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Coaching Co-Teachers: Increasing Specialized Instruction in Inclusive Settings

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Title: Coaching Co-Teachers: Increasing Specialized Instruction in Inclusive Settings
Language: English
Authors: Cook, Sara Cothren (ORCID 0000-0002-5521-2778), Collins, Lauren W., Madigan, Jennifer, McDuffie Landrum, Kimberly, Cook, Lysandra
Source: TEACHING Exceptional Children. Nov-Dec 2021 54(2):134-145.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2021
Intended Audience: Teachers
Document Type: Journal Articles
Guides - Classroom - Teacher
Tests/Questionnaires
Descriptors: Inclusion, Team Teaching, Coaching (Performance), Faculty Development, Teacher Collaboration, Teaching Methods, Students with Disabilities, Goal Orientation, Student Needs, Planning, Models, Teacher Role, Feedback (Response)
DOI: 10.1177/0040059921997476
ISSN: 0040-0599
Abstract: Although the co-teaching service delivery model is the most commonly used service delivery model used to support co-teachers in the inclusive setting (Cook et al., 2017), research indicates that co-teachers may need support in order to increase the use of specialized instruction to meet the individual needs of students with disabilities (Scruggs et al., 2007). In this manuscript, we provide a process for instructional coaches to use to (a) develop and deliver effective professional development and (b) coach co-teachers. This process maximizes the potential of the co-teaching service delivery model in improving educational outcomes for students with disabilities.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2022
Accession Number: EJ1323538
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0154498479;tec01nov.21;2022Jan07.02:42;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0154498479-1">Coaching Co-Teachers: Increasing Specialized Instruction in Inclusive Settings </title> <p>Although the co-teaching service delivery model is the most commonly used service delivery model used to support co-teachers in the inclusive setting (Cook et al., 2017), research indicates that co-teachers may need support in order to increase the use of specialized instruction to meet the individual needs of students with disabilities (Scruggs et al., 2007). In this manuscript, we provide a process for instructional coaches to use to (a) develop and deliver effective professional development and (b) coach co-teachers. This process maximizes the potential of the co-teaching service delivery model in improving educational outcomes for students with disabilities.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <emph>Although the co-teaching service delivery model is the most commonly used service delivery model used to support co-teachers in the inclusive setting, research indicates that co-teachers may need support in order to increase the use of specialized instruction to meet the individual needs of students with disabilities. In this article, we provide a process for instructional coaches to use to (a) develop and deliver effective professional development and (b) coach co-teachers. This process maximizes the potential of the co-teaching service delivery model in improving educational outcomes for students with disabilities.</emph> </p> <p>Co-teaching is a service delivery model used by schools that allows students with disabilities to receive access to the general education curriculum as well as specialized instruction necessary to meet their individual needs. Whereas the general education teacher has expertise in content area instruction, the special education teacher has expertise in adapting curriculum and providing targeted instruction to meet the functional, behavioral, and academic needs of students with disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref1">8</reflink>]). In a co-taught classroom, both teachers are responsible for delivering instruction. Therefore, co-teachers must collaborate to ensure that the needs of all students are being met in the co-taught setting.</p> <p>To provide both access to grade-level content and targeted instruction to meet the individual needs of students with disabilities, co-teachers rely on the five co-teaching models initially described by [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref2">5</reflink>]: (a) team teaching, (b) parallel teaching, (c) alternative teaching, (d) station teaching, and (e) one teach, one assist (or observe). In the classroom, co-teachers should make purposeful decisions to use these models based on the learning goals and individual needs ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref3">8</reflink>]). The variety of instructional models provides co-teachers with a unique opportunity to meet the needs of all students, especially students with disabilities, whose needs often extend beyond what can be met in a traditional classroom setting.</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-2">Research Related to Co-Teaching</hd> <p>Research in the area of co-teaching provides insight on both potential benefits and challenges to using this service delivery model. For students, co-teaching has the opportunity to provide academic benefits while also improving social or behavioral skills ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref4">26</reflink>]). This model allows students with disabilities to learn alongside their same-age peers and participate in specially designed instruction that includes peer learning opportunities. For example, peer-assisted learning strategies, classwide peer tutoring (CWPT), and collaborative strategic reading (CSR) are practices that involve peer-mediated learning and improve the outcomes of students with disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref5">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref6">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref7">31</reflink>]). In addition, co-taught environments provide benefit to students without disabilities. The co-teaching service delivery model allows co-teachers to plan and use effective instructional strategies to support all learners in a diverse classroom. This means students without an identified disability, who may be struggling with a particular concept or skill, are able to participate in smaller, individualized instructional groups.