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Conceptualizing Careers: Is There an Element of STEM in Every Profession?

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Title: Conceptualizing Careers: Is There an Element of STEM in Every Profession?
Language: English
Authors: Navy, Shannon L. (ORCID 0000-0002-6930-3267), Heisler, Jennifer, Papa, Jeffrey, Gjurkovitsch, Anna
Source: School Science and Mathematics. Nov 2021 121(7):422-433.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2021
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Secondary Education
Descriptors: STEM Education, Occupational Information, Science Careers, Concept Formation, Classification, Teacher Attitudes, Elementary School Teachers, Secondary School Teachers, Science Interests, Relevance (Education), Knowledge Level, Time Management, Curriculum Implementation
DOI: 10.1111/ssm.12493
ISSN: 0036-6803
Abstract: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is widely visible in education and workforce policies and discussions in the United States (US). However, there is a lack of consensus on what is considered a STEM career. In addition, little is known about how K-12 teachers conceptualize STEM careers and how this information is portrayed to students. This mixed methods study investigated 52 K-12 teachers' conceptions of STEM careers and if they included this information in their classroom instruction. The data collected consisted of a questionnaire and follow-up interviews with a subset of teachers. The data analysis revealed that there was a range of how teachers defined and conceptualized STEM careers from narrow to very broad. This led to the development of the STEM-Peripheral, Adjacent, Central (STEM-PAC) career classifications which categorizes careers based on the application of STEM knowledge and skills. Additionally, teachers articulated benefits and drawbacks of including STEM career information in their instruction. Benefits included increasing student interest in STEM careers and making learning relevant. Drawbacks included limits to teacher time and knowledge. This study suggests teachers should present STEM as it is connected to various careers and that administrators should support teachers who wish to include this in their curriculum.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2021
Accession Number: EJ1316107
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0153631634;ssm01nov.21;2021Nov19.04:30;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0153631634-1">Conceptualizing careers: Is there an element of STEM in every profession? </title> <p>Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is widely visible in education and workforce policies and discussions in the United States (US). However, there is a lack of consensus on what is considered a STEM career. In addition, little is known about how K‐12 teachers conceptualize STEM careers and how this information is portrayed to students. This mixed methods study investigated 52 K‐12 teachers' conceptions of STEM careers and if they included this information in their classroom instruction. The data collected consisted of a questionnaire and follow‐up interviews with a subset of teachers. The data analysis revealed that there was a range of how teachers defined and conceptualized STEM careers from narrow to very broad. This led to the development of the STEM‐Peripheral, Adjacent, Central (STEM‐PAC) career classifications which categorizes careers based on the application of STEM knowledge and skills. Additionally, teachers articulated benefits and drawbacks of including STEM career information in their instruction. Benefits included increasing student interest in STEM careers and making learning relevant. Drawbacks included limits to teacher time and knowledge. This study suggests teachers should present STEM as it is connected to various careers and that administrators should support teachers who wish to include this in their curriculum.</p> <p>Keywords: STEM; STEM careers; STEM education; STEM‐PAC; STEM workforce; teachers</p> <hd id="AN0153631634-2">INTRODUCTION</hd> <p>Children are often asked what they want to be when they grow up. The answers can range from ballerina to professional athlete to doctor to astronaut. Many of these careers will require science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) knowledge and skills. Yet, there is a decline in enrollment in STEM careers and a lack of consensus on what constitutes a STEM career (Byars‐Winston, 2014; Holmes et al., 2018; National Science Board [NSB], 2015).</p> <p>Simultaneously, it is recognized that STEM knowledge and skills are often connected to a country's economic success (Mc Garr & Lynch, 2017). As such, STEM education is a priority in many countries to help create a STEM‐capable workforce (Christensen et al., 2014; NASEM, 2016; Zollman, 2012). For instance, in the United States (US), <emph>The Next Generation Science Standards</emph> (NGSS Lead States, 2013) and <emph>A Framework for K‐12 Science Education</emph> (National Research Council [NRC], 2012) include computational thinking and engineering standards, thereby stating the intent of STEM integration in K‐12 settings.</p> <p>Students' interest in STEM fields can be influenced by family, peers, and educators (Halim et al., 2018; Nugent et al., 2015). Therefore, for many, knowledge of careers may begin in K‐12 educational settings. Students' knowledge of and experiences with STEM and STEM careers can have an impact on their future career decisions which can influence the STEM workforce (Nugent et al., 2015; Zhang & Barnett, 2015).</p> <p>It is established that a teacher is one of the most important influences on students' learning (Nugent et al., 2015; Rockoff, 2004). Yet, little is known about teachers' perceptions of STEM careers and if and/or how they embed STEM careers into their instruction. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate teachers' views and categorizations of careers and inclusion of STEM careers in the curriculum. The questions guiding this study are:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> How do mathematics and science teachers define STEM careers?</item> <p></p> <item> How do mathematics and science teachers categorize careers?</item> <p></p> <item> What are mathematics and science teachers' perceived benefits and drawbacks of including knowledge of STEM careers into the K‐12 curriculum?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0153631634-3">FRAMING THE STUDY</hd> <p>This study is framed within perspectives of career development theories and views of the STEM workforce in the US. There are multiple career development theories that contribute to understanding the career development process. For instance, social cognitive career theory emphasizes the involvement of individual agency toward career decisions (Lent & Brown, 1996; Lent et al., 1994). That is, individuals make choices about careers to achieve professional goals (Lent et al., 2002). Similarly, constructivist career theory recognizes how individual agency is utilized when people construct career pathways, often in non‐linear ways (Grier‐Reed et al., 2009; Savickas, 2002).