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Classroom to Casa: Supporting Students Who Are Emerging Bilinguals

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Title: Classroom to Casa: Supporting Students Who Are Emerging Bilinguals
Language: English
Authors: Chaparro, Erin A., Green, Ambra L., Thompson, Sylvia L., Batz, Ruby
Source: Preventing School Failure. 2021 65(4):323-331.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 9
Publication Date: 2021
Intended Audience: Teachers
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Education Level: Elementary Secondary Education
Descriptors: English Language Learners, Bilingual Students, Student Behavior, Academic Achievement, Equal Education, Educational Legislation, Federal Legislation, Elementary Secondary Education, Disproportionate Representation, Discipline, Positive Behavior Supports, Response to Intervention, Culturally Relevant Education, Classroom Techniques, Data Use, Decision Making, Educational Policy, Family Involvement
Laws, Policies and Program Identifiers: Every Student Succeeds Act 2015
DOI: 10.1080/1045988X.2021.1937022
ISSN: 1045-988X
Abstract: A substantial achievement gap, with culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students falling behind native-English-speaking White peers, has been widely documented in research as well as government reports. However, a corresponding discipline gap has not been evident due to the various labels and methods used for identifying specifically English learners (ELs) or Emergent bilingual (EB) students, variation in their proficiency levels of English, and the difficulty in determining who may or may not have a disability. Considerable work remains on how to raise the overall academic and behavior outcomes of EB students. This paper outlines best practices in a multi-tiered system of support and promotes an asset-based approach, which provides the foundation for educators to create equitable education opportunities.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2021
Accession Number: EJ1306815
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0151722902;psf01oct.21;2021Aug05.04:52;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0151722902-1">Classroom to casa: supporting student who are emerging bilinguals </title> <p>A substantial achievement gap, with culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students falling behind native-English-speaking White peers, has been widely documented in research as well as government reports. However, a corresponding discipline gap has not been evident due to the various labels and methods used for identifying specifically English learners (ELs) or Emergent bilingual (EB) students, variation in their proficiency levels of English, and the difficulty in determining who may or may not have a disability. Considerable work remains on how to raise the overall academic and behavior outcomes of EB students. This paper outlines best practices in a multi-tiered system of support and promotes an asset-based approach, which provides the foundation for educators to create equitable education opportunities.</p> <p>Keywords: Disproportionality; emergent bilinguals; English learners; equity; multi-tiered support systems</p> <p>Students who have been designated English learners and students who are both an English learner and receive Special Education services are more likely to receive exclusionary disciplinary action at rates greater than their representation in the school population in a number of states (Burke, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref1">9</reflink>]; Whitford et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref2">75</reflink>]). Installing and implementing a multi-tiered service delivery model has been proposed as one potential solution to the disproportionality problem impacting English learning students and those at the intersection with special needs (Barrio, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref3">6</reflink>]; Fien et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref4">22</reflink>]). In this article we will describe specific practices that can be included in an integrated system to improve positive behavior, social, emotional, and academic outcomes for these students for whom English is not their native language. Also, we'll offer some guidance to support and include their families as important stakeholders to districts and schools.</p> <hd id="AN0151722902-2">ESSA definition of EL and justification of the term emergent bilingual</hd> <p>Students not yet proficient in English are often called English language learners (ELLs) or, as in the 2015 Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), simply English learners (ELs). The designation refers to students who speak a native language other than English and are acquiring English. Although local and state education agencies may use different definitions, ESSA officially defines EL as a student:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> who is aged 3 through 21;</item> <p></p> <item> who is enrolled or preparing to enroll in an elementary school or secondary school;</item> <p></p> <item> who was not born in the United States or whose native language is a language other than English;</item> <p></p> <item> who is a Native American or Alaska Native, or a native resident of the outlying areas; and</item> <p></p> <item> who comes from an environment where a language other than English has had a significant impact on the individual's level of English language proficiency; or</item> <p></p> <item> who is migratory, whose native language is a language other than English, and who comes from an environment where a language other than English is dominant; and</item> <p></p> <item> whose difficulties in speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language may be sufficient to deny the individual —</item> <p></p> <item> the ability to meet the challenging State academic standards;</item> <p></p> <item> the ability to successfully achieve in classrooms where the language of instruction is English; or</item> <p></p> <item> the opportunity to participate fully in society, (Title III, Elementary and Secondary Education Act [ESEA], amended by ESSA, as cited by the Department of Education, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref5">17</reflink>], p. 43).