</p> <p>In addition to the benefits, research indicates that co-teaching provides teachers with unique opportunities to learn from each other ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref8">26</reflink>]). For example, special education teachers report learning more about content from their co-teaching counterparts, and general education teachers have reported increasing their use of effective classroom management strategies from collaborating with their special education teachers ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref9">26</reflink>]). Co-teaching also allows teachers to focus on issues related to content, assessment, and structure ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref10">11</reflink>]) while providing an opportunity for implementation of new instructional strategies ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref11">20</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref12">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>Despite the potential benefits of co-teaching, this service delivery model is not always used as intended. Observational research indicates variability regarding how teachers collaborate within the co-taught setting. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref13">28</reflink>] found that (a) co-teachers used higher rates of practices that are effective for students with disabilities (e.g., opportunities to respond, positive feedback) and (b) students in co-taught classrooms were more engaged in instruction and demonstrated lower rates of disruptive behavior. However, other research has indicated that instructional strategies in the co-taught classroom do not always significantly differ. For example, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref14">32</reflink>] found that although special education teachers spent significant time with students in the classroom, their role was primarily limited to helping students as opposed to providing specialized instruction to students with disabilities. This study reflects other findings (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref15">26</reflink>]) that indicate the special education teacher often assumes the role of the educational assistant in the classroom and co-teachers frequently rely on the one-teach, one-assist co-teaching model in inclusive settings. The overreliance of the one-teach, one-assist model may indicate that students with disabilities may not be receiving targeted instruction to meet individual needs. In addition, overusing this model may also lead to an overreliance on one-to-one assistance or the stigmatization that students with disabilities always need individual attention to complete assignments. For example, special education teachers who serve primarily as an "assistant" may spend the majority of the time working with struggling students only to complete daily tasks, rather than providing direct and specialized instruction as needed to meet individual needs.</p> <p>When examining whether the co-teaching service delivery model improves educational outcomes for students with disabilities, researchers have found mixed results. Whereas some research reviews indicate that co-teaching has moderate effects on the educational outcomes of students with disabilities (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref16">21</reflink>]), other reviews indicate that co-teaching does not always yield gains (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref17">9</reflink>]). We believe it is important to note that examining the effectiveness of co-teaching, a service delivery model, is quite challenging, and researchers may instead focus efforts on examining what teachers do within this model to improve outcomes. That is, in typical experimental research, researchers examine whether the implementation of a specific practice or intervention (e.g., repeated reading, CSR, CWPT) has an effect on a particular outcome (e.g., reading fluency, comprehension, vocabulary). These practices have clear components for implementation, and researchers can control for outside factors and determine whether the practice was implemented as intended when examining the effects. Co-teaching, on the other hand, is a service delivery model with a wide variety of outside factors that can influence the success (e.g., planning time, collaboration). Because this service delivery model may look quite different depending on the individual co-teachers in the classroom, results of studies that examine effects of co-teaching are likely dependent on how the co-teachers use their expertise. Moreover, it is difficult to isolate the effects of co-teaching without also considering the potential effects of specific practices in the co-taught setting. That is, if co-teachers are implementing repeated reading, it is difficult to know if it is the co-teaching model or the use of the strategy that leads to improvement. Similarly, more research is needed to explore the effectiveness of strategies such as repeated reading, CWPT, and CSR in a co-taught setting as opposed to implementation with just one teacher.</p> <p>"Teachers need specific direction and guidance to apply new instructional strategies into their classrooms, coteachers also need additional support to maximize the expertise and instructional capacity of each teacher.</p> <p>Regardless, students with disabilities are included in general education classrooms more than any other setting ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref18">23</reflink>]), and co-teaching is the most commonly used method for delivering special education services to students with disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref19">9</reflink>]). It is also defensible to assume that in a co-taught setting, an increased number of teachers has the potential to reach more students by successfully implementing evidence-based instruction and interventions. Therefore, it is crucial for general and special education teachers to be able to use effective practices within this model and rely on the various co-teaching models available to provide specialized instruction. In fact, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref20">30</reflink>] suggest that explicit co-teaching professional development may indeed lead to more significant and positive outcomes for students with disabilities.</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-3">Professional Development and Coaching for Co-Teachers</hd> <p>Effective professional development includes instruction and modeling of effective practices from professional developers. The use of "one-stop shop" professional development is largely ineffective ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref21">22</reflink>]); rather, the use of instructional coaches who can provide modeling and feedback is essential for successful implementation of instructional strategies ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref22">19</reflink>]). Effective professional development will allow teachers time to carry out new educational practices in their classrooms with opportunities for modeling, guidance, and feedback from an instructional coach ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref23">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref24">18</reflink>]). Whereas all teachers need specific direction and guidance to apply new instructional strategies into their classrooms, co-teachers also need additional support to maximize the expertise and instructional capacity of each teacher.