</p> <p>The process of career development is often mediated by internal and external factors (Sullivan & Baruch, 2009; Wang & Wanberg, 2017). For instance, knowledge of careers is an internal factor that contributes to how one might envision and construct their own career trajectory. Likewise, teachers in K‐12 educational contexts are external factors that can influence students' knowledge of careers and career trajectories.</p> <p>Career trajectories lead individuals into STEM careers, which comprise and shape the STEM workforce. However, the STEM workforce landscape is changing in the US. Traditionally, the STEM workforce included "scientists and engineers, often with advanced degrees, performing research and development in university, industry, or governmental laboratories" (NASEM, 2016, p. 12–13). However, more recent discussions around the STEM workforce recognize the importance of STEM knowledge and skills in far more workforce roles, including those of the skilled technical workforce (STW; NSB, 2019; Rothwell, 2013).</p> <p>Yet, there is no consensus definition of the STEM workforce (NSB, 2015). While some definitions are based on degree or occupational classifications, there is not always a linear STEM pipeline from degree to job (Salzman et al., 2013). For instance, there are individuals who use STEM knowledge and skills in their work but do not have a formal STEM degree and there are individuals who have a STEM degree but work in what could be classified as a non‐STEM career. Other common definitions of STEM careers exclude individuals without a bachelor's degree, social scientists, and health care workers (NASEM, 2016; Rothwell, 2013). Yet, other contemporary definitions define STEM careers by lists of occupations. For instance,</p> <p>"STEM is defined to consist of 100 occupations, including computer and mathematics, architecture and engineering, and life and physical science occupations, as well as managerial and postsecondary teaching occupations related to these functional areas and sales occupations requiring scientific or technical knowledge at the postsecondary level" (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021).</p> <p>Broadening what constitutes the STEM workforce also encourages partnerships among universities, industries, and community and technical colleges (NSB, 2019; Olson & Labov, 2012; Selwitz et al., 2018). Community and technical colleges prepare students in occupations that require STEM knowledge and skills at the operator or technician level (NSB, 2015). This STW is composed of individuals who use STEM skills in their work but do not have a bachelor's degree (NSB, 2019). Indeed, Rothwell (2013) noted that 50% of jobs that utilize high‐STEM knowledge in at least one STEM field require less than a bachelor's degree.</p> <p>In this study, career development theories and the STEM workforce are used to conceptualize important components of the research. Specifically, career development theories support the importance of individual agency in the career development process. Teachers' conceptions of STEM careers can influence students' awareness of and interest in STEM careers. Students, then, may use their agency to construct a career trajectory in a STEM field to contribute to the STEM workforce, which is comprised of various fields and occupations.</p> <hd id="AN0153631634-4">REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0153631634-5">Teachers and STEM careers</hd> <p>Students' understanding of STEM careers is strongly influenced by educators (Nugent et al., 2015). Additionally, teachers' understanding of STEM careers is directly correlated to their instruction and the awareness developed by the students (Knowles et al., 2018; Srikoom et al., 2017). This student awareness can translate into career aspirations (Blotnicky et al., 2018; Nugent et al., 2015; Zhang & Barnett, 2015). For instance, some students pursue a STEM career due to the important influence of a teacher (Craig et al., 2019). Indeed, "Students cannot aspire to particular careers, including those in the STEM fields, if they lack knowledge of those careers" (Holmes et al., 2018, p. 671).</p> <p>Teachers can include knowledge of STEM careers within their classroom instruction and/or encourage school‐level participation. For instance, schools or teachers can conduct video interviews of STEM professionals, invite STEM professionals into classrooms as guest speakers, use textbooks that profile STEM careers, or Skype with scientists (Knowles et al., 2018; Morgan, 2013; Wyss et al., 2012). Classroom instruction or school programs that include thoughtful developed implementation of knowledge of STEM careers enhances students' knowledge, awareness, and perception of STEM careers (Davenport et al., 2020; Edwin et al., 2018; Emembolu et al., 2020; Kier & Blanchard, 2019; Maiorca et al., 2020).</p> <p>However, there are challenges to teachers' incorporation of knowledge of STEM careers in the K‐12 curriculum. It is established that teaching is not an objective practice (Dunn et al., 2019). Thus, views of careers and what counts as what type of career can be linked to the individual teacher who may unintentionally perpetuate biases and stereotypes about careers, especially those in STEM. In addition, teachers may not believe they have the knowledge, skills, and resources to effectively incorporate career guidance into their instruction. For instance, Watermeyer et al. (2016) surveyed secondary STEM teachers in England where the curriculum specifies teachers need to include career guidance in their instruction. The teachers indicated many drawbacks to doing this, including: perceptions that they were the only ones responsible for this guidance for students, competing demands and classroom priorities in an already overcrowded curriculum, detachment from the STEM work world, and limited resources specific to STEM careers. In addition, knowledge of STEM subjects overall is still developing among teachers (Navy & Kaya, 2020; Srikoom et al., 2017).</p> <hd id="AN0153631634-6">Essential STEM knowledge and skills</hd> <p>In thinking about STEM careers, it is important to consider the required knowledge and skills. In fact, Rothwell (2013) classified occupations based on what knowledge workers need to know in order to do their job rather than based on what job workers do. Rothwell's (2013) study used data from the Department of Labor's Occupational Information Network Data Collection Program (O*NET) which surveys workers in every occupation to document their job characteristics and knowledge requirements. A STEM knowledge score was calculated for each occupation. Based on knowledge needed for a job, 20% of all occupations require a high level of knowledge in any one STEM field (see Rothwell, 2013).