</item> </ulist> <p>These classifications may obscure students' bilingual or multilingual repertoires, focusing on students' limitations rather than their potential, robbing them of meaningful academic content and of ways to use their entire language repertoires (García & Kleifgen, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref6">24</reflink>]; Rosa, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref7">61</reflink>]). Referring to these students as ELLs or ELs signals the omission of a skill that is critical to the discussion of equity in the teaching of this population of students. English learners are, in fact, emergent bilinguals (García, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref8">23</reflink>]). That is, these students become bilingual: through the language they are learning at home and acquiring English at school, they are able to continue to function with their home language(s) practices, as well as in English—the new language practice that they acquire in school. Adding the term "bilingual" as the primary descriptor of this student population is key for advancing equitable practices. In recognizing the student's emergent bilingualism, educators, parents, communities and policy makers would participate in the education of these children from a position of strength instead of limitation (García, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref9">23</reflink>]). For this reason, in this article we use the term emergent bilinguals (EBs). When we discuss research that more generally applies to a broader but overlapping population of students, we use the term culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD). In the area of literacy instruction and intervention there is a substantive bank of high-quality research to draw from, and we can use the term EB accurately to describe the targeted population. However, when discussing behavioral, social emotional and family practices we use the term CLD at times because the majority of the research base has included a wider sample of students and has not targeted EB students specifically.</p> <hd id="AN0151722902-3">Disproportionality and EB students</hd> <p>The relationship between a student's academic skills and behavior skills in school settings is well-documented (Madigan et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref10">45</reflink>]; Nelson et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref11">55</reflink>]). School systems like student study teams or data teams may be at risk for focusing on one aspect of a student's education environment (e.g. acting out during instructional time) which can risk causing more harm to students who are EBs. Culturally and linguistically diverse students are at greater risk than others to receive behavioral disciplinary consequences than white students (Skiba et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref12">64</reflink>]; Burke, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref13">9</reflink>]). The discipline disparities experienced by Black, American Indian, and Hispanic/Latinx students; males; and students with disabilities has been recognized in research government reports (U.S. Government Accountability Office [GAO], 2018). Less attention has been given to the exclusionary disciplinary practices received by EBs (Burke, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref14">9</reflink>]; Losen et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref15">44</reflink>]). Although EBs have been reported to receive similar rates of exclusionary practices as non-EB students at the national level, state level data suggests there are significant discipline disparities in some states (United States Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref16">71</reflink>]; Whitford et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref17">75</reflink>]).</p> <p>In the 2015–2016 school year, 16 states reported disproportionate rates of exclusionary practices for EBs, whereas 18 states confirmed disproportionate rates of exclusionary practices for EBs with disabilities (Whitford et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref18">75</reflink>]). In addition, Losen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref19">44</reflink>]) found locations where state-level law included English-only education requirements (meaning a restriction on bilingual or dual language instruction; e.g., Arizona, Massachusetts, California) were among the top 20 states more likely to use exclusionary practices with EBs. Further, data suggests the likelihood of suspension for EBs increases across school levels; with highest rates in middle school. For example, Losen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref20">44</reflink>]) found a 10% increase (from 1.2% to 11.3%) from elementary to middle school. Similarly, using data from six school districts in Oregon, Burke ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref21">9</reflink>]) identified a 19% increase in suspension (from 3% to 16%) from elementary to middle school.</p> <p>Given that emerging bilinguals typically have lower scores on state assessments, the use of exclusionary practices may further impede students' potential to remain on track academically due to being removed from access to instruction; contributing to the high dropout rates and low graduation rates reported for this group (Burke, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref22">9</reflink>]; McFarland et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref23">47</reflink>]). Without an integrated and coordinated system of supports, difficulties for EB students may be missed over time, leading to more difficulties. It is important to recognize that students who are labeled ELs with the ESSA definition make up about 10% of the K-12 population, about 14% of those students have also been made eligible for special education (National Center for Education Statistics, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref24">54</reflink>]). As noted by McIntosh and Goodman ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref25">48</reflink>]), it is beneficial for tiered systems to be truly integrated and avoid parallel implementation. The goal of integrated academic, positive behavior, and social emotional systems is to increase efficiencies in resource allocation and to increase the effectiveness of the impact on student outcomes for all students. In this case, all students includes students with or at-risk for disabilities, students who are EB, and students who exist at the intersection of these unique groups. This article will summarize a number of scientifically-based and evidence-based practices that can be used within integrated MTSS (see Table 1 for an overview of the targeted strategies).</p> <p>Table 1. Big ideas for supporting students who are emerging bilinguals in MTSS.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Big Idea</td><td>Suggested Level</td><td>Description</td><td>Examples to Support EB Students</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Culturally Responsive Classroom Management</td><td>Classroom</td><td>Recognize and reflect upon the connection between one's own biases, values, and management decisions in effort to provide all students with equitable opportunities to learning.