</p> <p> <emph>Karelyn Kim is an instructional coach at Park Elementary and Middle School (PEMS). At PEMS, the co-teaching service delivery model is used to support students with disabilities in the inclusive setting. Ms. Kim's current role is supporting co-teachers to ensure that the needs of students with disabilities are being addressed within each co-taught setting.</emph> </p> <p> <emph>Ms. Kim visits the classrooms on a weekly basis and meets with each co-teaching team once a week during their co-planning time. Ms. Kim has observed that co-teachers are most often relying on the one-teach, one-assist co-teaching model. She has observed the general education teacher providing the majority of instruction, while the special education teachers are often found working one-on-one with students to help them complete their classwork. Ms. Kim understands that if the one-teach, one-assist model is being used for the majority of the class period, it is unlikely that students with disabilities are receiving specialized instruction in this setting. Ms. Kim wants to support the co-teaching teams in planning for and implementing effective practices into the inclusive setting to meet the individual needs of students with disabilities. But how?</emph> </p> <hd id="AN0154498479-4">Guided Planning for Co-Teachers</hd> <p>One way to support co-teachers in delivering specialized instruction is through a guided planning approach that is focused on content area learning outcomes and student needs. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref25">8</reflink>] developed a five-step approach for co-teachers to use when planning for the implementation of specialized instruction in an inclusion setting. Specifically, co-teachers do the following:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Identify whole-class learning goals for a particular lesson or unit based on (a) grade-level standards and (b) student needs related to the learning goals.</item> <p></p> <item> Use reliable resources to identify effective practices that align with the identified needs of individual students.</item> <p></p> <item> Use a decision-making flowchart to determine the appropriate co-teaching model (see Figure 1).</item> <p></p> <item> Determine the roles of each teacher when implementing the effective practice.</item> <p></p> <item> Implement the practice in the co-taught setting to support the individual needs of students related to the whole-class learning goal.</item> </ulist> <p>Graph: Figure 1 Decision-making flowchart Note. From "Integrating Effective Practices Into Co-teaching: Increasing Outcomes for Students With Disabilities," by [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref26">8</reflink>], Intervention in School and Clinic , 55 (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref27">4</reflink>), p. 225. Copyright 2019 by Hammill Institute on Disabilities. Reprinted with permission.</p> <p>This process provides co-teachers with a systematic approach to co-planning for integrating effective practices into the inclusive classroom. [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref28">6</reflink>] found that after providing professional development based on this five-step approach, all participants were able to identify learning goals, identify student needs, and select an appropriate practice to provide specialized instruction. However, S. Cook also reported co-teachers may benefit from additional support to ensure implementation fidelity after professional development. In this article, we propose a process for instructional coaches that provides additional coaching and support to ensure an appropriate selection of practices and effective implementation of specialized instruction. Specifically, we describe how coaches can move beyond providing teachers with information that is primarily related to co-teaching models; rather, we provide a coaching model that supports teachers in using various co-teaching models to deliver specialized instruction in the co-taught setting. This model also requires coaches to involve co-teachers in conversation that (a) elicits the professional knowledge and expertise of both teachers and (b) requires coaches to better understand the context and setting of the classroom. Ultimately, this approach may lead to a more targeted professional development and individualized coaching experience.</p> <p> <emph>Ms. Kim decides to use the five-step approach to support the co-teaching teams she works with at the school. Ms. Kim understands that co-teachers appreciate time to co-plan and wants to make sure that the time she spends during their planning period is productive. Ms. Kim decides to begin working with the sixth-grade science team because the two teachers have expressed interest in improving the use of the co-teaching service delivery model. Ms. Kim schedules a time to meet with them to determine the upcoming learning goals and individual needs of students in the class.</emph> </p> <hd id="AN0154498479-5">Coaching Step 1: Facilitating Discussion on Learning Goals and Student Needs</hd> <p>When supporting co-teachers to plan for specially designed instruction, it is important for coaches to facilitate discussion to ensure that the specialized instruction aligns with the individual needs (e.g., individualized education program [IEP] goals and objectives) <emph>and</emph> whole-class learning goals. That is, although it may be essential for students with disabilities to receive additional intensive and targeted intervention to meet all IEP goals and objectives, we suggest that co-teachers may prioritize goals and objectives that will also support students in meeting the specific content area standard. For example, in a science class, co-teachers may integrate comprehension strategy instruction into the curriculum to support students' individual needs (e.g., IEP goals aligned with improving reading comprehension) and support their access to the grade-level curriculum (e.g., science content). However, students who are reading significantly below grade level may also need more intensive reading intervention throughout the school day.