</p> <p>Different occupations require different levels of education and training in STEM content. Conventional STEM jobs usually require a four‐year college degree while skilled technical STEM jobs usually have a sub‐bachelor's degree requirement (Rothwell, 2013). However, the education requirement is not always indicative of how much STEM knowledge will be utilized in the career. In fact, some studies indicate that half of all STEM jobs do not require a four‐year degree when STEM occupations are classified based on knowledge requirements rather than degree requirements (Rothwell, 2013).</p> <p>Many STEM occupations involve essential skills alongside knowledge. For instance, complex communication, critical thinking, design thinking, systems thinking, interpersonal skills, active learning, and problem solving are important for STEM careers (Dym et al., 2005; NRC, 2010). Another skill that reaches across the bounds of STEM fields is that of creativity. Indeed, STEM workers need creativity to foster innovation (Segarra et al., 2018).</p> <hd id="AN0153631634-7">SUMMARY</hd> <p>It has been established that teachers have an important role in impacting students' career decisions and trajectories. However, there is a dearth of research examining how teachers conceptualize STEM careers and if they include knowledge of STEM careers in their instruction. Simultaneously, there is a lack of consensus on what constitutes a STEM career. Understanding how teachers define and present this information to students can provide insights into the messages students receive about career opportunities. This research seeks to fill these voids.</p> <hd id="AN0153631634-8">METHODS</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0153631634-9">Context and participants</hd> <p>This was a convergent design mixed‐methods study following guidelines in Creswell and Plano Clark (2018). An electronic questionnaire that contained quantitative and qualitative responses was designed and administered to teachers of STEM in the US. Teachers were included in the study if they taught K‐12 science, technology, engineering, and/or mathematics or if they were an elementary teacher who indicated they taught any STEM content. Following the questionnaire, interviews were conducted with a small subset of the overall sample of teachers. In total, 52 teachers from 20 counties within 10 states in the continental US were included in this study. Teacher demographics are presented in Table 1. All teachers are referred to by pseudonyms to maintain confidentiality.</p> <p>1 TABLEParticipant demographics</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left">Teachers (<italic>n</italic> = 52)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">Race/ethnicity (n, %)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Asian</td><td align="char" char="(">0 (0%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Black</td><td align="char" char="(">2 (3.8%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Hispanic/latino</td><td align="char" char="(">0 (0%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">White</td><td align="char" char="(">49 (94.2%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Native American</td><td align="char" char="(">1 (1.9%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Gender (n, %)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Male</td><td align="char" char="(">17 (32.7%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Female</td><td align="char" char="(">35 (67.3%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Age (n, %)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">22–32</td><td align="char" char="(">13 (25%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">33–43</td><td align="char" char="(">14 (26.9%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">44–54</td><td align="char" char="(">16 (30.8%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">55+</td><td align="char" char="(">9 (17.3%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Years teaching (n, %)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1–5 years</td><td align="char" char="(">13 (25%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">6–15 years</td><td align="char" char="(">15 (28.8%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">16+ years</td><td align="char" char="(">24 (46.2%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Content taught (n, %)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Science</td><td align="char" char="(">25 (48.1%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Mathematics</td><td align="char" char="(">18 (34.6%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Multiple<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn1" /></td><td align="char" char="(">9 (17.3%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Grade taught (n, %)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Elementary</td><td align="char" char="(">6 (11.5%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Middle</td><td align="char" char="(">16 (30.8%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">High</td><td align="char" char="(">30 (57.7%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Career changer (n, %)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Yes</td><td align="char" char="(">18 (34.6%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">No</td><td align="char" char="(">34 (65.4%)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 a Teachers who taught multiple subjects or who taught at the elementary level as generalists.</p> <hd id="AN0153631634-10">Data collection</hd> <p>There were two sources of data in this study. The first source was a questionnaire which was designed specifically for this research and organized into two parts. The first part asked 9 demographic questions about the teachers. The second part asked 5 questions about teachers' perceptions of STEM careers. For this part, teachers were first asked an open‐ended question "In your opinion, what is a STEM career?"</p> <p>Next, teachers were provided a list of 50 careers, which they had to classify as a STEM career or not. The list of 50 careers was generated by the research team. The team discussed conceptions of STEM careers based on ideas from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (https://<ulink href="http://www.bls.gov/oes/topics.htm),">www.bls.gov/oes/topics.htm),</ulink> STEM Career Awareness (https://sites.ced.ncsu.edu/stem‐career‐awareness/), and prior practitioner experiences in K‐12 classrooms. Careers were added to the list if they represented fields not yet included on the list. For instance, the research team noticed the initial list did not include any type of construction careers so those were added to the list. Alternatively, if a field was perceived to be adequately represented on the list, then no additional specific careers were included in that area. For instance, physicist was not included on the list because chemist and biologist were already present. Through multiple discussions and iterations, the research team used professional judgement to determine that the list represented an adequate range and number of careers to gauge a teacher's conception of STEM careers without making the length of the questionnaire onerous and time‐consuming (Artino et al., 2014; Fink, 2002). After viewing the list of 50 careers, teachers were asked to "Please explain your thinking on how you determined whether a career is STEM or not?" They were also asked open‐ended questions, such as: "Do you teach about STEM careers in your K‐12 classroom? If yes, how much time do you spend teaching about STEM careers?" At the end of the questionnaire, teachers were asked if they could be contacted for a follow‐up interview.