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Dyadic Coping and Coparenting among Couples after Their Child's Recent Autism Diagnosis

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Title: Dyadic Coping and Coparenting among Couples after Their Child's Recent Autism Diagnosis
Language: English
Authors: Downes, Naomi (ORCID 0000-0003-3997-9247), Geoffray, Marie-Maude, Isnard, Pascale (ORCID 0000-0001-6664-3533), Lemonnier, Eric, Orêve, Marie-Joëlle, Cappe, Emilie
Source: Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice. Jan 2022 26(1):121-134.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2022
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Child Rearing, Parenting Styles, Autism, Pervasive Developmental Disorders, Stress Variables, Coping, Self Efficacy, Competence, Parent Attitudes, Correlation, Mothers, Fathers, Predictor Variables, Foreign Countries, Cooperation
Geographic Terms: France
DOI: 10.1177/13623613211020916
ISSN: 1362-3613
Abstract: This study explores how parenting couples use their relationship to support each other after their child's autism diagnosis by assessing the role of dyadic coping and parenting sense of competence as predictors of their coparenting quality. Mothers and fathers raising a child on the spectrum (N = 70 couples) individually completed self-report questionnaires measuring stress appraisal, dyadic coping, parenting sense of competence, and coparenting. Parents were recruited 1-36 months after their child's autism diagnosis and data were analyzed using the actor-partner interdependence model. Parents' dyadic coping and sense of competence were related to their level of coparenting. Partner effects were found as mothers' dyadic coping was positively linked to fathers' coparenting and a higher sense of competence among fathers predicted mothers' coparenting. Further research is needed to understand how these effects evolve throughout the child's development stages.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2022
Accession Number: EJ1323875
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0154608783;f9d01jan.22;2022Jan13.01:01;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0154608783-1">Dyadic coping and coparenting among couples after their child's recent autism diagnosis </title> <p>This study explores how parenting couples use their relationship to support each other after their child's autism diagnosis by assessing the role of dyadic coping and parenting sense of competence as predictors of their coparenting quality. Mothers and fathers raising a child on the spectrum (N = 70 couples) individually completed self-report questionnaires measuring stress appraisal, dyadic coping, parenting sense of competence, and coparenting. Parents were recruited 1–36 months after their child's autism diagnosis and data were analyzed using the actor-partner interdependence model. Parents' dyadic coping and sense of competence were related to their level of coparenting. Partner effects were found as mothers' dyadic coping was positively linked to fathers' coparenting and a higher sense of competence among fathers predicted mothers' coparenting. Further research is needed to understand how these effects evolve throughout the child's development stages. We investigated how couples support each other after their child's autism diagnosis and whether this affects the way they work together to raise their child. We recruited 70 couples raising a child on the autism spectrum. Both partners were asked to complete the same questionnaires measuring how they perceived the experience of having a child on the autism spectrum, how they used their relationship to support each other during stressful situations, how competent they felt completing their parenting tasks, and the coparenting relationship to explore how they worked together as a team when parenting their child. Parents participated in the study 1–36 months after their child's autism diagnosis. We used statistical techniques that allowed us to see the impact mothers and fathers had on each other. Overall, parents who felt more competent and supported by their partner worked better as a team to raise their child on the spectrum. Fathers invested in the coparenting relationship more when mothers felt more supported by fathers. Mothers invested in the coparenting relationship more when fathers felt more competent parenting their child. Further research is needed to better understand how we can support couples as their child gets older.</p> <p>Keywords: autism; coparenting; couples; diagnosis; dyadic coping; parents</p> <p>The diagnosis of a child on the autism spectrum can be a complex process. Many parents have described it as an emotional rollercoaster, reporting feelings of highs, such as relief, as well as lows, for example shock, stress, or despair ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref1">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref2">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref3">29</reflink>]). The complexity of this process is also reflected by parents' relationships, which can be positively or negatively affected by the diagnosis: some relationships are strengthened, whereas other couples struggle to adapt ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref5">50</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref6">85</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref7">86</reflink>]). Research remains limited regarding variables contributing to parenting couples' positive adaptation after a diagnosis. It is important to explore how parents adapt and use their relationship to support each other during this challenging transitional period.