</td><td>Create diverse groups of students to discuss or present their heritage. Teacher learns about culture and native language of students in order to engage students in common understanding of classroom culture.</td></tr><tr><td>Develop and Teach Classroom Expectation</td><td>Classroom</td><td>Develop 3-5 broad and positively stated expectations that are linked to the values and cultures of the students, teachers, and families</td><td>Teacher incorporates student ideas into classroom expectations; teaches relevant vocabulary to ensure all students understand expectations.</td></tr><tr><td>Function-Based Thinking</td><td>Classroom and Data Teams</td><td>Integrate the idea that there are two primary possible functions (i.e., reasons) for inappropriate behavior: (a) to gain attention; activities, tangible, or an object; sensory stimulation or (b) to avoid any of the same variables.</td><td>Use data to answer questions about the function of behavior and include the possible answer that an EB student may be acting inappropriately to avoid situations that the student does not fully understand the expectations.</td></tr><tr><td>Culturally Responsive Policy Analysis</td><td>District and School</td><td>Revise district and school level discipline policies to improve the systematic implementation of positive, preventative, culturally responsive, and equitable practices.</td><td>District and school policy makers gather input from parents and community members from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Use multiple communications methods and languages in outreach efforts.</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0151722902-4">Multi-tiered systems of support</hd> <p>MTSS integrates two commonly implemented frameworks, Positive Behavioral Intervention and Supports (PBIS) and Response to Instruction (RTI) with the goal of positive outcomes for all students (McIntosh & Goodman, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref26">48</reflink>]). When considering EB students the goal of MTSS is to decrease discipline disproportionality of EB students and increase the percent of EB students who are achieving academically. The idea of an integrated tiered system grew out of the understanding that academic and behavior tiered systems share many components, including a model of prevention that identifies struggling students through systematic screening and provides increasing levels of support to match the needs of students (McIntosh et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref27">51</reflink>]; Sadler & Sugai, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref28">63</reflink>]). Successful examples of the blending of academic and behavioral tiered systems generally report positive trends in literacy performance (Chaparro et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref29">14</reflink>]) and decreases in the number of behavior problems (Ervin et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref30">21</reflink>]; McIntosh et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref31">51</reflink>]).</p> <p>The aim of integrated MTSS and of frameworks like is to improve student social behavior as well as academic success through practices that increase positive behavior and make problem behavior irrelevant in safe and positive school environments (Bambara & Kern, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref32">5</reflink>]; Carr et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref33">11</reflink>]). PBIS incorporates evidence-based practices, such as explicit instruction, applied behavior analysis, and data-based decision making (Horner et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref34">36</reflink>]). Similarly, academic-specific tiered systems include (a) evidence-based instructional design and delivery, (b) screening and progress monitoring assessments to make instructional decisions, and (c) research-informed curriculum materials to improve academic achievement and prevent learning problems. These systems encourage teachers, school administrators, and district leaders to collaborate and make decisions based on student performance data (Ervin et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref35">21</reflink>]; Sadler & Sugai, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref36">63</reflink>]). The remainder of this article will provide an overview of classroom, policy, and family practices within an integrated MTSS that are particularly critical for EB students.</p> <hd id="AN0151722902-5">Effective classroom behavior management supports for EB students</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0151722902-6">Culturally responsive classroom management</hd> <p>With the nation's student population becoming more diverse (see McFarland et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref37">46</reflink>]), the instructional and classroom management practices of the largely homogeneous teaching force (e.g., 82% White and 77% White women mostly from a middle-class socioeconomic background; Taie & Goldring, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref38">67</reflink>]) are a critical component, with implications for effectively addressing student behaviors and their social-emotional needs. The vast difference of cultures within the classroom can be a stimulus in which both teachers and students misinterpret culturally specific behaviors as culture dictates how we approach situations and react in social interactions (Cartledge et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref39">13</reflink>]; Okonofua et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref40">56</reflink>]). Therefore, teachers are being asked to make data-based decisions that are culturally responsive to prevent any misunderstanding that can lead to exclusionary practices.</p> <p>When there is dissonance between the communication and interaction styles students experience at home and the teaching practices educators use in school, EBs are more likely to struggle academically and behaviorally. This miscommunication, in turn, puts them at risk of not meeting their potential or of having their linguistic and cultural characteristics misinterpreted as language or learning disabilities (Harry & Klingner, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref41">33</reflink>]; Hoover & Klingner, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref42">35</reflink>]). Teachers who understand the central role of language and culture in learning can more effectively help bridge students' knowledge and reality and the school culture and instructional practices. Through their involvement with their students' families and communities, teachers can develop a greater understanding and appreciation of the social, linguistic and cultural contexts and characteristics that are the foundation for students' learning experiences at school. They can then validate these foundations by incorporating the families' funds of knowledge, including family literacy practices, into the curriculum and their instructional practices.