</p> <p>To validate the questionnaire prior to implementation, it was tested on two science educators, two graduate students in science education, and one practicing teacher. Revisions were made based on the feedback. Next, the electronic link was sent to practicing teachers in the US. Teachers were recruited via snowball sampling through each of the author's connections. The link was active for six weeks, during which time teachers could start, stop, and revisit the questionnaire for completion. The number of respondents who began the questionnaire was 86, but 52 completed the entire questionnaire and were considered teachers of STEM content for a 60.5% completion rate.</p> <p>The second source of data was follow‐up interviews which were conducted with 15% of the teachers. The interview was designed to elicit teachers' views about experiences that have influenced their ideas about STEM careers and their perceptions about the benefits and drawbacks of including knowledge of STEM careers in the K‐12 curriculum. The interview protocol was collectively developed by the research team. Some questions included, "When you hear someone mention STEM careers, what do you think of? What is a STEM career?" and "What are some of your own life experiences that you think have influence on your views and ideas about STEM careers?" Interviews followed guidelines in Roulston (2010) which allowed for probing and elaboration of answers. Interviews lasted 20–40 min and were audio recorded and transcribed.</p> <hd id="AN0153631634-11">Data analysis</hd> <p>The data analysis was initially conducted by data source and then merged for the overall results to answer the research questions. For the questionnaire data, a coding scheme was created to transform qualitative responses into quantitative ones (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018; Onwuegbuzie & Teddlie, 2003). This scheme was developed by the research team and piloted with questionnaire data from four teachers. Revisions were made to the coding structure based on discussions and consensus of the research team.</p> <p>Two additional codes were created during the analysis process. One of these codes [ALIGNMENT] was developed to see if teachers' responses to defining a STEM career stayed consistent throughout the questionnaire. Teachers defined a STEM career prior to looking at a list of 50 careers and selecting which ones were STEM or not. Following this categorization, teachers defined a STEM career again in light of the careers they just viewed. The research team coded both the pre‐ and post‐ definitions and created the [ALIGNMENT] code that indicated if these definitions were aligned or not. Teachers scored a "1" if the definitions were aligned and a "0" if they were not aligned.</p> <p>In addition, a code [BROADNESS] was created to quantify the broadness of teachers' views of STEM careers. This broadness code was created by looking across the 50 career options presented in the questionnaire for each teacher. Teachers received a score of "1" if they categorized 0–10 careers as STEM, "2" if they categorized 11–20 careers as STEM, "3" if they categorized 21–30 careers as STEM, "4" if they categorized 31–40 careers as STEM, and "5" if they categorized 41–50 careers as STEM.</p> <p>Once the questionnaire coding scheme was finalized, each teacher's qualitative data were quantified by one researcher and cross‐checked by another researcher. If there were any disagreements, discussions occurred until consensus was reached (Herrera et al., 1996). Next, descriptive statistics were analyzed for each question to investigate teachers' perceptions of STEM careers.</p> <p>The interview data were coded into a priori categories based on the research questions (Miles et al., 2014). These categories included: perceptions of STEM careers, benefits and drawbacks of including STEM careers in K‐12 curriculum, and additional comments. Four researchers coded the eight interviews, with each researcher initially coding two interviews and then cross‐checking another two interviews. As with the quantification of the qualitative data, if there were disagreements on the codes, discussions occurred until consensus was reached (Herrera et al., 1996). The research team then collectively looked for trends across the qualitative interview data to answer the research questions.</p> <p>To ensure the validity and reliability of the findings, multiple methods were used by multiple researchers contributing to method and investigator triangulation (Miles et al., 2014). An additional reliability measure included member checking (Miles et al., 2014). The interview data, once transcribed, were shared with teachers to ensure the meanings transcribed were accurate representations of their perceptions. The discussion and triangulation of the data collection and analysis contributed to the overall credibility of the study (Tracy, 2010).</p> <hd id="AN0153631634-12">RESULTS</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0153631634-13">Definitions of STEM careers</hd> <p>Teachers defined STEM careers in various ways prior to looking at the list of 50 careers and after looking at the list of 50 careers (Table 2). Although almost half of the teachers (44.2%) initially defined a STEM career involving S, T, E, M disciplines (i.e., by the STEM acronym), this percentage decreased to about one‐third (28.8%) after viewing the list of 50 careers. Additionally, a higher percentage of teachers defined a STEM career without any mention of the STEM disciplines in the post‐response (13.5%) compared to the pre‐response (3.8%).