</p> <p>The way couples use their relationship to manage stress together is called dyadic coping ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref8">10</reflink>]). Over the past two decades, research among the wider population has adopted this term to systemically conceptualize stress and coping between two partners ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref9">33</reflink>]). There are various models of dyadic coping that describe the interpersonal way stressors affect both partners either directly or indirectly ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref10">33</reflink>]). Partners can be directly affected by the same stressful event, or indirectly affected by the stress experienced by their partner. In [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref11">8</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref12">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref13">10</reflink>]) systemic-transactional model (STM) of dyadic coping, one partner's stress appraisal is communicated verbally or non-verbally to the other partner, who then perceives and interprets this information to respond with a form of either positive or negative dyadic coping. Positive dyadic coping is considered supportive and beneficial, whereas negative dyadic coping refers to hostile, superficial, or ambivalent attempts to support one's partner.</p> <p>To our knowledge, only six studies have explored dyadic coping among parents raising a child on the autism spectrum ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref14">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref15">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref16">40</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref17">44</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref18">80</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref19">87</reflink>]). These studies show that positive dyadic coping is associated with relationship satisfaction, psychological well-being, reduced stress, and health outcomes (lower systemic inflammation). Dyadic coping seems to be a valuable and relatively unexplored additional resource for these couples, which promotes a sense of togetherness ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref20">10</reflink>]). This may partly explain why some couple relationships are strengthened and adapt positively to raising a child on the autism spectrum ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref21">29</reflink>]). Indeed, positive dyadic coping has been linked to helping parents raising a child on the autism spectrum manage stress when individual coping efforts are not sufficient for dealing with stressful circumstances ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref22">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref23">39</reflink>]). Whereas couples experiencing negative dyadic coping may disengage from their relationship during stressful situations ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref24">29</reflink>]). This could lead to fewer interactions and lower sensitivity regarding their partner's needs, which can predict a mutual withdrawal as well as more conflict and marital distress ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref25">7</reflink>]). Further research is needed to help couples manage stress as parents raising a child on the spectrum are at an increased risk of experiencing high levels of parenting stress that can be detrimental to the couple and coparenting relationship ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref26">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref27">47</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref28">49</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref29">68</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref30">92</reflink>]). To date, only one qualitative study has explored dyadic coping and the coparenting relationship in the field of autism via joint interviews. Ten couples reported that their coparenting relationships changed after their child's autism diagnosis and adapted differently depending on the quality of couples' relationships before the diagnosis ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref31">29</reflink>]). Evidence from the general population highlights the importance of dyadic coping on coparenting and child behaviors. For example, positive dyadic coping is related to better child adjustment and decreased coparenting conflict over 1 year ([<reflink idref="bib98" id="ref32">98</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref33">97</reflink>]).</p> <p>Coparenting corresponds to how parents cooperate, coordinate, and support each other in their parenting efforts ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref34">37</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref35">72</reflink>]). Theoretical and empirical literature indicates the importance of coparenting on neurotypical child and family functioning ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref36">34</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref37">62</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref38">81</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref39">91</reflink>]). Longitudinal studies and a meta-analysis showed that the coparenting relationship has a unique influence on neurotypical children's social and emotional development that is independent of child temperament or dyadic parent–child relationships ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref40">27</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref41">73</reflink>]). However, few studies have explored coparenting a child