</p> <p>Culturally responsive classroom management (CRCM) is a frame of mind that recognizes and reflects upon the connection between one's own biases, values, and management decisions in an effort to provide all students with equitable opportunities to learning (Weinstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref43">74</reflink>]). Teachers who practice CRCM realize that their biases and values may affect the way they manage a classroom and interact with students who are CLD. Weinstein et al. ([<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref44">74</reflink>]) posit five essential components of CRCM: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref45">1</reflink>) recognition of teachers' own ethnocentrism; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref46">2</reflink>) knowledge of students' cultures; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref47">3</reflink>) understanding of the broader social, economic, and political systems in education; (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref48">4</reflink>) appropriate management strategies; and (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref49">5</reflink>) development of caring classrooms. Understanding ones' own cultural background, and the background of their students, is a necessary component for cultural competency (Cartledge et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref50">12</reflink>]).</p> <p>A strong CRCM plan is carefully planned and systematically implemented. For example, teachers can:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> develop and teach the expectations using explicit instruction,</item> <p></p> <item> model the expectations,</item> <p></p> <item> and provide behavior specific praise for accurately demonstrating the skills.</item> </ulist> <p>As we summarize the aforementioned evidence-based practices below, we assume that the school systems and individual educators are working to incorporate culturally responsive practices by taking into account existing biases as well as valuing the assets that EB students contribute to the school and classroom communities.</p> <p> <bold>Develop and teach expectations.</bold> EB students may have less difficulty interpreting their teacher's expectations when the expectations have been explicitly taught, modeled, and practiced. Consistent with the PBIS framework (Sugai & Horner, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref51">66</reflink>]), teachers are encouraged to develop (or co-develop with students) 3-5 broad and positively stated expectations that are linked to the values and cultures of the students, teachers, and families (Price & Steed, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref52">58</reflink>]).</p> <p> <emph>How can the development of expectations support students who have been identified as EB?</emph> When adding in the culturally responsive mindset underlying this example, imagine a classroom teacher including students in the process of developing examples of the behavior expectations. For example, an upper-elementary teacher might draft the expectations but then bring them to the students to facilitate a discussion on the classroom expectations. The students then speak in small groups about the expectations and develop their own examples. Through that process, the teacher might learn about what examples are culturally appropriate for their students and how those cultural values could be incorporated into the classroom expectations. Identifying pro-social behaviors that are consistent across home, community, and classroom is one step toward a culturally responsive and inclusive classroom. The teacher might discover vocabulary that was unclear to EB students and gain an instructional opportunity to teach new vocabulary while teaching behavioral expectations.</p> <p>To accompany the developed expectations, explicit instruction is used to teach routines for each classroom instructional and non-instructional activity (e.g., warm-up, independent work, group work, direct teach, circle time, stations, snack, free play). Explicit instruction can be defined as a teaching approach in which the teacher teaches the students the skill, models for students what they should do to complete a learning task, and then guides them through practice opportunities until they can complete the task independently (Carnine, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref53">10</reflink>]). A key feature of explicit instruction is the use of consistent language during instructional routines. Consistent language helps EBs learn the language associated with a particular routine, academic or behavior, so they can then focus on the content or behavioral expectations being taught (e.g., Gerber et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref54">26</reflink>]; Vaughn et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref55">72</reflink>]). After explicitly teaching expectations, modeling expectations is the next step in establishing CRCM for EB students.</p> <p> <bold>Model expectations.</bold> Effective modeling has a clear instructional focus partnered with an ordered demonstration of concepts, skills, and tasks (Blair et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref56">8</reflink>]). Modeling is particularly useful for EBs because it provides them a clear example of the task they are to complete even if they do not understand all of the words. Modeling benefits EB students and can be applied when introducing new academic skills as well as behavior expectations.</p> <p> <emph>How does modeling support students who have been identified as EB?</emph> When modeling expectations, highlighting specific expectations regarding students' voice level, activities to complete, materials needed, and how to request for help can be helpful for students so that even if not fluent in English, students will understand the behavior expectations across school settings. When modeling, schools and teachers can use visual representations of behavior expectations to support EB students. Once expectations are developed, modeled, and taught, teachers can post them in the classroom. Posters can assist EBs with biliteracy if they are printed in various languages. The inclusion of multiple languages and visual representations (e.g., symbols, arrows, colors, themes, and pictorial representations of school-aged children from various ethnicities) can help students to see that their culture and/or language is welcomed in the classroom culture.</p> <p> <bold>Behavior specific praise.