</p> <p>2 TABLEDefinition of a STEM career</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left">Code</th><th align="left">Pre (<italic>n</italic> = 52)</th><th align="left">Example Pre‐Response</th><th align="left">Post (<italic>n</italic> = 52)</th><th align="left">Example post‐response</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">2 of the 4 STEM disciplines</td><td align="char" char="(">6 (11.5%)</td><td align="left">"A career based in science and/or math"</td><td align="char" char="(">9 (17.3%)</td><td align="left">"If it requires a lot of math and science, it's stem"</td></tr><tr><td align="left">3 of the 4 STEM disciplines</td><td align="char" char="(">5 (9.6%)</td><td align="left">"Any career that involves Science, Technology, or Math"</td><td align="char" char="(">2 (3.8%)</td><td align="left">"How much I felt it relied on science, technology, and mathematics"</td></tr><tr><td align="left">S, T, E, M disciplines</td><td align="char" char="(">23 (44.2%)</td><td align="left">"Occupations related to science, tech, engineering and math"</td><td align="char" char="(">15 (28.8%)</td><td align="left">"If it involved anything in science, technology, engineering and/or math"</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Application of the STEM disciplines</td><td align="char" char="(">12 (23.1%)</td><td align="left">"A STEM career is any profession that requires critical thinking and problem‐solving in any combination of the fields of science, technology, engineering, or math. It is usually collaborative and always produces a product of some kind, which can take the form of intellectual property or a physical device"</td><td align="char" char="(">14 (26.9%)</td><td align="left">"If a job was primarily rooted in a type of science and required skills and knowledge of that science to be successful, I considered it to be a STEM career. The same applied for numerical analysis. If a job required skills and knowledge of mathematics and numbers, it was considered STEM. In terms of engineering, the job had to use research and analysis to be considered engineering"</td></tr><tr><td align="left">No mention of the STEM disciplines</td><td align="char" char="(">2 (3.8%)</td><td align="left">"A career that incorporates the logical processing of information and development of new logical ways to solve a problem or implement a new idea"</td><td align="char" char="(">7 (13.5%)</td><td align="left">"If it involved logical thinking and problem solving. Almost any career could fall into this category depending on how you perceive what it does"</td></tr><tr><td align="left">STEM +Education or trade disciplines</td><td align="char" char="(">3 (5.8%)</td><td align="left">"Any career involved in the fields of Science, Technology, Engineering, or Mathematics or a combination thereof. Can also include careers in education that instruct about these fields</td><td align="char" char="(">1 (1.9%)</td><td align="left">"Mostly I looked at an overlap in science/math... secondly I selected careers involving trades"</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Everything is a STEM career</td><td align="char" char="(">0 (0%)</td><td align="left" /><td align="char" char="(">2 (3.8%)</td><td align="left">"I would say that all careers could be potential STEM careers as they each have a stem component and use problem solving strategies. All careers are some way connected to technology, math, science or engineering"</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Other</td><td align="char" char="(">1 (1.9%)</td><td align="left">"NO clue"</td><td align="char" char="(">2 (3.8%)</td><td align="left">"If the education leading to it involved heavy STEM course work or a major in STEM"</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>About half of teachers' definitions of a STEM career remained aligned from the pre‐ to post‐ responses (55.8%). With the teachers whose definitions shifted (44.2%), there were some observable trends. After viewing a list of careers, some teachers indicated it was difficult to determine a STEM career. For example, one teacher's pre‐response was "A career that has components of Math, Science, Technology and/or Engineering." This teacher indicated in the post‐response that</p> <p>"It was tough, and I can see how even some of the careers I did not pick do use a small element of Math or Science. I had to decide if it was enough to call it STEM. I would say [if Math or Science was] used at least 25% of the time in that career [then it was enough to call it STEM]."</p> <p>Other teachers considered the training and/or coursework someone would need for the career. One teacher's pre‐response was "Any type of career involving the STEM field directly (all fields of science, technology, engineering, and math) from researchers, to teachers, statisticians, computer developers, etc." In the post‐response, the teacher indicated:</p> <p>"If the career is directly involved in the development or discovery of that field, if STEM topics are directly applied in that career, and/or if that job requires a STEM college major. Example: An accountant uses math in their job however they are considered business majors more often than not (vs. a math major) and usually have more undergraduate math courses."</p> <p>Some teachers looked at the profession listed as a whole. For instance, one teacher's pre‐response was "Career that requires knowledge/training in and primarily uses science, math, engineering, and/or computer science." The teacher shifted in the post‐response:</p> <p>"Based it on whether most people in the profession are using advanced STEM knowledge most of the time. Most chemical engineers use advanced knowledge of science, engineering, and math most of the time in their occupation = STEM career. Teacher does not equal STEM career because most teachers do not spend most of their work time using advanced knowledge in STEM areas. So while there is a subset of teachers who have a STEM career, that doesn't represent the profession as a whole."</p> <p>Finally, some teachers acknowledged that all careers could be considered STEM. One teacher said in the pre‐response that a STEM career is "Any career that uses, science, technology, engineering, or math through innovation or invention to solve problems." In the post‐response, this teacher indicated "I would say that all careers could be potential STEM careers as they each have a STEM component and use problem solving strategies. All careers are some way connected to technology, math, science or engineering." Another teacher shifted from "Careers that utilize problem solving, principles of science, principles of engineering, data analysis, mathematics, collaborative thought processes and multiple venues to share information" to "There is an element of STEM in every profession."</p> <hd id="AN0153631634-14">Categorizations of STEM careers</hd> <p>Table 3 indicates teachers' categorizations of a career as STEM or not. Teachers unanimously agreed that hard science, engineering, or robotics careers were STEM, but there was more variation in other areas.</p> <p>3 TABLETeachers' categorizations of STEM careers (n = 52)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left">Is the following a STEM career?</th><th align="left">No <italic>n</italic> (%)</th><th align="left">Yes <italic>n</italic> (%)</th><th align="left">Is the following a STEM career?