</p> <p>The first step for instructional coaching is to facilitate discussion among co-teachers regarding the upcoming learning goals for the whole class. In this step, the general education teacher presents the grade-level standards for the content area (e.g., social studies, English language arts) and may likely lead the discussion regarding the learning objectives for the upcoming unit of instruction. Next, the co-teachers consider what challenges students with and without disabilities may have for meeting the class learning goals. For example, students may lack prerequisite skills or background knowledge that is necessary to access the content. In this case, co-teachers will need to preteach this content. The coach should encourage the special education teacher to share information regarding IEP goals and objectives that are related to the whole-class learning goals. For example, in a social studies class, the general education teacher may determine students will need to analyze primary-source documents. The special education teacher may report that several students in the classroom have goals related to identifying the main idea and supporting details and, therefore, would benefit from specialized instruction in order to improve comprehension of the primary-source document before engaging in the grade-level expectation of analyzing text.</p> <p> <emph>Ms. Kim meets with the co-teaching team during a shared preparation period. To ensure the session time is used efficiently, Ms. Kim asks the team members to make sure they have access to the grade-level content standards, upcoming lesson or unit plans, and IEPs for students with disabilities. Ms. Kim begins the session by describing the importance of providing specialized instruction in the co-taught setting and explaining how co-planning for specialized instruction not only would support the individual needs of students with disabilities but would allow co-teachers to use their time efficiently in the classroom.</emph> </p> <p> <emph>Ms. Kim and the co-teaching team discuss the upcoming learning goals for the sixth-grade science lesson. Mr. Green, the general education teacher, describes the content area goals. In the current unit, the content is focused on weather and climate. In particular, Mr. Green describes one of the Next Generation Science Standards that requires students to collect data and show evidence for how motions and interactions of air masses result in weather changes. Mr. Conrad, the special education teacher, identifies several potential challenges for students with and without disabilities related to this unit. First, Mr. Conrad shares that several students are reading below grade level and will need support to access the information from the text. Among students with disabilities, two students have goals related to reading fluency, and three students have goals related to reading comprehension. Mr. Conrad also shares that two students have goals related to mathematical fluency, which indicates that students may have difficulty working independently in the lab activities that require mathematical computation. Mr. Green also identifies two students without disabilities who are reading below grade level and who would benefit from additional support.</emph> </p> <p>"Personalizing the professional development is essential to ensuring that co-teachers can see the benefits of integrating the practice into their co-taught setting.</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-6">Coaching Step 2: Planning Targeted Professional Development</hd> <p>After identifying the learning goals and needs of the students in the class, the instructional coach identifies practices that would be appropriate for improving the identified learning needs from Step 1. Coaches may use reliable online resources (see Table 1) or peer-reviewed journals to identify strategies and resources that will support teachers in implementation. When more than one practice is appropriate for addressing identified needs, coaches should provide co-teaching teams a description and overview of each practice so that co-teachers can make the best decision regarding which practice fits within their context and setting.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 1 Reliable Sources for Educators</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="center">Website</th><th align="center">Description</th><th align="center">Helpful features</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Evidence Based Intervention Network (<ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="http://ebi.missouri.edu/" />)</td><td>Provides information on reading, mathematics, and behavior interventions.Teachers can select academic interventions based on whether the challenge is related to needs of (a) acquisition, (b) proficiency/accuracy, (c) generalization, or (d) motivation.</td><td>Easy to navigate and allows teachers to select the type of intervention (academic, behavior) based on the suspected challenge (e.g., the skill is too challenging, the student needs help learning the behavior).Provides video modeling of the strategy so teacher can "see" intervention in action.</td></tr><tr><td>The IRIS Center(<ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu" title="iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu" />)</td><td>Focused on evidence-based instructional and behavioral practices to help improve the education outcomes for all students and especially struggling learners and those with disabilities.</td><td>A variety of resources to address instructional and behavioral issues. Searchable by topic (e.g., assessment, literacy, mathematics) or type of resources (evidence-based practice summary tool, learning module).</td></tr><tr><td>Teaching LD(<ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.teachingld.org/" />)</td><td>Information and resources for across content areas for students with learning disabilities.</td><td>Easy-to-navigate website with tutorials, practice alerts, practice guides, publications, and videos.</td></tr><tr><td>Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support(<ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.pbis.org" />)</td><td>Provides information to improve school climate and positively impact student outcome</td><td>Training materials, publications, practice briefs, videos, and other materials to support teachers. Searchable by topic or resource type.</td></tr><tr><td>National Center on Improving Literacy(<ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://improvingliteracy.org" />)</td><td>Promotes the use of evidence-based practices for students with disabilities that impact literacy.</td><td>Searchable website with training materials, such as webinars and presentations, and focused on literacy instruction for students with or at risk for dyslexia.