on the spectrum ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref42">28</reflink>]). Among the available literature, study findings indicate that autism symptom severity does not predict parents' individual capacity to cooperate and is associated with a high child-focused parenting alliance, but not with partner-focused parenting alliance ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref43">49</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref44">70</reflink>]). Given specific autism-related behaviors, parents raising a child on the autism spectrum are more at risk of experiencing low levels of parenting efficacy, as they can lack confidence in their ability to competently respond to their child's needs when the child does not respond to interactions as expected ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref45">39</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref46">55</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib94" id="ref47">94</reflink>]). Supportive coparenting has been associated with a higher level of parenting self-efficacy, especially among fathers of children on the spectrum ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref48">68</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref49">69</reflink>]). Parental self-efficacy refers to parents believing they can successfully raise their child as they have appropriate knowledge of child care responses, having confidence in their abilities to care for their child, and predicting their child will respond to their parenting efforts ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref50">21</reflink>]). Self-efficacy and satisfaction with one's parenting role are the two core constructs of parenting sense of competence ([<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref51">78</reflink>]). Mothers' and fathers' sense of competence may influence their coparental relationship depending on their expectations and beliefs of their parenting role ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref52">34</reflink>]). This merits exploration among families raising a child on the spectrum as parenting tasks are generally more complex ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref53">5</reflink>]).</p> <p>After a child is diagnosed with autism, couples can traverse a stressful transitional period ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref54">50</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref55">71</reflink>]). The coparenting relationship becomes central as parents reorganize specific roles and responsibilities within the couple to better respond to the specific needs of the child ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref56">50</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref57">69</reflink>]). This study aims to explore the effects of parents' dyadic coping and sense of competence on their coparenting relationship after their child is diagnosed with autism. This study uses a quantitative framework to analyze dyadic results as part of a larger mixed-methods research project.</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-2">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0154608783-3">Participants</hd> <p>A total of 70 couples (70 mothers and 70 fathers) participated in this study in France. Parenting couples were included if (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref58">1</reflink>) they cohabited, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref59">2</reflink>) their biological child was diagnosed with autism by a specialized screening center between the ages of 2 and 6 years, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref60">3</reflink>) they received the diagnosis 1–36 months ago. Couples were excluded if (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref61">1</reflink>) they did not speak or write French and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref62">2</reflink>) they had another child previously diagnosed with a disability. Seven couples declined to participate because fathers did not have enough time (4 couples), they were not expecting such questions (1 couple), one mother did not want to remember the diagnosis as it was described as traumatic (1 couple), or they did not feel like participating (1 couple). Among two other couples, only one partner completed the questionnaires (1 mother and 1 father).</p> <p>Sample characteristics are presented in Table 1. Couples had been together 11.7 years on average, which ranged from 4 to 26 years. Parents had an average age of 38.6 years ranging from 27 to 53 years. Overall, 80% of fathers worked full time compared to 26% of mothers, while 45% of mothers stayed at home compared to 9% of fathers. A total of 27 participants declared health issues, 23 were physical and 4 were psychological. Ten of these parents stated that their health issue affected their daily life. Education level varied as 4% of parents had no high-school degree, 29% had a high-school degree, 32% had an undergraduate degree, and 35% had a graduate degree. Monthly household income was 4236 euros on average, ranging from 1100€ to 20,000€, and followed a standard log-normal distribution. Children were aged between 25 and 119 months with an average age of 55 months and had been diagnosed on average 21 months previously. In this sample, there were seven stepfamilies and 80% of the children on the autism spectrum were boys. A total of 32 families had one other child, 16 families had two other children, and 4 families had three more children.