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Students' Self-Evaluation Bias of School Competence and Its Link to Teacher Judgment in Elementary School

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Title: Students' Self-Evaluation Bias of School Competence and Its Link to Teacher Judgment in Elementary School
Language: English
Authors: Jamain, Ludivine (ORCID 0000-0003-4894-4898), de Place, Anne-Laure (ORCID 0000-0002-2657-9925), Bouffard, Thérèse (ORCID 0000-0001-7439-7125), Pansu, Pascal (ORCID 0000-0002-8344-615X)
Source: Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal. Jun 2021 24(3):919-938.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 20
Publication Date: 2021
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Early Childhood Education
Grade 3
Primary Education
Grade 5
Intermediate Grades
Middle Schools
Descriptors: Elementary School Teachers, Elementary School Students, Self Evaluation (Individuals), Teacher Attitudes, Student Attitudes, Competence, Grade 3, Grade 5, Correlation, Performance, Gender Differences, Grade Repetition, Bias, Foreign Countries
Geographic Terms: France
DOI: 10.1007/s11218-021-09638-7
ISSN: 1381-2890
Abstract: Research on the self-evaluation bias of students' school competence has focused mainly on its correlates for students' school adaptation. This study focused on teachers' theories about students with a positive or negative bias in their self-evaluation of competence. French students enrolled in the third and fifth grades of elementary school (sample 1, N = 508; sample 2, N = 322) and their teachers (sample 1, N = 27; sample 2, N = 13) participated in this study. We examined the relationship between the more or less biased perceptions that students have of their competence in French and mathematics and their teacher's judgment. Models for each sample were tested while controlling for students' performance, their gender, repeating of a school year, and average class level. The results for both samples showed that the more positively biased a student's evaluation of their competence was, the better their teacher's judgment was.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2021
Accession Number: EJ1302826
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0151271662;luo01jun.21;2021Jul08.05:36;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0151271662-1">Students' self-evaluation bias of school competence and its link to teacher judgment in elementary school </title> <p>Research on the self-evaluation bias of students' school competence has focused mainly on its correlates for students' school adaptation. This study focused on teachers' theories about students with a positive or negative bias in their self-evaluation of competence. French students enrolled in the third and fifth grades of elementary school (sample 1, N = 508; sample 2, N = 322) and their teachers (sample 1, N = 27; sample 2, N = 13) participated in this study. We examined the relationship between the more or less biased perceptions that students have of their competence in French and mathematics and their teacher's judgment. Models for each sample were tested while controlling for students' performance, their gender, repeating of a school year, and average class level. The results for both samples showed that the more positively biased a student's evaluation of their competence was, the better their teacher's judgment was.</p> <p>Keywords: Halo effect; Perceived competence; School context; Self-evaluation bias of school competence; Teacher's judgment</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Teacher's judgment is a guide for teaching practices (Babad [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>]; Good and Brophy [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref2">27</reflink>]; Martinez et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref3">52</reflink>]). It is also crucial for students' judgment of their own abilities as well as learning and performances (Upadyaya and Eccles [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref4">75</reflink>]). Some studies have confirmed the strong relationship between academic performance and teacher's judgment. For example, a meta-analysis of 16 studies conducted by Hoge and Coladarci ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref5">35</reflink>]) reported a mean correlation of 0.66 between teacher's judgment and student's performance, when this performance was measured by standardized tests. A more recent meta-analysis of 75 correlational studies (Südkamp et al. [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref6">70</reflink>]) confirmed the strong correlation between teacher's judgment and student's performance (r = 0.63) with large disparities between studies. However, teacher's judgment is not entirely based on the student's performance. Among the main additional factors that build teacher's judgment, the class context and the halo effect as well as students' school history and characteristics have been studied the most (Bressoux and Pansu [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref7">10</reflink>]; Dompnier et al. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref8">19</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref9">20</reflink>]; Südkamp et al. [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref10">71</reflink>]). This paper aims to extend the study of these factors by examining how students' self-evaluation biases in language arts and mathematics are linked to their teachers' judgment of their competence in these fundamental school subjects.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-3">Main determinants of teacher's judgment</hd> <p>Context plays a significant part in teachers' judgment since they often have comparison standards in mind, and in consequence rarely assess a student independently from the other students in the class. This contextual mechanism comes from the tendency for people to "evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparison respectively with the opinions and abilities of others" (Festinger [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref11">23</reflink>], p. 118), which is similar when judging the opinions and abilities of others (Bressoux and Pansu [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref12">10</reflink>]; Dompnier et al. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref13">19</reflink>]). Davis ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref14">17</reflink>]) showed that students with the same performance were likely to have higher grade averages in low-ability schools than in high-ability ones. This is what Marsh named the Big- Fish-Little-Pond effect: it is better to be a large fish in a small pond than a small fish in a large pond (Marsh [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref15">46</reflink>]; Marsh and Parker [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref16">50</reflink>]). In other words, an average student will be judged more favorably in a low-performing class, and less favorably in a high-performing class. This phenomenon is transcultural as it appears in both collectivist and individualist cultures (Seaton et al. [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref17">66</reflink>]).</p> <p>The halo effect is another well-known mechanism that plays a part in teacher's judgment. It is defined as the tendency to form a homogeneous perception of a person and to judge them as a whole (Balzer and Sulsky [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref18">2</reflink>]; Sanrey et al. [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref19">65</reflink>]; Thorndike [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref20">72</reflink>]). For example, when a teacher assigns scores to different dimensions of a student's piece of work, these scores are more strongly related than when these dimensions are evaluated separately by different teachers (Dennis [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref21">18</reflink>]; Lai et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref22">40</reflink>]). Dompnier et al. ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref23">19</reflink>]) described a halo effect in teacher's judgment in different school subjects: teacher's judgment in language art is dependent on a student's performance in this subject, but also on their performance in mathematics, and vice versa. As a whole, these results support the existence of a halo effect in teacher's judgment, which leads to overestimating the correlations between judgments in different subjects.