</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Once the practice or practices are selected, the coach will prepare materials needed to support co-teachers in effectively implementing the practice(s). To personalize this training for the co-teaching teams, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref29">19</reflink>] suggest that it is essential to incorporate opportunities to talk about what is happening in the classroom, integrate content area standards and goals of the special education curriculum, and use student assessment data. Personalizing the professional development is essential to ensuring that co-teachers can see the benefits of integrating the practice into their co-taught setting.</p> <p> <emph>After consulting with Mr. Green and Mr. Conrad, Ms. Kim has decided to focus the first professional development on a strategy to support students in reading comprehension. Because the co-teachers identified that both students with and without disabilities may need this type of support for accessing the science curriculum, Ms. Kim decides to provide the professional development training using CSR, a comprehensive reading comprehension strategy that teaches students how to engage with a text before, during, and after reading. Later, Ms. Kim will use other practices for supporting fluency in reading (e.g., repeated reading) and math (e.g., CWPT).</emph> </p> <p> <emph>Ms. Kim prepares an introduction to the professional development that includes information provided in the initial meeting with Mr. Green and Mr. Conrad. Specifically, Ms. Kim integrates the upcoming learning goals and student needs described by the co-teachers and describes the importance of supporting reading comprehension in order to support students in meeting the full-class learning goals. In order to set the stage for introducing CSR, Ms. Kim describes the challenges that students who struggle with comprehension face when accessing the textbook.</emph> </p> <hd id="AN0154498479-7">Determining core components of the practice</hd> <p>When developing the professional development for co-teachers, it is crucial for the instructional coach to use reliable resources to develop materials that will support implementation fidelity of the selected practice(s). Again, we suggest that coaches use a combination of reliable online resources and peer-reviewed journals to determine the essential components of the practice. The instructional coach will also need to prepare a professional development protocol that includes both modeling the effective practice and planning time for co-teachers. The coach should also develop an implementation fidelity checklist that can be used during training to make sure co-teachers plan for each step of the practice. This checklist can be used later to provide feedback on implementation.</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-8">Developing sample lesson plans</hd> <p>Providing a lesson plan template (see Figure 2) to use in the professional development will provide co-teachers with a guide to planning specialized instruction. In order to maximize the time in a professional development session, coaches should consider developing sample lesson plans that co-teachers may use to implement the effective practice.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2 Lesson plan template</p> <p>Ms. Kim uses the IRIS module on CSR to locate accessible materials to support CSR implementation. In addition, the IRIS module provides a guide to the essential components of CSR (i.e., teaching students to preview, identify clicks and clunks, get the gist, and wrap up). However, Ms. Kim feels that because CSR is a multicomponent strategy, it is important to consult other sources to develop a comprehensive professional development plan. Thus, she also uses [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref30">16</reflink>] guide to implementing CSR in the classroom. Using sample lesson plans from Klingner et al., Ms. Kim adapts the plans to allow for co-planning decisions (Step 3) and reflect the science content area.</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-9">Coaching Step 3: Delivering the Professional Development</hd> <p>Research suggests that effective professional development emphasizes explicit instruction grounded in content knowledge and provides teachers time for practice with specific feedback under the guidance of an instructional coach ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref31">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref32">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref33">19</reflink>]). Effective professional development will also allow for collaborative teacher interactions that are data driven with a focus on student learning outcomes and achievement ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref34">15</reflink>]). Ongoing opportunities to apply the information learned with follow-up support, feedback, and coaching is essential for continuity of the newly acquired practice(s).</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-10">Planning instruction</hd> <p>After the coach models the effective practice for co-teachers, it is important to provide time for co-teachers to plan how to begin implementing the practice in the classroom. We suggest that the coach provides lesson-planning templates that integrate the core components of the practice and also allow flexibility for integrating the specific content. Moreover, the lesson plan template should be flexible enough to allow co-teachers to make decisions about which co-teaching model to use for implementation. During planning time, the coach should serve as the facilitator and guide co-teachers through each of the steps of the effective practice. Planning time is essential to allow time for co-teachers to integrate their content and make decisions regarding which co-teaching model should be used and each teacher's instructional role.</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-11">Determining the co-teaching model</hd> <p>One of the potential benefits of co-teaching is the ability for teachers to use various models in their lessons to provide flexible grouping based on the individual needs of students in the classroom. Co-teachers should make decisions deliberately and, when implementing a practice for specialized instruction, consider which model makes the most sense based on (a) outcomes the practice is targeting and (b) students who need the targeted instruction. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref35">8</reflink>] developed a decision-making flowchart to guide teachers' decisions. This flowchart should be used as teachers plan for implementation and can be used as necessary when building lessons (see Figure 1). For example, if teachers select a practice that all students may benefit from, the co-teachers would need to determine whether the practice should be taught to the whole group or a small group. If the practice is typically used in whole-group instruction, the teacher may choose to team-teach the practice and use both teachers to model the practice together. However, if co-teachers determine the practice would be better taught using small-group instruction, the co-teachers would select either parallel or station teaching. On the other hand, if the practice selected is appropriate for only some of the students in the classroom, the co-teachers may select either station or alternative teaching depending on whether they determine it is appropriate to separate the small group. When using alternative teaching, co-teachers should not separate students if this would result in students missing out on core instruction ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref36">8</reflink>]).</p> <p>During this part of the coaching process, it is important for the instructional coaches to help co-teachers explore the various co-teaching options. As opposed to selecting the model most comfortable to the co-teachers (e.g., one teach, one assist), the coach may rely on [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref37">8</reflink>] flowchart to provide guidance and support to allow co-teachers to consider using the model that best fits the needs of students and the best methods for implementing the practice with fidelity. In Figure 3, we provide guiding questions the coach may ask to support the decision-making process. It is important to note that co-teachers may select more than one model to use. For example, co-teachers may determine whole-group instruction to be most appropriate when introducing the effective practice but small-group instruction would be better for learning specific steps. In this case, teachers may use team teaching to introduce the strategy to the whole group and then separate the students into small groups and teach the specific steps utilizing station teaching. It is important that the instructional coach encourages co-teachers to use a variety of the co-teaching models in their lessons based on the needs of their students. Often, it is most appropriate to implement more than one co-teaching model during a lesson. The instructional coach should encourage teachers to break down their lessons into sections and determine which model would be most appropriate for that section of the lesson. Again, co-teachers should implement models that are based on their students' needs rather than personal preference, and coaches should spend time during the coaching session discussing explicit plans for implementing the practice based on the selected co-teaching model(s).</p> <p>"Co-teachers should implement models that are based on their students' needs rather than personal preference.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3 Guiding questions to support decision-making process</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-12">Determining the instructional role</hd> <p>Once teachers determine the co-teaching model(s) to use for specialized instruction, co-teachers will need to plan, in detail, what role they will assume during the instruction and how they will be actively engaged in supporting students. In the team-teaching model, teachers work collaboratively to deliver the instruction to the whole class. Therefore, when using this model, co-teachers will plan for who will lead specific portions of the lesson and how the other teacher will enhance the instruction during that time. For example, when teaching new vocabulary, one teacher may provide explicit definitions verbally while the other teacher writes the definition on the board and provides students opportunities to read the definitions chorally to enhance engagement. If teachers select station teaching or alternative teaching, co-teachers will need to determine who will lead each planned lesson (e.g., which station each teacher will lead, who will teach the small or large group in the alternative teaching model). Coaches, again, will facilitate this discussion in order to ensure both teachers know how their role in implementing the practice with fidelity and how to use the co-teaching model appropriately.</p> <p> <emph>Mr. Green and Mr. Conrad work with Ms. Kim to outline the essential components of CSR and how they will begin to introduce this multicomponent strategy to the students in the inclusive setting. The co-teachers agree that although CSR will specifically address the reading goals for the students with disabilities and students reading below grade level, all students will benefit from instruction that teaches them how to apply strategies before, during, and after reading to improve overall comprehension.</emph> </p> <p> <emph>Using the decision-making flowchart, Ms. Kim guides the co-teachers in determining which co-teaching models are most appropriate. First, because the teachers determine that CSR will be used to support all the students in the classroom and the CSR strategy is typically used in whole-group instruction, they determine that they would use the team-teaching approach to introduce the strategy and to explain why a comprehension strategy is important for the content area</emph>.</p> <p> <emph>With the support of Ms. Kim, Mr. Green and Mr. Conrad use the reliable resources to guide further discussion about how to introduce the first stage of CSR (i.e., text preview). The co-teachers agree that it will be most effective to use the team-teaching model to initially introduce the core components of previewing a text (i.e., read the title, headings, and captions; brainstorm prior knowledge; predict what will be learned). However, Mr. Conrad suggests that the students with disabilities may need support beyond what will be provided to the whole class. Ms. Kim refers the co-teachers back to the decision-making flowchart and determines that alternative teaching will be needed after the initial introduction of the strategy. Alternative teaching will allow Mr. Conrad to provide explicit instruction to the students who need it while Mr. Green supports students as they practice previewing and reading the assigned science text in pairs. This decision is made to ensure that the students who need alternative teaching will not miss new instruction</emph>.