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 1. Sample characteristics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th /><th align="left">Total (<italic>n</italic> = 140)</th><th align="left">Mothers (<italic>n</italic> = 70)</th><th align="left">Fathers (<italic>n</italic> = 70)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="4">Parents</td></tr><tr><td> Age, M (SD)</td><td>38.6 (5.6)</td><td>36.9 (5.1)</td><td>40.3 (5.5)</td></tr><tr><td> Relationship length, M (SD)</td><td>11.7 (5.2)</td><td>–</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"> Employment status, <italic>N</italic> (%)</td></tr><tr><td> Full-time</td><td>73 (53)</td><td>18 (26)</td><td>55 (80)</td></tr><tr><td> Part-time</td><td>28 (20)</td><td>20 (29)</td><td>8 (12)</td></tr><tr><td> Stay at home</td><td>37 (27)</td><td>31 (45)</td><td>6 (9)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"> Education level, <italic>N</italic> (%)</td></tr><tr><td> No high-school degree</td><td>6 (4)</td><td>3 (4)</td><td>3 (4)</td></tr><tr><td> High-school or equivalent</td><td>40 (29)</td><td>20 (29)</td><td>20 (29)</td></tr><tr><td> Undergraduate</td><td>44 (32)</td><td>26 (37)</td><td>18 (27)</td></tr><tr><td> Graduate</td><td>48 (35)</td><td>21 (30)</td><td>27 (40)</td></tr><tr><td> Monthly household income, M (SD)</td><td>4236€ (2940€)</td><td>–</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"> Health issues, <italic>N</italic> (%)</td></tr><tr><td> Physical</td><td>23 (16)</td><td>13 (19)</td><td>10 (14)</td></tr><tr><td> Psychological</td><td>4 (3)</td><td>1 (1)</td><td>3 (4)</td></tr><tr><td> Affects daily life</td><td>10 (7)</td><td>5 (7)</td><td>5 (7)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">Child on the autism spectrum</td></tr><tr><td> Age in months, M (SD)</td><td>55 (21)</td><td>–</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td> Boy, <italic>N</italic> (%)</td><td>56 (80)</td><td>–</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td> Girl, <italic>N</italic> (%)</td><td>14 (20)</td><td>–</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td> Time since diagnosis in months, M (SD)</td><td>21 (17.3)</td><td>–</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td> Average weekly amount of specialized care</td><td>10 h</td><td>–</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td> Number of siblings, M (SD)</td><td>1.1 (0.8)</td><td>–</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td> Stepfamilies, <italic>N</italic> (%)</td><td>7 (10)</td><td>–</td><td>–</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0154608783-4">Procedure</hd> <p>This study presents the quantitative analysis of a mixed-methods research project. After parents received a diagnosis or reevaluation of autism for their child at specialized autism screening centers, child psychiatrists at these centers presented the current study to both parents. Both partners willing to participate signed consent forms and were contacted a month later by the first author, a clinical psychologist, to answer any further questions. Separate booklets of the same questionnaires for each parent were then sent by post with a stamped return envelope. Participants were asked by the first author to complete questionnaires separately and were allocated a code on the questionnaires to conserve anonymity and confidentiality.</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-5">Materials</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0154608783-6">Socio-demographic variables</hd> <p>A specific questionnaire to collect socio-demographic information was created by adapting the questionnaire developed by [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref63">16</reflink>]. Participants answered 14 questions about their couple relationship, finances, education level, health, employment, children, and their child's diagnosis.</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-7">Appraisal of Life Events Scale</hd> <p>The Appraisal of Life Events scale (ALES-vf; [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref64">36</reflink>]) was designed to assess the three primary appraisals of stress (threat, challenge, and loss) as described by [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref65">63</reflink>]. An adapted version (ALES-vf) was translated and validated in French to evaluate the stress experienced by parents raising a child on the autism spectrum ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref66">17</reflink>]). Participants rate on a 6-point Likert-type scale (0: "Not at all" to 5: "very much so") the extent to which 16 adjectives accurately describe their current situation of raising a child on the spectrum. A high score in any of the three subscales means the parent perceives their situation as a "threat" (e.g. adjectives such as worrying, frightening, threatening), a "challenge" (e.g. stimulating, challenging, informative), or a "loss" (e.g. depressing, painful, intolerable, or pitiful). The "threat" and "challenge" scores range from 0 to 30, whereas the "experience perceived as a loss" score ranges from 0 to 20. Each subscale presents a satisfactory internal consistency ranging across: α = 0.87 for the "loss" subscale; α = 0.89 for "challenge"; and α = 0.86 for "threat." In this study, the internal consistency varied from α = 0.78 for the "loss" subscale, α = 0.79 for "challenge," and α = 0.77 for "threat."