</p> <p>Teachers' judgment is also influenced by their beliefs and implicit theories about their students' characteristics and affiliation to a group (e.g., gender, socio-economic background). For example, teachers describe boys as more logical and as understanding science more easily than girls; this is especially true for low-achieving students (Tiedemann [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref24">73</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref25">74</reflink>]). Similar effects have been observed for socio-economic background: students from disadvantaged social groups are judged to be less competent, especially when information about their performance is ambiguous (e.g., Darley and Gross [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref26">16</reflink>]; Hauser-Cram et al. [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref27">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>Finally, classroom behavior and students' school history may also influence teacher's judgment (Brophy and Good [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref28">12</reflink>]; Dusek and Joseph [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref29">22</reflink>]). Students who exhibit appropriate school behavior such as effort and conformity to behavioral norms are better judged than others. For example, Hafen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref30">31</reflink>]) showed that students who display or report behavioral problems are judged as having lower educational perspectives. Having repeated a year and academic self-perceptions are two interconnected aspects of students' school history, which also play a part in teacher's judgment (Bressoux and Pansu [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref31">11</reflink>]; Dompnier et al. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref32">19</reflink>]., 2007). Teachers often expect more knowledge and skills from students who repeated a year and tend to judge them more severely than others. Moreover, student self-perception and teacher judgment are linked to each other (Marsh [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref33">47</reflink>]; Marsh and Martin [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref34">49</reflink>]). Students who have the best perception of their competence are better judged and, in turn, positive teacher judgments increase students' positive self-perceptions.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-4">Students' self-evaluation biases and teacher's judgment</hd> <p>Although students' self-perceptions are presented as a systematic predictor of their achievement, these perceptions are not always realistic and may be biased (Bouffard et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref35">5</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref36">7</reflink>]; Bouffard and Narciss [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref37">6</reflink>]; Philips, 1984, 1987). Some students overestimate their school competence (positive self-evaluation bias), while others underestimate their competence (negative self-evaluation bias). Most of the studies on the academic self-evaluation bias of competence sought to identify the harmful or beneficial implications for students who have a positive or negative self-evaluation bias. A student's overestimation of their own competence has been associated with greater motivation, more confident behaviors in class, and higher achievement (Bouffard et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref38">5</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref39">8</reflink>]; Coté et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref40">15</reflink>]; Dupeyrat et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref41">21</reflink>]). A positive self-evaluation bias also seems to be adaptive, as it protects against negative emotions such as anxiety and depression (Bouffard and Narciss [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref42">6</reflink>]; Shin et al. [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref43">68</reflink>]). Students who overestimate their academic skills perceive their failures as a challenge rather than a threat (Kurman [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref44">39</reflink>]). In contrast, underestimation of competence is clearly detrimental to students: they exhibit lower intrinsic motivation, little curiosity and withdrawal behaviors (Bonneville-Roussy et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref45">4</reflink>]; Bouffard et al. [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref46">9</reflink>]; Larouche et al. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref47">41</reflink>]; Phillips [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref48">59</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref49">60</reflink>]). They have lower expectations for success, obtain performances that are inferior to their abilities, and report little pride in their results and negative attitudes toward school (Bouffard et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref50">5</reflink>]; Phillips [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref51">59</reflink>]). They are also unlikely to view failure as a challenge, and are therefore unwilling to make any effort (Miserandino [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref52">55</reflink>]; Phillips and Zimmerman [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref53">61</reflink>]). Although extensive literature exists on the positive or negative correlates of students' self-evaluation biases, to our knowledge only two studies examined how students' self-evaluation biases could relate to the way teachers judge them. Fleury-Roy and Bouffard ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref54">24</reflink>]) questioned 684 students and their 74 teachers to assess whether teachers were able to identify students with a self-evaluation bias. They showed that teachers had difficulty recognizing these students. They also found that teachers judged boys who had a negative bias as being less autonomous, having a more negative mood and being more withdrawn than their peers. In another study with French-Canadian teachers, Author asked teachers whether they considered it useful or harmful for students to under- or over-evaluate their competence (Lévesque-Guillemette et al. [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref55">43</reflink>]). Two-thirds of them reported believing that it was better for students to over-evaluate their competency than to under-evaluate it. These results support the hypothesis that teachers are sensitive to the self-evaluation bias of their students and that their judgment is affected by the positive or negative orientation of the self-evaluation bias they perceive in them. Further examination of the links between student's self-evaluation bias and teacher's judgment in a specific subject area, once controlling for contextual effects and other determinants of teacher's judgment, may give additional information about how the variance is shared between the two phenomena.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-5">Overview</hd> <p>This study examined how teacher's judgment on basic learning in French and mathematics relates to students' self-evaluation biases. We consider that a self-evaluation bias in one school subject does not automatically imply a bias in another school subject (Boissicat et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref56">3</reflink>]; Jamain [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref57">37</reflink>]). In addition, the links between self-evaluation biases and teacher's judgment are examined in two samples. This replication aimed to highlight the invariant nature of the link between self-evaluation biases and teacher's judgment in fundamental school subjects and at two key periods in primary education: mid-elementary school (third graders), when priority is to acquire fundamental knowledge (reading, writing, arithmetic, etc.) and before entry into secondary education (fifth graders), when the priority is to consolidate this knowledge. Firstly, we expected teacher's judgment to relate to several well-known school factors: student's performance, class context, halo effect, student's school history (repeating a year) and gender stereotypes. We expected that teachers would better judge students who perform well in the school subject being assessed as well as in other subjects. They would also better judge students when the class level is low, and be biased in favour of boys when students are judged in mathematics, and girls when they are judged in French (e.g., Frome and Eccles [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref58">25</reflink>]; Pansu et al. [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref59">57</reflink>]; Tiedemann [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref60">73</reflink>]). Secondly, based on Fleury-Roy and Bouffard ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref61">24</reflink>]) and Lévesque-Guillemette et al. ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref62">43</reflink>]), we assumed that students in both samples who underestimated their school competence would be judged as less competent by their teachers than those who overestimated themselves. From the age of 8 or 9, children's self-evaluations become increasingly accurate, mainly because the consideration of context and the weight of social comparison increase with age (Harter [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref63">33</reflink>]). From this age onwards, comparing themselves with classmates with regard to a given school subject inform students about their competence. These inter-student comparisons also inform the judgment of teachers about the competence of their students.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-6">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0151271662-7">Participants</hd> <p>The data for this study were collected within the context of a broader project examining the determinants and consequences of the self-evaluation bias in primary school. Two samples (third and fifth grades) were drawn from 18 schools located in the area of Grenoble, France. 