</th><th align="left">No <italic>n</italic> (%)</th><th align="left">Yes <italic>n</italic> (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">Accountant</td><td align="char" char="(">16 (30.8%)</td><td align="char" char="(">36 (69.2%)</td><td align="left">Human resource officer</td><td align="char" char="(">44 (84.6%)</td><td align="char" char="(">8 (15.4%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Actor/actress</td><td align="char" char="(">47 (90.4%)</td><td align="char" char="(">5 (9.6%)</td><td align="left">Lawyer</td><td align="char" char="(">44 (84.6%)</td><td align="char" char="(">8 (15.4%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Actuary</td><td align="char" char="(">15 (28.8%)</td><td align="char" char="(">37 (71.2%)</td><td align="left">Marketing Director</td><td align="char" char="(">33 (63.5%)</td><td align="char" char="(">19 (36.5%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Animal trainer</td><td align="char" char="(">28 (53.8%)</td><td align="char" char="(">24 (46.2%)</td><td align="left">Mechanic</td><td align="char" char="(">12 (23.1%)</td><td align="char" char="(">40 (76.9%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Architect</td><td align="char" char="(">1 (1.9%)</td><td align="char" char="(">51 (98.1%)</td><td align="left">Meteorologist</td><td align="char" char="(">2 (3.8%)</td><td align="char" char="(">50 (96.2%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Banker</td><td align="char" char="(">19 (36.5%)</td><td align="char" char="(">33 (63.5%)</td><td align="left">Nurse</td><td align="char" char="(">7 (13.5%)</td><td align="char" char="(">45 (86.5%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Biologist</td><td align="char" char="(">0 (0%)</td><td align="char" char="(">52 (100%)</td><td align="left">Park ranger</td><td align="char" char="(">22 (42.3%)</td><td align="char" char="(">30 (57.7%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Botanist</td><td align="char" char="(">1 (1.9%)</td><td align="char" char="(">51 (98.1%)</td><td align="left">Pharmacist</td><td align="char" char="(">2 (3.8%)</td><td align="char" char="(">50 (96.2%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Chef</td><td align="char" char="(">34 (65.4%)</td><td align="char" char="(">18 (34.6%)</td><td align="left">Physical Therapist</td><td align="char" char="(">8 (15.4%)</td><td align="char" char="(">44 (84.6%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Chemical Engineer</td><td align="char" char="(">0 (0%)</td><td align="char" char="(">52 (100%)</td><td align="left">Physician</td><td align="char" char="(">4 (7.7%)</td><td align="char" char="(">48 (92.3%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Chemist</td><td align="char" char="(">0 (0%)</td><td align="char" char="(">52 (100%)</td><td align="left">Pilot</td><td align="char" char="(">9 (17.3%)</td><td align="char" char="(">43 (82.7%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Chiropractor</td><td align="char" char="(">12 (23.1%)</td><td align="char" char="(">40 (76.9%)</td><td align="left">Plumber</td><td align="char" char="(">26 (50%)</td><td align="char" char="(">26 (50%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Civil engineer</td><td align="char" char="(">2 (3.8%)</td><td align="char" char="(">50 (96.2%)</td><td align="left">Police officer</td><td align="char" char="(">45 (86.5%)</td><td align="char" char="(">7 (13.5%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Commercial fisherman</td><td align="char" char="(">32 (61.5%)</td><td align="char" char="(">20 (38.5%)</td><td align="left">Politician</td><td align="char" char="(">45 (86.5%)</td><td align="char" char="(">7 (13.5%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Computer programmer</td><td align="char" char="(">0 (0%)</td><td align="char" char="(">52 (100%)</td><td align="left">Principal</td><td align="char" char="(">40 (76.7%)</td><td align="char" char="(">12 (76.9%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Construction worker</td><td align="char" char="(">23 (44.2%)</td><td align="char" char="(">29 (55.8%)</td><td align="left">Psychologist</td><td align="char" char="(">19 (36.5%)</td><td align="char" char="(">33 (63.5%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Dentist</td><td align="char" char="(">9 (17.3%)</td><td align="char" char="(">43 (82.7%)</td><td align="left">Retail associate</td><td align="char" char="(">47 (90.4%)</td><td align="char" char="(">5 (9.6%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Electrician</td><td align="char" char="(">7 (13.5%)</td><td align="char" char="(">45 (86.5%)</td><td align="left">Robotics Technician</td><td align="char" char="(">0 (0%)</td><td align="char" char="(">52 (100%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Fashion designer</td><td align="char" char="(">36 (69.2%)</td><td align="char" char="(">16 (30.8%)</td><td align="left">Secretary</td><td align="char" char="(">47 (90.4%)</td><td align="char" char="(">5 (9.6%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Finance manager</td><td align="char" char="(">17 (32.7%)</td><td align="char" char="(">35 (67.3%)</td><td align="left">Statistician</td><td align="char" char="(">3 (5.8%)</td><td align="char" char="(">49 (94.2%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Firefighter</td><td align="char" char="(">36 (69.2%)</td><td align="char" char="(">16 (30.8%)</td><td align="left">Surveyor</td><td align="char" char="(">8 (15.4%)</td><td align="char" char="(">44 (84.6%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Forensic scientist</td><td align="char" char="(">2 (3.8%)</td><td align="char" char="(">50 (96.2%)</td><td align="left">Teacher</td><td align="char" char="(">12 (23.1%)</td><td align="char" char="(">40 (76.9%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Game designer</td><td align="char" char="(">5 (9.6%)</td><td align="char" char="(">47 (90.4%)</td><td align="left">Veterinarian</td><td align="char" char="(">4 (7.7%)</td><td align="char" char="(">48 (92.3%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Geographer</td><td align="char" char="(">7 (13.5%)</td><td align="char" char="(">45 (86.5%)</td><td align="left">Waitress</td><td align="char" char="(">49 (94.2%)</td><td align="char" char="(">3 (5.8%)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Geologist</td><td align="char" char="(">2 (3.8%)</td><td align="char" char="(">50 (96.2%)</td><td align="left">Welder</td><td align="char" char="(">21 (40.4%)</td><td align="char" char="(">31 (59.6%)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>The broadness of a STEM career code also provided insights into teachers' perceptions of STEM careers. Scores in this code ranged from 2 to 5 (<emph>M</emph> = 3.69, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.85), indicating that all teachers classified at least 11 of the 50 careers as STEM and the majority of teachers classified at least 21 of the 50 careers as STEM.</p> <p>The teachers' definitions and categorizations of STEM led to the development of the STEM‐Peripheral, Adjacent, Central (STEM‐PAC) career classifications to depict the different levels in which STEM is utilized in various careers (Figure 1). In the center of the model are <emph>STEM‐central</emph> careers, which are conventional careers (e.g., engineer, scientist) and skilled technical careers (e.g., electrician, plumber). These careers directly use STEM knowledge and skills routinely in their work and their job requires a degree or specific training in a conventional or skilled technical STEM field. The next level in the classification system are <emph>STEM‐adjacent</emph> careers which are careers that routinely use STEM knowledge and skills but may not require a degree or specific training in a conventional or skilled technical STEM field. Examples of STEM‐adjacent careers would be bankers and fashion designers. The third level in the classification system are <emph>STEM‐peripheral</emph> careers which are careers that utilize some aspects of STEM knowledge and skills to a lesser extent in their jobs and do not require a degree or training in a conventional or skilled technical STEM field. Examples of STEM‐peripheral careers are lawyers and human resource officers.