</bold> Behavior specific praise (BSP) is among the most powerful and readily available evidence-based practice teachers can use to increase academic achievement and prosocial behaviors while decreasing off-task and disruptive behaviors (Royer et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref57">62</reflink>]). BSP identifies the particular desirable behavior that the student is performing and acknowledges mastery, or progress toward skill mastery (Kern & Clemens, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref58">40</reflink>]). For example, a teacher might say, "You are doing a great job of walking in line." When teachers explicitly state the behavior for which they are providing reinforcement, students are reminded that they are meeting expectations and it increases the likelihood that the student will repeat the behavior in the future under the same condition. BSP helps to maintain positive teacher-student relationships, as it reduces the need for reprimands (Reinke et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref59">60</reflink>]).</p> <p> <emph>How does BSP support students who have been identified as EB?</emph> Consider the development of classroom expectations. Once expectations and routines are developed, the teacher creates a lesson plan to teach, model, and have the students practice them. In the lesson plans, the teacher includes multiple examples, practice opportunities across multiple settings, and a variety of school personnel. During practice opportunities, the teacher provides BSP that is specific, consistent, and positive. This section has described well-articulated CRCM plan with the goal of explicitly teaching behavior expectations and providing opportunities to practice with multiple exemplars and individuals is to remove ambiguity and assist EBs in understanding the behavior expectations in the classroom. In the next section we'll describe other critical features of MTSS that can support the behavior and academic achievement of EB students.</p> <hd id="AN0151722902-7">Data- and function- based decision-making supports for EB students</hd> <p>It is vitally important that data capture a picture of the development of the student's progress and trajectories toward bilingualism and that assessment tools measure what skills EBs are able to perform in multiple languages across multiple settings when possible. To accomplish this, the implementation of a systematic assessment processes is necessary. Decision-making is driven by valid, reliable data, and specifically that provided by screening and progress monitoring practices. Consider that inappropriate placement may lead to inappropriate behavior for any student, and it is similarly the case with EBs.</p> <p>Key components of an effective data-teaming system include:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> the inclusion of English Language Development specialists in the decision-making process;</item> <p></p> <item> a plan for assessing students in both languages;</item> <p></p> <item> and a clear criterion for decision-making set by the school or district for students who are in the process of transitioning to English.</item> </ulist> <p> <bold>Data-based decision making.</bold> One promise of MTSS is reduction of inaccurate referrals for remedial and special education services. Screening for prosocial behavior and social-emotional factors for EBs can offer useful information when problem solving support plans for students. Consider two additional circumstances. First, it is necessary that the data team understands that limited language proficiency can affect behavior (Umansky, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref60">68</reflink>]). For example, if students have difficulty understanding the content that is being taught or the expectations teachers have provided students may try attempt to communicate using inappropriate behavior. Students may try to communicate feelings of confusion or frustration to the teacher by not attending to the task, wandering around the room, or disrupting peers; behaviors that are typically reprimanded by teachers. Second, the team should analyze screening data for academics and behavior together. Due to the reciprocal relationship between academic achievement and perceived challenging behavior, teams may be able to reach a conclusion regarding the level, context, and type of support needed for the student (Green et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref61">29</reflink>]). If a team only examines behavior data and doesn't consider English language performance skills that team may develop an intervention plan that will be unsuccessful or insufficient to meet the student's needs.</p> <p> <bold>Function-based decision making.</bold> When students are not following the behavioral expectations, teachers should engage in function-based thinking. That is, when a student is not following expectations, the teacher can determine the reason why the student isn't following the expectations. Function-based decision making (or function-based thinking) is grounded in applied behavior analysis, which concludes that there are two possible functions (i.e., reasons) for inappropriate behavior: (a) to gain attention, activities, tangible objects, or sensory stimulation; or (b) to avoid any of the same variables (see Umbreit et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref62">69</reflink>]). Once teachers are able to determine the function, they can then determine if the function is due to a skill deficit (e.g., the student cannot perform the appropriate behavior or cannot perform the appropriate behavior with fluency) or a performance deficit (e.g., the student can perform the appropriate behavior but does not engage in the behavior because the inappropriate behavior receives more reinforcement; Duhon et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref63">20</reflink>]). Knowing the function and whether the function is due to a language or performance deficit will help the teacher develop a plan to support the student in following the expectations.</p> <p>For EB students specifically, teachers should ask if student's behavior is due to difficulty with an academic task or classroom routine because of a linguistic misunderstanding. When teachers consistently seek to identify why a student is not following expectations coupled with determining if the behavior is an issue of linguistic misunderstanding, teachers can make more informed decisions regarding how to respond within the classroom context. This perspective can assist educators when reviewing data to make decisions regarding referrals for additional tiers of support and special education services. In addition to data-based decision-making and function-based thinking districts and schools can examine their policies with the goal of supporting EB students.