508 third-graders and their 27 teachers were enrolled in sample 1 (269 girls; 26 repeaters; <emph>M</emph><subs><emph>age</emph></subs> = 8.5 years; <emph>SD</emph> = 0.42). 322 students and their 16 teachers were included in sample 2 (175 girls; 13 repeaters; <emph>M</emph><subs><emph>age</emph></subs> = 10.5 years; <emph>SD</emph> = 0.41). Informed consent was obtained from all parents and legal guardians, as well as school directors and teachers taking part in the study. The procedure was reviewed and accepted by the Chief Education Officer for primary schools and the French National Commission for Information Technology and Civil Liberties (CNIL; register number: 0886549).</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-8">Material</hd> <p>The measures were the same for both samples, except for the performance tests, which were specific to the acquisitions in third and fifth grades.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-9">Students' evaluation of school competence</hd> <p>The students assessed their perceived competence in French and mathematics using the scholastic subscale of the French version (Guilbert [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref64">30</reflink>]) of Harter's Perceived Competence Scale for Children (Harter [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref65">32</reflink>]), which had been adapted to each subject (6 items). The items included: "I feel that I am very good at my schoolwork in French [mathematics]". Students rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (not true) to 4 (very true) to what extent the statement was true for them. A high score indicated a high self-perception of school competence. Alphas for this scale were satisfactory (sample 1: 0.77 in both French and mathematics, sample 2: 0.82 in French and 0.87 in mathematics).</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-10">Students' test scores in French and mathematics</hd> <p>Data were collected from 2015 to 2017. We developed tests for third and fifth grade students to assess their abilities in French and mathematics. The tasks were taken from the national evaluations developed by the French General Department of School Education (DGESCO) and from evaluations created by departmental academic services. We measured reading, writing, vocabulary, grammar and spelling in French, and calculation, knowledge of natural numbers, use of numerical data, geometry, and notions of quantities and measurements in mathematics. Given the time allowed for completing the tests—40 min per test—the tasks were selected according to pre-defined decision-making rules regarding the structure of the document and the competence to be tested. The tasks consisted of various items and 1 point was given for each correct answer. Only discriminant items were retained to calculate performance scores. The French test consisted of 28 items in third grade and 18 in fifth grade, and the mathematics test included 23 items in third grade and 13 in fifth grade. Since each test had a different number of items, the scores were reported out of 20. This choice was made in order to align the results with the standard French grading system in which, in which test scores and class averages are based on a maximum of 20 points throughout a student's schooling. The mean scores in third grade were 11.39 (<emph>SD</emph> = 4.40) in French and 13.79 (<emph>SD</emph> = 4) in mathematics. In fifth grade, the mean scores were 11.92 (<emph>SD</emph> = 3.91) for the French test and 9.24 (<emph>SD</emph> = 4.28) for mathematics.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-11">Class average performance scores</hd> <p>In each class, we computed an average performance score for both subjects based on the individual scores at the standardized tests in French and mathematics. These average scores reflect the class level competence in French and mathematics: the higher the average score, the better the class performance. For the third graders, the maximum class average in French was 15.74 and the minimum class average was 8.11. In mathematics, the maximum average was 16.89 and the minimum was 10.87. For the fifth graders, the maximum class average in French was 14.53 and the minimum class average was 9.46. In mathematics, the maximum average was 11.62 and the minimum was 5.70.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-12">Students' self-evaluation biases</hd> <p>The self-evaluation bias of competence reflects the discrepancy between the self-evaluation of competence and the actual competence. Based on self-enhancement research, we used a residual score measured from the regression of self-perception (S), here self-evaluation of school competence, by a reality criterion (T), here performance (e.g. Paulhus and John [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref66">58</reflink>]). The residue has the advantage of being independent of the reality criterion (T), thus allowing it to be interpreted independently (e.g. Chung et al. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref67">13</reflink>]; John and Robins [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref68">36</reflink>]; Leising et al., 2016). One disadvantage may be an over-dependence on the residual score with self-perception when it lacks precision: the weaker the correlation between self-perception (S) and the reality criterion (T), the more the residual score is confounded with self-perception (Kruger et al., 2017). In our samples, self-evaluation of competence (S) and performance in the same school subject are moderately correlated (0.40 < <emph>r</emph> < 0.45), suggesting a partial independence of these two concepts. To date, the residual method has been the most widely used in studies examining the self-evaluation bias of school competence and in those which examine the role of error in self-evaluation (e.g. Bonneville-Roussy et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref69">4</reflink>]; Bouffard et al. [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref70">9</reflink>]; Jamain et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref71">38</reflink>]; Robins and Beer [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref72">64</reflink>]). The higher the residual score, the more positive the self-evaluation bias, the lower the residual score, the more negative the bias. The closer the residual is to zero, the more realistic the self-evaluation of competence.</p> <p>For this study, in each sample and for both school subjects, scores on the perceived competence scale were regressed on students' scores on the standardized tests. In a school context, students' scores on standardized tests are valid approximations of actual performance (T) to the extent that grades given by the teacher could be contextually dependent. The range of the standardized residual scores in the third grade was −3.347 to 2.631 in French and −3.170 to 1.909 in mathematics. It ranged from −3.105 to 2.345 in French, and −3.217 to 2.106 in mathematics for the fifth grade.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-13">Teacher's judgment</hd> <p>The teachers rated each student's level of competence in French and mathematics using an 11-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (very poor results) to 10 (very good results). In order to facilitate these rating for teachers who did not use numerical grading, we explained to them that the task consisted in reporting what they could observe of their students' level of competence in each subject.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-14">Procedure</hd> <p>The students completed the questionnaire individually in group sessions during regular school hours. They were told they were participating in a scientific study about school, and that their tests scores and questionnaire answers would remain confidential. The first author administered the school competence questionnaire first, then the performance tests. The session lasted about two hours, including breaks. The teachers were asked to rate each of their students in both French and mathematics and to send their questionnaires to the experimenter in the days following the classroom session.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-15">Data analyses</hd> <p>The data constituted a multilevel data structure, in which students (level 1) were nested within classes (level 2) and classes nested within schools (level 3). The hypotheses were tested using multilevel regression models of teacher judgment of student competence in French and mathematics with a maximum likelihood estimator to compare models that did not have the same fixed effects. All estimation processes were carried out using SPSS software (IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0). The models were estimated on 485 students for the third graders sample and 322 students for the fifth graders. In order to compare the French and mathematics models on the basis of similar samples, we excluded third graders from a class in which test scores in French were lacking from our analyses.