As other researchers have suggested mentoring provides a long perspective (mentoring) compared to coaching's usually shorter perspective, or between more directive (mentoring) and non-directive (coaching; Salter &amp; Gannon, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref173">48</reflink>]) perspectives. However, mostly mentoring and coaching were experienced as a "dynamic duo", which were hard to separate (Salter &amp; Gannon, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref174">48</reflink>]). Thus, throughout our study, mentoring was, to some degree, very useful and beneficial. Like when a group of 9<sups>th</sups> grade students jointly applied for Danish citizenship with help from their coaches/mentor, or when the 8th grade students, were in internship (as part of school) and at the same time work with career counseling in relation to dreams of education and future work.</p> <p>However, the structure of our study and the nature of the group conversations had a strong emphasize on coaching-inspired dialogue. Mentoring with a strong focus on the mentor–protégé relationship was not a prominent feature. Instead, the focus was especially on developing a stronger relationship among the boys in the group and enhancing their social capital. Which is interesting, as social capital has been proven to affect self-concept in a similar female setting (Thomason &amp; Kuperminc, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref175">60</reflink>]). However, more research is need on this particular topic.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-29">Conclusion</hd> <p>In conclusion, this study has strengthened the participants' general self-concept through a two-stringed intervention, wherein social, physical, and personal abilities were affected. By means of developing both a larger community (football) and smaller units (coaching), the intervention affected the social relations at school as well as the participants' task cohesion. Indicating that an intervention as mentioned in this paper, can contribute positively to both class relations and school relations (Ryom, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref176">45</reflink>]). Furthermore, the participants' physical abilities were improved, which is assumed a contributing factor to the strengthening of their general self-concept. Since enhanced physical abilities, like enhancing your skill level in football or physical capabilities, can affect self-concept. Results as the ones presented here are especially important in light of the precarious position in which immigrant adolescent boys find themselves within the school system and society of Denmark (as well as in other countries). The positive effect upon a population group generally perceived as suffering from behavioral and other difficulties suggests that other groups might likewise benefit from such efforts as the ones described in this article.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-30">Limitations and Directions for Future Research</hd> <p>As showcased in the flowchart (Figure 2), a rather large dropout from the study occurred. A sizable dropout was expected, as the same has occurred in other studies and related fields where the significant challenges associated with research on ethnic minorities have been stressed (Morville &amp; Erlandsson, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref177">40</reflink>]). Particularly the use of questionnaires caused significant challenges (such as issues to do with translation, understanding, exclusion, and the target audience having only little research experience). Thus, there may be reason to suspect that those who dropped out of school and those who did not return the questionnaire would have adversely affected the outcome if they had completed the survey. In addition, our knowledge about methods for the inclusion and retention of the target group within a research project is limited. As a result, this particular target group more rarely participates in and more frequently drops out of research projects (Morville &amp; Erlandsson, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref178">40</reflink>]). Thus, the use of a mixed method design, including both interviews and questionnaires, has proved important to ensure the overall validity of the study. Furthermore, it is important, despite the known problems relating to research on ethnic minority groups, to conduct research with this group, especially in light of the changing migration patterns of Western societies. Although we are dealing with a small, albeit reliable, sample size and two comparable groups, we deem our results valid, especially since they are supported by data from various methods. Future research might further elaborate on the effects upon other target groups and the positive association between coaching and football in regards to the development of a strong self-concept.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-31">Compliance with Ethical Standards</hd> <p>Ethical approval: All procedures performed as part of this study involving human participants were carried out in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.</p> <p>Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants or legal guardians included in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-32">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>We thank the school and all of the participants for their participation.</p> <hd id="AN0150389441-33">Disclosure Statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0150389441-34"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Abbott, G., Gilbert, K., &amp; Rosinski, P. 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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Supporting Self-Concept in School Settings Targeting Migrant Background Boys – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ryom%2C+Knud%22">Ryom, Knud</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5947-3038">0000-0001-5947-3038</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Wikman%2C+Johan+M%2E%22">Wikman, Johan M.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Stelter%2C+Reinhard%22">Stelter, Reinhard</searchLink> – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Scandinavian+Journal+of+Educational+Research%22"><i>Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research</i></searchLink>. 2021 65(4):676-692. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 17 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2021 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research – Name: Audience Label: Education Level Group: Audnce Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+6%22">Grade 6</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Intermediate+Grades%22">Intermediate Grades</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Middle+Schools%22">Middle Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+7%22">Grade 7</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Junior+High+Schools%22">Junior High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+8%22">Grade 8</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Immigrants%22">Immigrants</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Males%22">Males</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Coaching+%28Performance%29%22">Coaching (Performance)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept%22">Self Concept</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Team+Sports%22">Team Sports</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Athletics%22">Athletics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Athletes%22">Athletes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Skill+Development%22">Skill Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Relationship%22">Interpersonal Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Fitness%22">Physical Fitness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Environment%22">Social Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Low+Income+Students%22">Low Income Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+6%22">Grade 6</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+7%22">Grade 7</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+8%22">Grade 8</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Effectiveness%22">Program Effectiveness</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Geographic Terms Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Denmark%22">Denmark</searchLink> – Name: SubjectThesaurus Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Self+Description+Questionnaire%22">Self Description Questionnaire</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1080/00313831.2020.1739136 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 0031-3831 – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: This study investigated the experience of and effect created by a team sport and coaching intervention upon the self-concept of male school students (age: 12-16; n = 129) from diverse backgrounds. A convergent parallel mixed-method design was used to compare and relate a questionnaire study and an interview study in a quasi-experimental design, based on a two-year intervention period. Quantitative results showed a significant effect on (1) general self-concept, (2) physical skills, and (3) social relations. Qualitative interviews showed participants experiencing (1) a stronger and more confident self, (2) a better physical condition, and (3) a stronger and more supportive social environment. Implications of the results are discussed alongside strategies for working with self-concept in school settings targeting migrant background boys. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2021 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1298321 |
| PLink | https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1298321 |
| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1080/00313831.2020.1739136 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 17 StartPage: 676 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Immigrants Type: general – SubjectFull: Males Type: general – SubjectFull: Coaching (Performance) Type: general – SubjectFull: Self Concept Type: general – SubjectFull: Team Sports Type: general – SubjectFull: Athletics Type: general – SubjectFull: Athletes Type: general – SubjectFull: Skill Development Type: general – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Relationship Type: general – SubjectFull: Intervention Type: general – SubjectFull: Physical Fitness Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Environment Type: general – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries Type: general – SubjectFull: Low Income Students Type: general – SubjectFull: Grade 6 Type: general – SubjectFull: Grade 7 Type: general – SubjectFull: Grade 8 Type: general – SubjectFull: Program Effectiveness Type: general – SubjectFull: Denmark Type: general – SubjectFull: Self Description Questionnaire Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Supporting Self-Concept in School Settings Targeting Migrant Background Boys Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Ryom, Knud – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Wikman, Johan M. – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Stelter, Reinhard IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 01 Type: published Y: 2021 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 0031-3831 Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 65 – Type: issue Value: 4 Titles: – TitleFull: Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research Type: main |
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