</p> <hd id="AN0151722902-8">Culturally responsive policy supports EB students</hd> <p>School- and district-level practices affect students' disciplinary experiences in the classroom. To minimize negative outcomes and increase educational opportunities for EB students, practices related to school- and district- level policies can be assessed to determine if the current practices and policies are supporting inequities. The process of assessing and revising policies can be thoughtfully conducted with a culturally responsive perspective and the addition of key stakeholders.</p> <p>Easily implementable and effective means of revising school discipline policies may improve implementation of systems-wide processes, and more importantly, potentially improve the lives of and outcomes for students, particularly EBs. Therefore, schools and districts may analyze and revise policies to ensure the use of positive, preventative, culturally responsive, and equitable practices are implemented systematically. Below we offer some steps for teams to engage in while analyzing and revising policies to create equitable environments.</p> <hd id="AN0151722902-9">Policy analysis and revisions</hd> <p>To engage in a process of critical policy analysis and revision, those reviewing policies may engage in perspective taking (Warren, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref64">73</reflink>]). Perspective taking is "the tendency to spontaneously adopt the psychological point of view of others in everyday life" (Davis, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref65">16</reflink>], p. 57). Activities for engaging in perspective taking can include information extraction, understanding the community context, and reflection (Warren, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref66">73</reflink>]). Activities such as listening to interviews, responding to a prompt, or adapting a video task of individuals engaged in a conversation can be completed with the assistance of a facilitator (Gehlbach & Brinkworth, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref67">25</reflink>]). When educators participate in momentarily adopting the cultural perspectives of students and their families, including a culture related to language acquisition, new knowledge is obtained that can inform decision making, practices, and help educators engage with students in ways that foster positive student outcomes (Warren, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref68">73</reflink>]).</p> <p>Once a new perspective has been taken, educators may become more sensitized to components within their current policies that sustain inequities. Though sensitized and aware, educators may not know how to address these components or revise their policies and procedures to ensure equity. Revisions can incorporate practices and components of policies that yield effectiveness (Green et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref69">30</reflink>]) so as not to cause further inequities. Educators can take the following steps toward developing policies that can benefit EBs:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Invite key stakeholders that include families and individuals representative of the community to assist in the process of creating and revising policies (Green et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref70">30</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Include procedures for proactively and directly teaching appropriate prosocial behaviors across all tiers of support in the policy (Green et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref71">30</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Communicate the system of ongoing training and professional development for staff related to school discipline (e.g., school law enforcement officer, school resource officer, crisis management team) including teaching preventative strategies and clear alternatives to suspension and expulsion in the policy (Losen, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref72">43</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Eliminate the use of exclusionary discipline practices for nonviolent behaviors (Lhamon & Gupta, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref73">42</reflink>]; McIntosh et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref74">50</reflink>]).</item> <p></p> <item> Develop and communicate the procedures for the regular review of disaggregated data to ensure ongoing evaluation of needs and supports related to discipline practices (McIntosh et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref75">49</reflink>]) in the policy. These data can be disseminated to educational stakeholders.</item> </ulist> <p>We can apply perspective taking to development and implementation of classroom management and to the development and revision of policies to support EB students. To this point we've discussed what teachers can do in the classroom and how administrators can shift policy in order to support EB students. Now let's consider the home and how educators and administrators can engage families to support EB students within a MTSS framework.</p> <hd id="AN0151722902-10">Broadening the view of family engagement</hd> <p>The benefits of parental, family, and school engagement have been consistently confirmed in the research literature, and it has been characterized as one of the most powerful predictors of children's development, educational attainment, and success in school and life (García & Kleifgen, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref76">24</reflink>]). These benefits have been demonstrated for White students and for students who come from ethnic and linguistic minoritized group (Jeynes, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref77">37</reflink>]), in pre-kindergarten to 12<sups>th</sups> grade (Jeynes, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref78">38</reflink>]). Furthermore, EB students, who are from linguistically minoritized populations, who have been traditionally marginalized or persecuted, and whose families live in economic disadvantage, actually gain the most from parental engagement (García, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref79">23</reflink>]; Hidalgo et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref80">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>Despite the promise of family, community, and school collaboration indicated in research findings, the families of EBs, who in many cases have limited formal schooling themselves and who may not communicate proficiently in English, continue to be stigmatized and considered incapable educational partners (García & Kleifgen, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref81">24</reflink>]; Ramirez, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref82">59</reflink>]). At