</p> <p>Preliminary analyses revealed that the school level effect was non-significant in both the third and the fifth grades: this suggests that the three-level structure does not fit the data better than the students and class level only. Therefore, we did not retain the school level. Several models are presented in the results section. The first one is an empty model (model 0) which describes how the variance of teacher judgment is divided between the different levels and allows us to estimate the shared variance between students and between classes. The class level was only significant in the third graders sample. However, since we are interested in the teachers' judgment and have tested the addition of a level 2 variable as a fixed effect (class average), we decided to keep the class level in both samples. The second model integrates the students' scores on the French and mathematics tests (model 1). The class average score at the standardized test in French (mathematics) was then added as a potential determinant of the teacher's judgment in French (mathematics). No significant relationship was observed in third grade; thus, the results of this model are presented only for the fifth grade. Characteristics related to students and their educational background were then added when they were significant in at least one of the school subjects (model 2, third graders; model 3, fifth graders). Finally, the self-evaluation bias variable was added to the final model (model 3, third graders; model 4, fifth graders). Scores on a continuous scale (test scores, self-evaluation bias) were standardized in order to facilitate comparison between the regression coefficients obtained.</p> <p>The significance of the models was tested using the deviancy decrease (−2 log V). The deviance value represents the deviation from a model with a perfect fit (see Bressoux, 2010, p. 241). The higher the deviance, the less the model adjusts to the data and predicts the dependent variable. This value is relative because it only makes sense when compared to another deviance model. To estimate whether one model is better than another, the deviation of the most complete model must be compared to the deviation of the initial or previously tested model. The deviancy decrease is also called the likelihood ratio test[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref73">1</reflink>] (Bressoux, 2010).</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-16">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0151271662-17">Correlations</hd> <p>The results in Table 1 show that in both school subjects, the links between self-evaluation biases and teacher's judgment were rather weak but significant. In third grade, the self-evaluation bias in French was positively and moderately related to teacher's judgment in French as well as in mathematics. In fifth grade, the self-evaluation bias in French tended to be related to teacher's judgment, but only in French. In both grades, (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref74">1</reflink>) the self-evaluation bias in mathematics was only related to teacher's judgment in mathematics. These links were small to moderate and positive. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref75">2</reflink>) The relation between teacher's judgment in French and mathematics was the strongest observed between variables. (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref76">3</reflink>) The tests scores in French and mathematics were highly related and each was strongly related to teacher's judgment in the corresponding subject. (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref77">4</reflink>) Finally, the moderate correlation between the self-evaluation biases in French and mathematics indicated that they are distinct phenomena, which underlines the relevance of examining them separately.</p> <p>Table 1 Intercorrelations for study variables at the student level by grade</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>Variables</p></th><th align="left"><p>Grade</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>n</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>M</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SD</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>1</p></th><th align="left"><p>2</p></th><th align="left"><p>3</p></th><th align="left"><p>4</p></th><th align="left"><p>5</p></th><th align="left"><p>6</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>1</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Self-evaluation bias in French</p></td><td align="left"><p>3rd</p></td><td align="left"><p>485</p></td><td align="left"><p>0</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5th</p></td><td align="left"><p>322</p></td><td align="left"><p>0</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>2</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Self-evaluation bias in mathematics</p></td><td align="left"><p>3rd</p></td><td align="left"><p>508</p></td><td align="left"><p>0</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>.33<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5th</p></td><td align="left"><p>322</p></td><td align="left"><p>0</p></td><td align="left"><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p>.24<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>3</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Performance in French</p></td><td align="left"><p>3rd</p></td><td align="left"><p>485</p></td><td align="left"><p>11.39</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.40</p></td><td align="left"><p>.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>.008</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5th</p></td><td align="left"><p>322</p></td><td align="left"><p>11.92</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.91</p></td><td align="left"><p>.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>.03</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>4</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Performance in mathematics</p></td><td align="left"><p>3rd</p></td><td align="left"><p>508</p></td><td align="left"><p>13.79</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>.13<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>.64<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5th</p></td><td align="left"><p>322</p></td><td align="left"><p>9.24</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.28</p></td><td align="left"><p>.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>.68*</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>5</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Academic judgment in French</p></td><td align="left"><p>3rd</p></td><td align="left"><p>508</p></td><td align="left"><p>7.51</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.06</p></td><td align="left"><p>.20<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.06</p></td><td align="left"><p>.69<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.67<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5th</p></td><td align="left"><p>322</p></td><td align="left"><p>7.42</p></td><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>.10<sup>+</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>.67<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.59<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>6</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Academic judgment in mathematics</p></td><td align="left"><p>3rd</p></td><td align="left"><p>508</p></td><td align="left"><p>7.75</p></td><td align="left"><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p>.23<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.18<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.55<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.69<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.83<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5th</p></td><td align="left"><p>322</p></td><td align="left"><p>7.53</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.02</p></td><td align="left"><p>.02</p></td><td align="left"><p>.18<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.58<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.62<sup>**</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>.77<sup>**</sup></p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>+</sups> <emph>p</emph> ≤.10, <sups>*</sups><emph>p</emph> ≤.05, <sups>**</sups><emph>p</emph> ≤.01, <sups>***</sups><emph>p</emph> ≤.001</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-18">Teacher's judgment in the third grade</hd> <p>In third grade, the empty model (model 0 in Table 2) revealed the variance split of teacher's judgment between the student and class levels. The major part of the variance was explained by differences within students. The part of interclass variance was estimated at 10.56% of the total variance in French and 10.30% in mathematics. For each subject, we added both scores at the standardized tests as teacher's judgment predictors in the next model (model 1 in Table 2). These scores accounted for nearly 60% of the teacher's judgment variance within classes (intra-class / inter-student) in French and 55% in mathematics. It also explained nearly 30% of the variance between classes in French only. In both subjects, students who scored highly were judged to be better than those who obtained low scores. However, the test score in one subject carried more weight in teacher's judgment of the student's competence in that subject than the test score in the other subject. A positive difference of one standard deviation on the French test score increased the teacher's judgment of approximatively one tenth of a point in the same subject. The results were similar in mathematics. However, the mathematics test score had more impact for judgment in French than the opposite (the French test score on judgment in