</p> <p> <emph>Mr. Green and Mr. Conrad continue to outline and plan for integrating the other steps of the CSR strategy (identifying clicks and clunks, getting the gist, wrapping up) and discuss the most appropriate co-teaching models to use for each of the daily lessons</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-13">Coaching Step 4: Follow-Up Visits</hd> <p>After the co-teachers have had an opportunity to plan for implementation, the coach should conduct regular follow-up visits. We suggest that coaches schedule these visits during the last professional development or planning session and plan for a backup date in case instructional pacing or scheduling changes. In that the dynamics of classrooms and the amount of time available to debrief with teachers after instruction vary, we describe four options for providing feedback.</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-14">Interactive coaching</hd> <p>In situations where the coach and the co-teachers are comfortable with real-time feedback and coaching, the instructional coach can offer suggestions, adjustments, and modeling during instruction. A benefit to this approach is that teachers immediately receive feedback on their implementation and coaches can make adjustments to instruction as they are needed, ultimately increasing the fidelity of implementation in real time. When available, the use of bug-in-ear (BIE) technology can be used to minimize disruption and maximize discretion when delivering feedback through interactive coaching. In a review of the research examining the effectiveness of BIE technology for delivering immediate feedback to both preservice and in-service teachers, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref38">25</reflink>] concluded that this practice is supported by a strong body of research. Moreover, the benefits of this technology extend to students in the classrooms where BIE technology is used, ultimately increasing their time on task ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref39">24</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-15">Targeted observations with time to debrief</hd> <p>Although interactive coaching can be beneficial, it may not always be an option for co-teachers who are receiving support from instructional coaches. One alternative to interactive coaching is for coaches to conduct a targeted observation and meet with co-teachers to debrief afterward. During a targeted observation, the instructional coach would observe the co-teachers during implementation of the new practice (e.g., CSR) and would record data related to fidelity of implementation and co-teaching behaviors. Co-teaching behaviors should include the co-teaching model selected and the role of each teacher during instruction. Figure 4 provides an example of a targeted observation form for CSR.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 4 Observation and performance feedback form</p> <p>Following the observation, instructional coaches meet with the co-teachers at the same time to provide targeted feedback based on the observation tool. To provide the most appropriate feedback, coaches can rely on the same principles of effective feedback for students: positive and nonjudgmental; specific and corrective; intentional, sincere, and credible; immediate; and varied ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref40">4</reflink>]). Coaches can use the observation tool to guide the conversation and also may consider additional probes and prompts, as outlined in Figure 5. In addition to providing feedback on fidelity of implementation and co-teaching behaviors, instructional coaches should ask open-ended questions that promote constructive dialogue between the co-teaching partners ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref41">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref42">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 5 Co-teaching instructional coaching tool: Probes and prompts</p> <hd id="AN0154498479-16">Performance feedback</hd> <p>In that common planning time can be extremely limited for co-teaching partners ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref43">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref44">3</reflink>]), it is important to consider a method for providing feedback to co-teachers who do not have time to meet for a debriefing session following the observation. Performance feedback is an effective way to deliver feedback to teachers in a way that is nonevaluative and timely ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref45">12</reflink>]). The use of this strategy to improve teachers' use of specific instructional strategies is supported by a growing evidence base ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref46">27</reflink>]). A major benefit of performance feedback is the versatility it offers to instructional coaches and teachers ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref47">4</reflink>]). Performance feedback can be (a) used for real-time or recorded observations; (b) recorded in a variety of formats, such as written statements or graphs; and (c) delivered electronically or as a hard copy.</p> <p>Coaches who choose to use performance feedback with co-teaching partners should be sure to work with the co-teachers to set clear goals for the selected practice. Again, we suggest that the focus is on both implementation fidelity and co-teaching behaviors. For example, co-teachers could set goals related to their interactions with particular groups of students (e.g., specific praise for students with behavioral challenges) or the percentage of time spent delivering instruction (e.g., during team teaching). Of course, the goals should be relevant for the co-teaching model and effective practice that was selected. Once the goals are selected, the instructional coach should create a personalized performance observation form for data collection (see Figure 4) and communicate how feedback is going to be delivered to the co-teachers.</p> <p> <emph>Ms. Kim recognizes that Mr. Green and Mr. Conrad are extremely limited on co-planning time, so she decides to use performance feedback to support their use of CSR. Ms. Kim will observe Mr. Green and Mr. Conrad during their implementation of CSR and will provide performance feedback by leaving a copy of her observation notes on their desk when she leaves the classroom. Ms. Kim will also send a follow-up email that will include a graph of their progress toward their goals and written suggestions for maintaining success and improving areas related to their implementation of the practice.</emph> </p> <hd id="AN0154498479-17">Summary</hd> <p>Co-teachers may likely benefit from targeted professional development that provides them with guided co-planning time focused on integrating specialized instruction to meet the individual needs of students with disabilities. Instructional coaches can be instrumental in modeling and facilitating discussions among co-teachers in order to leverage the expertise of both teachers in the classroom. We recommend that coaches use the tools provided in this article to support co-teachers in planning and implementing effective practices. This approach provides ongoing feedback and support in a way that maximizes the potential of the co-teaching service delivery model to improve the outcomes of students with disabilities.