the same time EBs tend to be stigmatized through discourses of underdevelopment and underachievement (Pérez & Saavedra, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref83">57</reflink>]). Nearly three decades of research on "funds of knowledge" for schooling, a construct based on the notion that everyday practices, including linguistic practices, are sites of knowledge construction (Greenberg, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref84">31</reflink>]; Moll et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref85">53</reflink>]), EBs' endogenous knowledge and skills are often overlooked by educators and educational systems (García & Kleifgen, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref86">24</reflink>]). For example, their home languages tend to be seen as a liability in the learning process (García & Kleifgen, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref87">24</reflink>]; Souto-Manning & Rabadi-Raol, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref88">65</reflink>]). For many of these children and their families, their home linguistic environments remain poorly understood and have often been viewed from a deficit-based perspective (Avineri et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref89">2</reflink>]; Baird et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref90">3</reflink>]; Dudley-Marling & Lucas, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref91">19</reflink>]). Deficit thinking about the learners' potential has a negative effect on student outcomes (e.g., Hakuta, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref92">32</reflink>]) despite consensus among researchers on the positive relationship between bilingualism and cognitive and social outcomes (Bialystok, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref93">7</reflink>]; García & Kleifgen, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref94">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>The misaligned expectations regarding the roles of teachers and family members in the educational process can negatively impact student outcomes and educator perceptions of quality of parental involvement. The misaligned perceptions in the relationship between parents and teachers may be especially high when the linguistic background of parents does not match that of school personnel. These misaligned expectations and perceptions may have negative consequences for the quality of their relationship and for children's academic success (Miller et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref95">52</reflink>]). For example, parental involvement tends to be centered on those parents who are able to attend school events, while those who are not able to attend, unfairly, can be seen as uncaring (Ramirez, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref96">59</reflink>]). By implication, families experiencing structural inequalities, such as poverty, may not be able to attend and those with less common native languages may not get involved as desired by the school.</p> <p>Within the context of MTSS, educators can consider not only how teacher practices at the classroom level impact EB students and their families, as well as how the systems, policies and procedures of MTSS may affect EB students and families in unintended ways. There is some qualitative evidence that parents of minoritized groups have fewer interactions with schools and when they do parents perceive teachers as dismissive of their child's education (Ramirez, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref97">59</reflink>]; Miller et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref98">52</reflink>]) Instead a focus on linguistic differences as an additional fund of knowledge for students will aid educators in perceiving EB students and their families in a positive light.</p> <hd id="AN0151722902-11">Conclusion</hd> <p>In this article we provided a survey level view of practices that have the potential to positively impact the education environment of students who are emerging bilinguals. Perhaps a shift in perspectives targeted toward traditionally labeled English Learners and reconceptualized as EB cannot alone ameliorate the disproportionality and inequity that this population experiences. Potentially a label change partnered with effective practices such as culturally responsive classroom management, explicit instruction of classroom behavioral expectations, and behavior specific praise can facilitate improved outcomes for these students academically, behaviorally, and social emotionally. We know that generally speaking, students who are engaged and are motivated to learn are less likely to dropout and more likely to pay attention in class and have higher academic achievement (Connell et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref99">15</reflink>]; Lepper et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref100">41</reflink>]). Students who are more engaged tend to have a more positive perception of their competence as learners (Gottfried et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref101">28</reflink>]). Recent reviews of literature have reported that instructional strategies, including explicit instruction, and the delivery of behavior specific praise can promote academic success for EBs (Aceves & Orosco, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref102">1</reflink>]; Baker et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref103">4</reflink>]; Doabler et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref104">18</reflink>]; Gersten et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref105">27</reflink>]). When considering behavioral outcomes for EB students, teachers and building leaders can use culturally responsive classroom management, function-based thinking, and behavior specific praise to benefit all students not just students who have been traditionally marginalized.</p> <p>The responsibility for the implementation of these strategies does not belong to classroom teachers alone. Teachers can only do better if provided with meaningful and culturally-responsive professional learning opportunities, culturally-responsive district policy and procedures, and appropriate assessment and curriculum to use in the classroom that can facilitate teachers to fully support EB students. Culturally responsive perspectives can be applied when developing Tier 1 supports as we've discussed in this article but can also be considered relevant to Tier 3 supports including special education services and specifically individualized education plans (Jozwik et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref106">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>Successful implementation of MTSS and PBIS to support all students is a logical, effective, and efficient approach toward improving academic, social-emotional, and behavior outcomes for EB students (Baker et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref107">4</reflink>]). District administrators who invest in high quality professional learning resources for all practitioners can include a chance to self-reflect in safe environments. Knowing about evidence-based practices is just one step in a multi-faceted approach to making meaningful change in the way we serve and view EB students and families. By using terms like EB in place of terms like EL we hope that the field can begin to see more students and their families for all the positive potential and enrichment they bring to our classrooms and our school communities.