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/SSM/01nov21/ssm12493-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNHX8kSepq84v%2bvlOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="ssm12493-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 STEM‐PAC career classifications" /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0153631634-16">STEM careers in the curriculum</hd> <p>In response to whether or not they include instruction of STEM careers in their curriculum, 34.6% of teachers responded "no," 30.8% of teachers responded "yes minimally" (monthly or yearly), and 34.6% of teachers responded with "yes often" (daily or weekly). The qualitative data from the interviews provide insights into the teachers' responses.</p> <p>The teachers explained benefits for including knowledge of STEM careers into their instruction. For instance, it can be helpful to increase students' awareness of STEM, encourage problem solving and creative learning skills, open career opportunities for students, bring authenticity to the learning, allow students to find out what interests them before college, expose underrepresented groups to STEM careers, and enable students to think outside the box. For example, Anastasia, a seventh grade integrated science teacher, stated, "If you are giving [students] opportunities or providing opportunities for students to hear about careers, they might become interested in something that they would not have been interested in otherwise." Likewise, Betty an elementary teacher, mentioned it is beneficial to expose students to STEM careers because "STEM careers are open to them and they have the skills. And they are not worried by the technical side of STEM."</p> <p>The teachers also discussed drawbacks of including knowledge of STEM careers into the K‐12 curriculum. The drawbacks related to time, teacher knowledge, and the importance of all content areas. For instance, Betty commented, "Well, the major drawback is that it takes time. And, of course, in teaching that is the one thing we don't have because we have standards that we have to accomplish." Related to teacher knowledge, Meredith, a high school science teacher, remarked, "I think just – you know it goes back kind of to what teachers' education looks like. I think that if teachers were taught how to teach it, it becomes a lot easier." For Lydia, a high school science teacher, it was challenging to reach students who were more interested in humanities subjects. She stated,</p> <p>"Trying to get [students] to understand the skills you're learning now – yes you're in an engineering class, but they can translate in other capacities even if you want nothing to do with what's traditionally thought of as a STEM career. So that I think is the biggest thing. How do you still support those students? You know, no subject, no content is more important than another. How do you convey that in an environment, in a culture, where the focus is very much STEM?"</p> <hd id="AN0153631634-17">DISCUSSION</hd> <p>There is an ever‐growing amount of attention given to STEM and the STEM workforce in the US. However, there is little understanding about teachers' conceptualizations of STEM careers. This study contributes to the knowledge in this area by investigating teachers' perceptions of STEM careers and inclusion of STEM career guidance in the K‐12 curriculum. The insights from the data are important given the influential role teachers have on student learning. The results of this study can be interpreted in light of career development theories and the STEM workforce.</p> <p>The first two questions in this study asked, "How do mathematics and science teachers define STEM careers?" and "How do mathematics and science teachers categorize STEM careers?" The results from this study suggest there are a range of definitions and categorizations of STEM careers. When asked to identify whether a career is STEM or not, the teachers' responses varied with the exception of the conventional STEM careers (e.g., biologist, chemical engineer). This led to the development of the STEM‐PAC career classifications, which delineates levels of careers based on the application of STEM knowledge and skills. No previous work, to our knowledge, has provided varying categorizations of STEM careers. Given that the STEM workforce is typically discussed as a monolith (NASEM, 2016; NSB, 2015), these distinctions are important in career discussions to help provide clarifications on the status of the STEM‐capable workforce.</p> <p>The focus of the STEM‐PAC career classifications aligns with views of constructivist career theories by recognizing the non‐linear career paths of individuals. Emphasizing the application of STEM knowledge and skills used in a career recognizes that not all individuals with conventional STEM degrees work in STEM careers and not all individuals in what can be considered STEM careers have degrees in conventional STEM fields. This nonlinear degree or preparation to career trajectory agrees with the STEM career definition approach in Rothwell (2013) and supports the inclusion of STW into the STEM career classifications (NSB, 2019).</p> <p>The views of the teachers on what constitutes a STEM career also raises considerations of how STEM careers are conveyed to students. Clearly, teachers' ideas and conceptions of STEM careers have impacts on student career decisions and trajectories (e.g., Blotnicky et al., 2018; Nugent et al., 2015; Zhang & Barnett, 2015). Rather than referring to STEM careers as professions in society that are suitable for those who excel or enjoy S,T,E,M disciplines or any combination of those disciplines, teachers can consider the broadness of how STEM is used in some way in almost every career. This can be a way to motivate students to make them STEM‐prepared and STEM‐capable for the workforce. In doing this, it does not turn students who are interested in the humanities, for instance, away from STEM but rather allows them to see how STEM is also used in the humanities, perhaps in a peripheral way. Indeed, this is STEM for all.</p> <p>The third question in this study asked, "What are mathematics and science teachers' perceived benefits and drawbacks of including knowledge of STEM careers into the K‐12 curriculum?" The teachers identified benefits related to enhancing student learning, making learning relevant, and promoting critical thinking and problem‐solving skills while they identified drawbacks related to time constraints and teacher knowledge. The findings for the drawbacks agree with the findings of Watermeyer et al. (2016). Indeed, pressures of time and accountability are also the reality in many US classrooms. Furthermore, teachers are not career experts in every field, and are still building their own knowledge of STEM (e.g., Navy & Kaya, 2020; Srikoom et al., 2017). Teachers cannot know all things and do all things related to STEM, especially without the necessary support, including time and flexibility to teach beyond the standards to include instruction on STEM careers.