</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-8">Dyadic Coping Inventory</hd> <p>The Dyadic Coping Inventory (DCI) is a 37-item scale created to evaluate dyadic coping ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref67">11</reflink>]). It was translated and validated in French ([<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref68">64</reflink>]). The DCI uses a 5-point Likert-type scale (1: "very rarely" to 5: "very often") to assess three dimensions including dyadic coping (positive or negative), communication about stressful situations, and feedback. For example, items include statements such as "I show my partner through my behavior when I am not doing well or when I have problems," or "I tell my partner that his/her stress is not that bad and help him/her to see the situation in a different light." An overall dyadic coping (DC) score is calculated by adding the scores of items 1 through to 35 after reverse coding 8 items (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref69">7</reflink>, 10, 11, 15, 22, 25, 26, and 27). A high overall DC score corresponds to positive dyadic coping with the following cut-off scores: under 111 is below average; between 111 and 145 is considered normal; over 145 is above average. The overall internal consistency of the scale is satisfactory (α = 0.90), with individual subscales ranging from α = 0.50 to α = 0.92 ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref70">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref71">64</reflink>]). There exist 10 subscales, of which we chose two for further analyses: supportive dyadic coping of the partner and common dyadic coping. Supportive dyadic coping of the partner contains five items and is calculated by adding the scores of items 5, 6, 8, 9, and 13. This subscale measures the positive ways an individual experiencing stress is supported and assisted by their romantic partner, for example "My partner listens to me and gives me the opportunity to communicate what really bothers me." Among a French sample, this subscale presents an acceptable reliability of α = 0.84 ([<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref72">64</reflink>]). Common dyadic coping refers to how couples cope together with a shared external stressor, for example, "We try to cope with the problem together and search for ascertained solutions." It is assessed among five items by a sum of items 31, 32, 33, 34, and 35 with a reported Cronbach's coefficient alpha of 0.76 ([<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref73">64</reflink>]). In the present study, the internal consistency of the overall DC score (α = 0.74), common dyadic coping (α = 0.73), and supportive dyadic coping of the partner (α = 0.76) were acceptable. The other eight subscales consist of stress communicated by oneself (four items), supportive dyadic coping by oneself (five items), delegated dyadic coping by oneself (two items), negative dyadic coping by oneself (four items), stress communication of the partner (four items), delegated dyadic coping of the partner (two items), negative dyadic coping by partner (four items), and the evaluation of dyadic coping (two items).</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-9">Parenting Alliance Inventory</hd> <p>The "Parenting Alliance Inventory" (PAI; [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref74">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref75">2</reflink>]) was translated and validated in French by [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref76">82</reflink>]. It measures the degree of cooperation and support between parents to fulfill their various parental functions. This inventory is composed of 17 items on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from "1: Strongly disagree" to "5: Strongly agree." A high score corresponds to a positive perception of teamwork with one's partner to fulfill the various parental functions. For example, items include the following statements: "The other parent and I have the same goals for our child," or "The other parent and I communicate well together about our child." This scale is composed of four factors: similar perceptions of the child's development; communication and child-rearing agreement; perceived support from the other parent; and the coparent's parental competence and involvement. The total score of this scale was used in this study, not the subscores. This scale presents a good internal consistency of α = 0.78. The overall alpha calculated with the current study sample was acceptable at α = 0.72.</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-10">Parenting Sense of Competence Scale</hd> <p>The Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref77">42</reflink>]) was translated and validated in French by [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref78">90</reflink>]. This scale of 17 items measures parents' sense of competence in their parental role across two dimensions: their satisfaction and efficacy. The present study used the total score of this scale representing parents' sense of competence. Parents respond to a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly agree (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref79">1</reflink>) to strongly disagree (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref80">6</reflink>). Items include, for example, "If anyone can find the answer to what is troubling my child, I am the one" or "Being a parent makes me tense and anxious." An overall score of parenting sense of competence is obtained by adding the scores of the first 16 items after reversing the efficacy subscale scores. This scale presents an overall satisfactory alpha of 0.87 ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref81">24</reflink>]). It was evaluated as 0.76 in the present study.