mathematics). The students had about two-thirds of a one point more on the French judgment scale ranging from 0 to 10 when their score increased by one standard deviation on the mathematics score scale compared with approximatively half a point in the opposite case. In the next model (model 2 in Table 2), we investigated whether repeating a year and being a girl or a boy were linked to teacher's judgment. This model fitted the data better than the previous one (Δ<emph>D</emph> (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref78">1</reflink>) = 13.57; <emph>p</emph> < 0.001 in French, Δ<emph>D</emph> (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref79">1</reflink>) = 22.28; <emph>p</emph> < 0.001 in mathematics). Students having repeated a year were judged less positively than those who had not, with a difference of almost 1 point on the 0–10 judgment scale in both academic subjects. Gender was only related to teacher's judgment in mathematics, in favor of boys for whom the teacher's judgment score was about half a point higher than for girls. Finally, in the last model (model 3 in Table 2), we included the self-evaluation bias in French (mathematics) to test our hypothesis concerning the relationship between this bias and teacher's judgment in French (mathematics). The addition of the self-evaluation bias significantly improved the model of teacher's judgment in French (Δ<emph>D</emph> (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref80">1</reflink>) = 26.78; <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and in mathematics (Δ<emph>D</emph> (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref81">1</reflink>) = 32.77; <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). A positive difference of one standard deviation on the self-evaluation bias scale increased the teacher's judgment by about one-third of a point in the same subject. In other words, teacher's judgment was more favorable for students who had a positive bias of self-competence, regardless of the subject being assessed and when a range of variables known to have an effect on teacher judgment were controlled.</p> <p>Table 2 Parameters and goodness of fit for multilevel regression models of academic judgement in French (bold font) and in mathematics (normal font) for the third graders</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Effect</p></th><th align="left"><p>Model 0</p></th><th align="left"><p>Model 1</p></th><th align="left"><p>Model 2</p></th><th align="left"><p>Model 3</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="5"><p><italic>Fixed effects</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Constant</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>7.53</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.16)</bold></p><p>7.79<sup>***</sup> (.15)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>7.50</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.13)</bold></p><p>7.77<sup>***</sup> (.14)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>7.58</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.14)</bold></p><p>8.04<sup>***</sup> (.16)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>7.59</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.14)</bold></p><p>7.96<sup>***</sup> (.16)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Test score in the school subject</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>0.99</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.08)</bold></p><p>1.12<sup>***</sup> (.08)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.97</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.08)</bold></p><p>1.02<sup>***</sup> (.08)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1.02</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.08)</bold></p><p>1.06<sup>***</sup> (.08)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Test score in the other school subject</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>0.78</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.08)</bold></p><p>0.45<sup>***</sup> (.08)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.74</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.08)</bold></p><p>0.50<sup>***</sup> (.08)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.67</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.08)</bold></p><p>0.47<sup>***</sup> (.08)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>On time (vs repeaters)</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>0.98</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.27)</bold></p><p>0.82<sup>**</sup> (.27)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.98</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.26)</bold></p><p>0.87<sup>***</sup> (.26)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Girls (vs boys)</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>−0.06 (.12)</bold></p><p>−0.45<sup>***</sup> (.12)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>−0.09(.11)</bold></p><p>−0.30<sup>*</sup> (.12)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Self-evaluation bias of competence</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>0.29</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.06)</bold></p><p>0.33<sup>***</sup> (.06)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="5"><p><italic>Random effects</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Level 1 (between students)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>3.81</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.25)</bold></p><p>3.57<sup>***</sup> (.23)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1.54</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.10)</bold></p><p>1.59<sup>***</sup> (.10)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1.49</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.10)</bold></p><p>1.51<sup>***</sup> (.10)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1.41</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.09)</bold></p><p>1.41<sup>***</sup> (.09)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Level 2 (between classes)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.45</bold><sup><bold>*</bold></sup><bold> (.19)</bold></p><p>0.41<sup>*</sup> (.17)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.32</bold><sup><bold>**</bold></sup><bold> (.12)</bold></p><p>0.43<sup>**</sup> (.15)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.33</bold><sup><bold>**</bold></sup><bold> (.12)</bold></p><p>.45<sup>**</sup> (.15)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.32</bold><sup>**</sup><bold>(.11)</bold></p><p>0.46<sup>**</sup> (.15)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="5"><p><italic>Goodness of fit</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> − 2 log V</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>2151.340</bold></p><p>2117.97</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1624.08</bold></p><p>1646.23</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1610.51</bold></p><p>1623.95</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1583.73</bold></p><p>1591.18</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Δ<italic>df</italic></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>2</bold></p><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>2</bold></p><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1</bold></p><p>1</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>+</sups> <emph>p</emph> ≤.10, *<emph>p</emph> ≤.05, **<emph>p</emph> ≤.01, ***<emph>p</emph> ≤.001</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-19">Teacher's judgment in the fifth grade</hd> <p>In fifth grade, the empty model (model 0 in Table 3) revealed that most of the variance was explained by differences within students. The variance between classes is close to 1%. As expected, the higher the student's score at the standardized test, the higher the teacher's judgment in French and mathematics. Both standardized test scores accounted for between 50 to 55% of the teacher's judgment variance within classes (intra-class / inter-student) in French and mathematics (model 1 in Table 3). As in the third grade, an increase of one standard deviation on the French (mathematics) test score raises the teacher's judgment by approximatively one tenth of a point in the same subject. Again, the test score in one school subject carries more weight in teachers' judgment of students' competence in that subject than the test score in the other subject. This effect was more similar for French and mathematics than in third grade. In both subjects, an increase of one standard deviation point on the test score results in a rise of 0.60 on the teacher's judgment scale ranging from 0 to 10. In the next model (model 2 in Table 3), students from a class that performed highly in one subject were judged less positively in that subject than students from a lower performing class, when controlling for the students' test score. Adding the average class level (model 3 in Table 3) improved the explanatory model of teacher judgment in French (ΔD (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref82">1</reflink>) = 3.98; <emph>p</emph> < 0.05) and in mathematics (ΔD (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref83">1</reflink>) = 9.30; <emph>p</emph> < 0.01). Unlike in third grade, having repeated a year was unrelated to the teacher's judgment, so only the gender was added at the next step (model 3 in Table 3). Teacher's judgment of boys outscored that of girls by about half a point (ΔD (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref84">1</reflink>) = 9.31; <emph>p</emph> < 0.01). Finally, in the last model (model 4 in Table 3), the addition of the self-evaluation bias significantly improved the teacher's judgment model in both subjects (ΔD (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref85">1</reflink>) = 9.56; <emph>p</emph> < 0.05 in French and ΔD (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref86">1</reflink>) = 11.64; <emph>p</emph> < 0.001 in mathematics). The higher the self-evaluation bias was, the higher the teacher's judgment was. A positive difference of one standard deviation on the self-evaluation bias scale increased the teacher's judgment by about a quarter point in the same subject.