</p> <ref id="AN0151722902-12"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref45" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Aceves, T. C., & Orosco, M. J. (2014). Culturally responsive teaching. (Document No. IC-2). 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A theme of Dr. Chaparro's research is assisting school systems to efficiently and effectively scale up and use evidence practices within the context of multi-tiered systems for behavior and academics.</p> <p>Ambra L. Green , Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor of Special Education within the College of Education at The University of Texas at Arlington. Dr. Green's scholarship is focused on diverse learners with and at risk for disabilities and mitigating issues of inequity for vulnerable populations through teacher preparation, multi-tiered systems of support, and policy.</p> <p>Sylvia Linan-Thompson , Ph.D. is an associate professor at the University of Oregon and is associated with the Center on Teaching and Learning. She has developed and examined reading interventions for struggling readers who are monolingual English speakers, English language learners and bilingual students. Currently, she is examining the English writing development of ELs with and without learning disabilities. She has authored articles, chapters, and books on these topics.</p> <p>Ruby Batz , Ph.D. is a researcher and instructor in the College of Education at the University of Oregon. Her research agenda centers around understanding the implementation of family-centered practices for equity and "diversity". Dr. Batz has three main lines of research in Early Intervention and Early Childhood Education: parenting interventions, parent engagement, and teacher/provider preparation.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref85"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref91"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref92"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref95"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref99"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref100"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref101"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref104"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref105"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref106"></nolink>
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  Data: Classroom to Casa: Supporting Students Who Are Emerging Bilinguals
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Chaparro%2C+Erin+A%2E%22">Chaparro, Erin A.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Green%2C+Ambra+L%2E%22">Green, Ambra L.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Thompson%2C+Sylvia+L%2E%22">Thompson, Sylvia L.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Batz%2C+Ruby%22">Batz, Ruby</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Preventing+School+Failure%22"><i>Preventing School Failure</i></searchLink>. 2021 65(4):323-331.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Descriptive
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22English+Language+Learners%22">English Language Learners</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Bilingual+Students%22">Bilingual Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Behavior%22">Student Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Equal+Education%22">Equal Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Legislation%22">Educational Legislation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Federal+Legislation%22">Federal Legislation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Disproportionate+Representation%22">Disproportionate Representation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Discipline%22">Discipline</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Positive+Behavior+Supports%22">Positive Behavior Supports</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Response+to+Intervention%22">Response to Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Culturally+Relevant+Education%22">Culturally Relevant Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Classroom+Techniques%22">Classroom Techniques</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Data+Use%22">Data Use</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Decision+Making%22">Decision Making</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Policy%22">Educational Policy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+Involvement%22">Family Involvement</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1080/1045988X.2021.1937022
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  Data: A substantial achievement gap, with culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students falling behind native-English-speaking White peers, has been widely documented in research as well as government reports. However, a corresponding discipline gap has not been evident due to the various labels and methods used for identifying specifically English learners (ELs) or Emergent bilingual (EB) students, variation in their proficiency levels of English, and the difficulty in determining who may or may not have a disability. Considerable work remains on how to raise the overall academic and behavior outcomes of EB students. This paper outlines best practices in a multi-tiered system of support and promotes an asset-based approach, which provides the foundation for educators to create equitable education opportunities.
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        Value: 10.1080/1045988X.2021.1937022
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      – SubjectFull: English Language Learners
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      – SubjectFull: Bilingual Students
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      – SubjectFull: Student Behavior
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      – TitleFull: Classroom to Casa: Supporting Students Who Are Emerging Bilinguals
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