</p> <p> <bold>Sara Cothren Cook</bold>, Associate Professor, Department of Special Education, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa; <bold>Lauren W. Collins</bold>, Assistant Professor, Department of Special Education, San Diego State University; <bold>Jennifer Madigan</bold>, Professor Emerita, Department of Teacher Education, San Jose State University; <bold>Kimberly McDuffie Landrum</bold>, Special Education Consultant, Exceptional Children Services, Ohio Valley Educational Cooperative; and <bold>Lysandra Cook</bold>, Associate Professor and Special Education Program Coordinator, Department of Curriculum, Instruction and Special Education, University of Virginia.</p> <ref id="AN0154498479-18"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref41" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Aguilar E. (2013). 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Advances in Learning and Behavioral Disabilities, 17, 55–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0735-004x(04)17003-1</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0154498479-19"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sara Cothren Cook</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5521-2778</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Sara Cothren Cook; Lauren W. Collins; Jennifer Madigan; Kimberly McDuffie Landrum and Lysandra Cook</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref46"></nolink>
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  Data: Coaching Co-Teachers: Increasing Specialized Instruction in Inclusive Settings
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cook%2C+Sara+Cothren%22">Cook, Sara Cothren</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5521-2778">0000-0002-5521-2778</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Collins%2C+Lauren+W%2E%22">Collins, Lauren W.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Madigan%2C+Jennifer%22">Madigan, Jennifer</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22McDuffie+Landrum%2C+Kimberly%22">McDuffie Landrum, Kimberly</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cook%2C+Lysandra%22">Cook, Lysandra</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22TEACHING+Exceptional+Children%22"><i>TEACHING Exceptional Children</i></searchLink>. Nov-Dec 2021 54(2):134-145.
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  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
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  Data: 12
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  Data: 2021
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  Data: Teachers
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Guides - Classroom - Teacher<br />Tests/Questionnaires
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inclusion%22">Inclusion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Team+Teaching%22">Team Teaching</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Coaching+%28Performance%29%22">Coaching (Performance)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Faculty+Development%22">Faculty Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Collaboration%22">Teacher Collaboration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Methods%22">Teaching Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Goal+Orientation%22">Goal Orientation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Needs%22">Student Needs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Planning%22">Planning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Models%22">Models</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Role%22">Teacher Role</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Feedback+%28Response%29%22">Feedback (Response)</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1177/0040059921997476
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  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0040-0599
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
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  Data: Although the co-teaching service delivery model is the most commonly used service delivery model used to support co-teachers in the inclusive setting (Cook et al., 2017), research indicates that co-teachers may need support in order to increase the use of specialized instruction to meet the individual needs of students with disabilities (Scruggs et al., 2007). In this manuscript, we provide a process for instructional coaches to use to (a) develop and deliver effective professional development and (b) coach co-teachers. This process maximizes the potential of the co-teaching service delivery model in improving educational outcomes for students with disabilities.
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        Value: 10.1177/0040059921997476
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 134
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Inclusion
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Team Teaching
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Coaching (Performance)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Faculty Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Collaboration
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Students with Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Goal Orientation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Needs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Planning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Models
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Role
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Feedback (Response)
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Coaching Co-Teachers: Increasing Specialized Instruction in Inclusive Settings
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Cook, Sara Cothren
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Collins, Lauren W.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Madigan, Jennifer
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: McDuffie Landrum, Kimberly
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Cook, Lysandra
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2021
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0040-0599
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 54
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: TEACHING Exceptional Children
              Type: main
ResultId 1