</p> <p>Table 3 Parameters and goodness of fit for multilevel regression models of academic judgement in French (bold font) and in mathematics (normal font) for the fifth graders</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Effect</p></th><th align="left"><p>Model 0</p></th><th align="left"><p>Model 1</p></th><th align="left"><p>Model 2</p></th><th align="left"><p>Model 3</p></th><th align="left"><p>Model 4</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="6"><p><italic>Fixed effects</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Constant</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>7.41</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.14)</bold></p><p>7.52<sup>***</sup> (.12)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>7.41</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.15)</bold></p><p>7.52<sup>***</sup> (.14)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>7.41</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.13)</bold></p><p>7.51 <sup>***</sup> (.13)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>7.34</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.16)</bold></p><p>7.77<sup>***</sup> (.15)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>7.34</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.16)</bold></p><p>7.73<sup>***</sup> (.15)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Test score in the school subject</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>1.01</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.11)</bold></p><p>0.94<sup>***</sup> (.11)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1.04 </bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.11)</bold></p><p>0.99<sup>***</sup> (.11)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1.03</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.11)</bold></p><p>0.93 <sup>***</sup> (.11)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1.03</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.11)</bold></p><p>0.94<sup>***</sup> (.11)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Test score in the other school subject</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>0.59</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.11)</bold></p><p>0.65<sup>***</sup> (.11)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.59</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.11)</bold></p><p>0.63<sup>***</sup> (.11)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.60</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.10)</bold></p><p>0.68<sup>***</sup> (.11)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.59</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.11)</bold></p><p>0.66<sup>***</sup> (.11)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Average class level</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>-0.27</bold><sup><bold>*</bold></sup><bold> (.13)</bold></p><p>-0.45<sup>**</sup> (.13)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>-0.28 </bold><sup><bold>*</bold></sup><bold> (.13)</bold></p><p>-0.45 <sup>**</sup> (.13)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>-0.26</bold><sup><bold>+</bold></sup><bold> (.13)</bold></p><p>-0.42<sup>**</sup> (.12)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Gender (girl)</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>.13 (.15)</bold></p><p>-0.49<sup>**</sup> (.16)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.12 (.15)</bold></p><p>-0.41<sup>**</sup> (.16)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Self-evaluation bias of competence</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>.20</bold><sup><bold>*</bold></sup><bold> (.08)</bold></p><p>0.27<sup>**</sup> (.08)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="6"><p><italic>Random effects</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Level 1 (between students)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>3.86</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold>(.31)</bold></p><p>4.02<sup>***</sup> (.32)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1.78</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.14)</bold></p><p>1.97<sup>***</sup> (.16)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1.78</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.14)</bold></p><p>1.97<sup>***</sup> (.16)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1.78</bold><sup><bold>***</bold></sup><bold> (.14)</bold></p><p>1.41<sup>***</sup> (.15)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1.73</bold><sup>**<bold>*</bold></sup><bold> (.14)</bold></p><p>1.85<sup>***</sup> (.15)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Level 2 (between classes)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.13 (.11)</bold></p><p>0.04 (.09)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.27</bold><sup><bold>*</bold></sup><bold> (.13)</bold></p><p>0.36<sup>*</sup> (.17)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.20</bold><sup><bold>*</bold></sup><bold> (.10)</bold></p><p>.16<sup>+</sup> (.09)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.19</bold><sup>*</sup> (.09)</p><p>0.17<sup>+</sup> (.10)</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>0.21</bold><sup><bold>*</bold></sup><bold> (.10)</bold></p><p>0.15<sup>+</sup> (.09)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="6"><p><italic>Goodness of fit</italic></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> − 2 log V</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1356.75</bold></p><p>1364.49</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1121.90</bold></p><p>1157.10</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1117.92</bold></p><p>1147.80</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1117.22</bold></p><p>1138.49</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1110.66</bold></p><p>1126.85</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Δ<italic>df</italic></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>2</bold></p><p>2</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1</bold></p><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1</bold></p><p>1</p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>1</bold></p><p>1</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>+</sups> <emph>p</emph> ≤.10, *<emph>p</emph> ≤.05, **<emph>p</emph> ≤.01, ***<emph>p</emph> ≤.001</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-20">Discussion</hd> <p>The aim of this study was twofold. The first objective was to confirm the main determinants already identified as playing a part in teacher's judgment (Bressoux and Pansu [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref87">10</reflink>]; Dompnier et al. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref88">19</reflink>]). Firstly, we observed an effect of students' school performance measured by standardized tests: the higher the students' test scores in a subject (French or mathematics), the more favorable the teachers' judgments of students in the corresponding subject. These results are consistent with the conclusions of the meta-analyses by Hoge and Coladarci ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref89">35</reflink>]) and Südkamp et al. ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref90">70</reflink>]) that showed a strong relationship between teacher's judgment and student's performance. Secondly, in both the third and the fifth grades, teachers' judgment of students in a subject was related to their achievement in the other subject. Thus, the higher the score in French was, the more favorably they were judged in mathematics and vice versa. This interdependence of teachers' judgments reflects the tendency for teachers to subconsciously substitute the evaluation of a student's competence in a specific school subject (French or mathematics) by a general assessment of this student, in order to produce a consistent judgment. This reveals the presence of a halo effect (Balzer and Sulsky [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref91">2</reflink>]; Dompnier et al. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref92">19</reflink>]; Sanrey et al. [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref93">65</reflink>]). Thirdly, teacher's judgment was influenced by aspects of the class context. In the fifth grade, the context effect appears through the class average performance score. In both subjects, students from high-performing classes receive a less favorable teacher's judgment than those from lower performing classes. In the third grade, this effect is visible in the portion of the interclass variance: around 10% of the total variance of teachers' judgment on students' competence in French (mathematics) is between classes. At third grade, teacher's judgment varies more in certain classes than in others, regardless of the class average level of performance. Fourthly, in third grade, students' school history influences teacher's judgment: those who repeated a year are judged less positively than those who did not (Dompnier et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref94">20</reflink>]). This effect did not emerge in the fifth grade. Finally, we observed a gender effect in mathematics: boys were judged more favorably than girls. This result is consistent with previous findings that showed that teachers describe boys as more logical and as better at mathematics (Tiedemann [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref95">73</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref96">74</reflink>]). As the mathematics assessment situation may accentuate these stereotypical beliefs and be threatening to girls (stereotype threat; Logel et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref97">44</reflink>]; O'Brien and Crandall [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref98">56</reflink>]; Régner et al. [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref99">62</reflink>]; Shih et al. [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref100">67</reflink>]), it may reinforce teachers' implicit theories about girls' and boys' abilities, which in turn would extend to their judgments in mathematics. However, we find no gender effect in French, yet girls are stereotyped as reading more than boys and as having more positive attitudes towards reading and language arts (McGeown et al. [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref101">53</reflink>]; Reilly [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref102">63</reflink>]; Stoet and Geary [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref103">69</reflink>]). Reading evaluation situations may also accentuate these stereotypes which might be threatening to boys (Pansu et al. [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref104">57</reflink>]). It is possible that in this age group, the negative stereotypes associated with boys and language arts are less fully developed than those associated with girls and mathematics.</p> <p>The second objective of this study was to examine how teachers judged their students with a self-evaluation bias of school competence in French and mathematics. Firstly, the correlations between the two self-evaluation biases in French and mathematics were fairly weak. Contrasting with the way bias was conceptualized in previous work (a self-evaluation bias measured with a general mental ability test), this shows that a bias in one school subject does not automatically imply a bias in another one (Boissicat et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref105">3</reflink>]; Jamain [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref106">37</reflink>]). This result is consistent with the internal/external frame of reference model of self-concept (e.g., Marsh, 1986; Marsh et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref107">51</reflink>]). Even though performance in different school subjects is rather strongly correlated and mastery experiences are a key determinant of self-perceptions, this model predicts a low correlation between students' academic self-concepts in different subjects (i.e., mathematics and French). These specific self-evaluation biases should thus be examined separately in future studies. Secondly, when controlling for the other determinants, we observed a positive relationship between the self-evaluation bias and teacher's judgment, in French and mathematics: the more positively biased students were, the better they were judged by their teacher. The results obtained with the teachers are consistent with those obtained with the students showing that a positive self-evaluation bias was linked to more confident behaviors in class, more commitment and greater achievement (Bouffard et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref108">5</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref109">8</reflink>]; Dupeyrat et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref110">21</reflink>]; Lopez et al., 1998; Shin et al. [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref111">68</reflink>]). Overall, these results support the adaptive nature of a positive self-evaluation bias of competence, and contrast with the conclusions of certain authors who assert that overestimation of one's competence is problematic for academic and social adaptation (e.g., Colvin et al. [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref112">14</reflink>]; Gresham et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref113">29</reflink>]; Metcalfe [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref114">54</reflink>]). In our study, this pattern appeared in both the third and fifth grades. This suggests that primary school students who overestimate their school competence may appear to be more comfortable than others with meritocratic school values, since they are also perceived by teachers as more confident, motivated and committed in class (Lévesque-Guillemette et al. [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref115">43</reflink>]). Therefore, overestimation of one's competence could be seen as a judgment criterion that communicates a good adjustment to school values and expectations in specific subjects. Conversely, underestimating one's competence could indicate some difficulties understanding these values and adjusting to school. This would suggest that primary school students who overestimate their own competence are attributed much more positive characteristics regarding their school behaviors and achievement by their teachers than students who underestimate their own competence. Teachers may believe that students who overestimate their school competence react by focusing on the task in hand when facing a challenge, whereas those who underestimate their school competence would mainly focus on managing their emotional reactions. Future studies are needed to test these hypotheses when students become young adults.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-21">Limitations</hd> <p>This study has some weaknesses that limit the scope of our conclusions. First, due to the correlational nature of our data, we could not question the reciprocal effect between the self-evaluation bias and the teacher's judgment. Given the reciprocal effects of self-concept and performance (Marsh and Craven [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref116">48</reflink>]), it is likely that teacher's judgment is both a determinant of students' self-evaluation biases and is impacted by them. Secondly, we did not take into account the family socio-economic status (Glock et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref117">26</reflink>]; Hauser-Cram et al. [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref118">34</reflink>]), which is known to influence teacher's judgment in favor of high-status students. Relating to this factor, the teachers in our sample did not have reliable information for most of the students in their classes. French teachers are no longer required to pass on this information to their school administration department, and therefore no longer need to obtain it. To overcome this problem, we tested a model integrating school effects, which could reflect socio-economic disparities depending on the location of the school. We did not find any variation in teacher's judgment according to the location of the school in which they taught. Finally, the last limitation concerns the absence of a measurement of teachers' theories on self-evaluation biases. Although overestimation may be seen as a criterion indicating a good adjustment to school, an alternative hypothesis would be that teachers could favor students who judge themselves in accordance with their teacher's theories about self-evaluation biases. In this case, teachers who believe that having a positive self-evaluation bias is adaptive should judge positively-biased students better and the reverse would also be true. Future studies should test this hypothesis.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-22">Conclusion</hd> <p>To conclude, as far as we know, this study is one of the first that has examined the link between the student's self-evaluation bias and teacher's judgment. At an interpersonal level, our findings argue for the benefit of a positive self-evaluation of competence at primary school, regardless of actual performance level. Furthermore, our results again confirm that contextual data play a key role in the teacher's judgment (Bressoux and Pansu [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref119">10</reflink>]). Future studies could replicate these findings at other periods of schooling to enlarge the scope of our conclusions.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-23">Authors' contributions</hd> <p>This article is based on the first author non-published thesis. All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Ludivine Jamain. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Ludivine Jamain and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-24">Funding</hd> <p>This work has been carried out within the framework of the ANR-2016 SCHOOLBIAS project supported by the National French Research Agency: ANR-16-CE28-0011.