</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-11">Data analysis</hd> <p>All analyses were conducted using R software with an alpha level of 0.05. Missing data represented less than 1% of all values. The FIML (Full Information Maximum Likelihood) method was used to deal with missing data ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref82">38</reflink>]). There were no outliers. The structural equation modeling (SEM) technique was chosen for this study to analyze dyadic data ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref83">58</reflink>]). It is important to consider dyadic data as interdependent instead of independent to examine interpersonal processes and dyadic patterns.</p> <p>First, the main study variables were assessed via descriptive statistics and correlational analyses. Gender differences or variables related to time since diagnosis were examined via paired <emph>t</emph> tests. Then, two independent actor-partner interdependence models (APIM, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref84">56</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref85">57</reflink>]) were used to test two within-dyad independent variables (overall dyadic coping responses and parenting sense of competence) in association with one within-dyad dependent variable (coparenting). The APIM analyzes the effect of one partner's independent variable on their dependent variable (i.e. actor effect), as well as the effect of this independent variable on their partner's dependent variable (i.e. partner effect). The APIM accounts for the interdependence between partners while assessing the interpersonal and intrapersonal influences within dyads. This non-independence between dyads reflects that the behavior of one partner is best understood by also accounting for the behavior of the other partner and vice versa. We also used the APIM_SEM application to compare and confirm findings obtained on R software for the APIM models ([<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref86">88</reflink>]). The dyads in this article are considered distinguishable by their gender ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref87">57</reflink>]). To confirm distinguishability, tests were conducted for each APIM model. As suggested by [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref88">59</reflink>], we generated bootstraps for confidence intervals (CI) using 5000 samples ([<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref89">84</reflink>]). This allows for a better interpretation of the <emph>k</emph> parameters as 95% bias-corrected CIs of indirect effects are generated to correct a presumably skewed distribution of the <emph>k</emph> ratio. Finally, multicollinearity is a complicated issue in SEM ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref90">45</reflink>]). To help reduce multicollinearity, we centered the means by subtracting the mean of partners' joint scores ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref91">23</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-12">Community involvement</hd> <p>This research project was created by the first author, a clinical psychologist (N.D.), after 2 years of multiple discussions with parents in a care service center providing early intervention for their child after a recent autism diagnosis. These parents expressed certain difficulties regarding their relationships. After searching for studies providing best practices to support parenting couples' relationships, N.D. noticed a gap in the literature. An exploratory research project was then established. First, a qualitative analysis was carried out with 10 parenting couples raising a child on the spectrum to explore their experiences after the diagnosis ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref92">29</reflink>]). Then, this quantitative study was conducted and analyzed.</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-13">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0154608783-14">Preliminary analyses</hd> <p>Table 2 presents the means, standard deviations, paired <emph>t</emph>-tests, and correlations between the main study variables. The mean scores of dyadic coping were in the normal range with no significant difference between mothers and fathers scores (<emph>t</emph> = 0.75, <emph>p</emph> < 0.47). Couples present similar levels of sense of competence, which can be considered high as they are above the 65-point cut-off score (<emph>t</emph> = 0.95, <emph>p</emph> < 0.34). Stress appraised as a threat was the only variable where mothers presented significantly higher scores than fathers (<emph>t</emph> = 2.55, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01). Parents showed similarly high coparenting scores on average (<emph>t</emph> = −0.85, <emph>p</emph> < 0.40). These results are similar to those found among the mean scores of the general population in France ([<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref93">82</reflink>]).</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 2. Descriptive statistics and significant correlations between study variables.