</p> <p>Although this study provides insights into teachers' views of STEM careers, there are limitations. First, although the study recruited teachers from all STEM subjects, only science and mathematics teachers responded. Therefore, the study is limited to science and mathematics teachers in the US and larger generalizations cannot be made. Second, there are limitations to the snowball sampling method in that representativeness of the sample is not guaranteed. Third, the questionnaire asked teachers to categorize careers in the binary categories of STEM or not STEM. Future questionnaires could build on this by considering a strength of association scale to assess the degree to which teachers consider a career STEM or not. Finally, the study did not observe teachers implementing ideas into classroom practice. These are certainly areas for future research, which could investigate questions such as: How do teachers classify careers based on the STEM‐PAC classifications? How do teachers incorporate knowledge of STEM careers into their classroom instruction? How do teachers develop students' understanding of all STEM‐PAC careers? What are teachers' and students' alternate conceptions of STEM careers? What factors influence teachers' knowledge and incorporation of STEM careers into their instruction?</p> <hd id="AN0153631634-18">IMPLICATIONS</hd> <p>The implications for this study are for K‐12 educators, administrators, teacher educators, and counselor educators. First, teacher and counselor educators need to ensure preservice and practicing teachers, administrators, and career counselors have understandings of STEM careers. This can be embedded in methods courses and through professional development (PD) programs. This would help transmit knowledge of STEM careers into school environments, where there may be varying understandings and classifications of STEM careers.</p> <p>Second, K‐12 teachers', counselors', and administrators' views of STEM careers should remain broad and inclusive of professions. Discussions of STEM careers with students should include STW careers as these utilize STEM knowledge and skills. Broader views of STEM careers may help motivate and encourage students to pursue various opportunities and career pathways. Educators can include this knowledge in their instruction by sharing the STEM‐PAC career classifications with students and explaining how various careers use STEM in central, adjacent, or peripheral ways. Educators can also bring in guest speakers from a range of STEM careers to share their training and experiences with students. Likewise, teachers can use career spotlight stories to share STEM professionals' careers and experiences. Collaborations among teachers, administrators, and college counselors will help highlight various STEM careers and help ensure consistent messaging to students.</p> <p>Likewise, teachers, administrators, and anyone who provides career guidance to students can seek out PD opportunities to learn more about STEM careers. 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  Data: Conceptualizing Careers: Is There an Element of STEM in Every Profession?
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Navy%2C+Shannon+L%2E%22">Navy, Shannon L.</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6930-3267">0000-0002-6930-3267</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Heisler%2C+Jennifer%22">Heisler, Jennifer</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Papa%2C+Jeffrey%22">Papa, Jeffrey</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gjurkovitsch%2C+Anna%22">Gjurkovitsch, Anna</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22School+Science+and+Mathematics%22"><i>School Science and Mathematics</i></searchLink>. Nov 2021 121(7):422-433.
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Data: Y
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  Data: 12
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  Label: Publication Date
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  Data: 2021
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22STEM+Education%22">STEM Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Occupational+Information%22">Occupational Information</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Science+Careers%22">Science Careers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Concept+Formation%22">Concept Formation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Classification%22">Classification</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Teachers%22">Elementary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+School+Teachers%22">Secondary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Science+Interests%22">Science Interests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Relevance+%28Education%29%22">Relevance (Education)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Knowledge+Level%22">Knowledge Level</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Time+Management%22">Time Management</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Curriculum+Implementation%22">Curriculum Implementation</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1111/ssm.12493
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  Data: 0036-6803
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  Data: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is widely visible in education and workforce policies and discussions in the United States (US). However, there is a lack of consensus on what is considered a STEM career. In addition, little is known about how K-12 teachers conceptualize STEM careers and how this information is portrayed to students. This mixed methods study investigated 52 K-12 teachers' conceptions of STEM careers and if they included this information in their classroom instruction. The data collected consisted of a questionnaire and follow-up interviews with a subset of teachers. The data analysis revealed that there was a range of how teachers defined and conceptualized STEM careers from narrow to very broad. This led to the development of the STEM-Peripheral, Adjacent, Central (STEM-PAC) career classifications which categorizes careers based on the application of STEM knowledge and skills. Additionally, teachers articulated benefits and drawbacks of including STEM career information in their instruction. Benefits included increasing student interest in STEM careers and making learning relevant. Drawbacks included limits to teacher time and knowledge. This study suggests teachers should present STEM as it is connected to various careers and that administrators should support teachers who wish to include this in their curriculum.
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