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-25">Availability of data and material</hd> <p>The collection procedure and storage of data has been declared and registered with of <emph>the Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libertés de France</emph> (French National Commission for Information Technology and Civil Liberties; No. declaration register: 0886549). The data are available by sending a request to first author address.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-26">Code availability</hd> <p>The data were processed on IBM SPSS statistics 25 using Python 2.7 writing code. The analysis approach is described in the body of the article. The code are available by sending a request to the first author address.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-27">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0151271662-28">Conflicts of interest</hd> <p>The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.</p> <hd id="AN0151271662-29">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0151271662-30"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Babad EY. Teachers' differential behaviour. Educational Psychology Review. 1993; 5: 347-376. 10.1007/bf01320223</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref18" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Balzer WK, Sulsky LM. Halo and performance appraisal research: A critical examination. 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Educational Psychology. 2015; 35: 110-127. 10.1080/01443410.2014.915927</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0151271662-31"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> Δ(A−B) = <emph>D</emph>(A) −<emph>D</emph>(B) where <emph>D</emph>(A) is the model <emph>A deviance</emph>, <emph>D</emph>(B) is the one of the model <emph>B</emph> et Δ(A−B) is the decrease in deviance between the initial model A and the more complete model B.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Ludivine Jamain; Anne-Laure de Place; Thérèse Bouffard and Pascal Pansu</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Ludivine Jamain psychologist and Ph.D. in Educational sciences, is an associate researcher at the Laboratory of Research on Learning in Context (LaRAC) of the University Grenoble Alpes, France. Her work focuses on the determinants of psychosocial adjustment and school success.</p> <p>Anne-Laure de Place Ph.D. in social psychology, is a post-doctoral fellow at the Laboratory of Research on Learning in Context (LaRAC) of the University Grenoble Alpes, France. Her work focuses on self-representations and their impact on motivation, performance and social judgment, particularly in the school context.</p> <p>Thérèse Bouffard is full professor in the psychology department of the University of Quebec at Montreal, Canada. Her research mainly uses a longitudinal approach to study the personal and social mechanisms underlying biases in self-evaluation of competence and involved in the development of the motivational profile of students. She also uses transactional models to study the reciprocal associations between affective, motivational and learning processes in the course of primary to secondary school education.</p> <p>Pascal Pansu PhD in social psychology, is full Professor at the Laboratory of Research on Learning in Context (LaRAC) of the University Grenoble Alpes. His research mainly focuses on social beliefs and social judgment, and their effect on self-evaluation and cognitive performances. He investigates the dynamics and processes involved in learning and achievement in educational settings, as for example, how teacher judgment and evaluative indices present in the classroom regulate students' self-perceptions, learning and performance.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref97"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref98"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref99"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref100"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref101"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref102"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref103"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref107"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref112"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref113"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref114"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref116"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref117"></nolink>
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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Students' Self-Evaluation Bias of School Competence and Its Link to Teacher Judgment in Elementary School
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jamain%2C+Ludivine%22">Jamain, Ludivine</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4894-4898">0000-0003-4894-4898</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22de+Place%2C+Anne-Laure%22">de Place, Anne-Laure</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2657-9925">0000-0002-2657-9925</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Bouffard%2C+Thérèse%22">Bouffard, Thérèse</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7439-7125">0000-0001-7439-7125</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Pansu%2C+Pascal%22">Pansu, Pascal</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8344-615X">0000-0002-8344-615X</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Social+Psychology+of+Education%3A+An+International+Journal%22"><i>Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal</i></searchLink>. Jun 2021 24(3):919-938.
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  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 20
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2021
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+3%22">Grade 3</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Primary+Education%22">Primary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+5%22">Grade 5</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Intermediate+Grades%22">Intermediate Grades</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Middle+Schools%22">Middle Schools</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Teachers%22">Elementary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Students%22">Elementary School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Evaluation+%28Individuals%29%22">Self Evaluation (Individuals)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Competence%22">Competence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+3%22">Grade 3</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+5%22">Grade 5</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Performance%22">Performance</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+Repetition%22">Grade Repetition</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Bias%22">Bias</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22France%22">France</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s11218-021-09638-7
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1381-2890
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Research on the self-evaluation bias of students' school competence has focused mainly on its correlates for students' school adaptation. This study focused on teachers' theories about students with a positive or negative bias in their self-evaluation of competence. French students enrolled in the third and fifth grades of elementary school (sample 1, N = 508; sample 2, N = 322) and their teachers (sample 1, N = 27; sample 2, N = 13) participated in this study. We examined the relationship between the more or less biased perceptions that students have of their competence in French and mathematics and their teacher's judgment. Models for each sample were tested while controlling for students' performance, their gender, repeating of a school year, and average class level. The results for both samples showed that the more positively biased a student's evaluation of their competence was, the better their teacher's judgment was.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2021
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1302826
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s11218-021-09638-7
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 20
        StartPage: 919
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Evaluation (Individuals)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
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      – SubjectFull: Competence
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      – SubjectFull: Grade 3
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade 5
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      – SubjectFull: Correlation
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      – SubjectFull: Performance
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade Repetition
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Bias
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: France
        Type: general
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      – TitleFull: Students' Self-Evaluation Bias of School Competence and Its Link to Teacher Judgment in Elementary School
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