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th /><th align="left" colspan="3">Descriptives</th><th align="left" colspan="11" rowspan="2">Correlations</th></tr><tr><th /><th align="left">Mothers</th><th align="left">Fathers</th><th align="left">Diff<sub>m</sub>–<sub>f</sub></th></tr><tr><th /><th align="left">M (SD)</th><th align="left">M (SD)</th><th align="left"><italic>t</italic></th><th align="left">1</th><th align="left">2</th><th align="left">3</th><th align="left">4</th><th align="left">5</th><th align="left">6</th><th align="left">7</th><th align="left">8</th><th align="left">9</th><th align="left">10</th><th align="left">11</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1. Dyadic coping (DC)</td><td>126.18 (18.92)</td><td>123.73 (18.91)</td><td>0.75</td><td>0.74<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.67<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.84<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.25</td><td>–0.08</td><td>–0.05</td><td>0.61<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.44<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>–0.16</td><td>–0.20</td><td>–0.02</td></tr><tr><td>2. Common DC</td><td>16.94 (4.16)</td><td>16.73 (3.56)</td><td>0.30</td><td>0.81<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.63<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.46<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.35<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>–0.27<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>–0.24<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>0.61<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.31<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>0.06</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.25<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td></tr><tr><td>3. Partners' supportive DC</td><td>18.46 (4.87)</td><td>17.62 (4.84)</td><td>1.00</td><td>0.89<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.75<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.48<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.15</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.49<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.27<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>–0.03</td><td>–0.07</td><td>–0.03</td></tr><tr><td>4. Challenge</td><td>13.63 (7.03)</td><td>12.47 (7.82)</td><td>0.90</td><td>–0.05</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.26<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>–0.30<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>–0.39<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>0.29<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>0.20</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.01</td><td>–0.09</td></tr><tr><td>5. Threat</td><td>15.84 (6.44)</td><td>12.72 (7.36)</td><td>2.55<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>0.04</td><td>–0.07</td><td>0.02</td><td>–0.39<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.41<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>0.84<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>–0.26<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>–0.34<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>0.01</td><td>–0.08</td><td>–0.02</td></tr><tr><td>6. Loss</td><td>10.40 (5.20)</td><td>8.60 (5.84)</td><td>1.90</td><td>0.19</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.02</td><td>–0.51<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>0.75<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.45<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>–0.27<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>–0.27<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>0.02</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.02</td></tr><tr><td>7. Coparenting</td><td>71.95 (10.32)</td><td>73.38 (9.20)</td><td>–0.85</td><td>0.63<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.56<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.69<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.11</td><td>–0.05</td><td>–0.05</td><td>0.76<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>0.49<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.01</td><td>–0.07</td><td>0.01</td></tr><tr><td>8. Sense of competence</td><td>69.53 (8.86)</td><td>67.94 (10.26)</td><td>0.95</td><td>0.34<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>0.26<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>0.02</td><td>–0.28<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>–0.25</td><td>–0.09</td><td>0.46<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>0.40<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>–0.15</td><td>–0.24</td><td>–0.05</td></tr><tr><td>9. Time since diagnosis<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn2">a</xref></td><td>21 (17.3)</td><td>21(17.3)</td><td>–</td><td>–0.13</td><td>–0.01</td><td>–0.03</td><td>0.32<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>–0.08</td><td>–0.10</td><td>–0.20</td><td>–0.28<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>–</td><td>0.73<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>0.16</td></tr><tr><td>10. Child's age<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn2">a</xref></td><td>55 (21)</td><td>55(21)</td><td>–</td><td>–0.21</td><td>–0.07</td><td>–0.12</td><td>0.21</td><td>–0.18</td><td>–0.17</td><td>–0.25</td><td>–0.36<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn4">**</xref></td><td>0.73<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">***</xref></td><td>–</td><td>0.18</td></tr><tr><td>11. Household income</td><td>4236€ (2940)</td><td>4236€ (2940)</td><td>–</td><td>0.08</td><td>0.13</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.20</td><td>–0.16</td><td>–0.14</td><td>0.18</td><td>–0.03</td><td>0.17</td><td>0.19</td><td>–</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Correlations within dyads (i.e. between mothers and fathers) are presented in bold on the diagonal. Mothers' correlations are below the diagonal and fathers are above the diagonal. For example, the correlation of the overall dyadic coping score (variable 1) among couples is 0.74. The correlation between the overall score of dyadic coping (variable 1) and common dyadic coping (variable 2) is 0.81*** among mothers and 0.67*** among fathers.</p> <ulist> <item>2 In months.</item> <item>3 <emph>p</emph> < 0.05.</item> <item>4 <emph>p</emph> < 0.01.</item> <item>5 <emph>p</emph> < 0.001.</item> </ulist> <p>Correlation between maternal and paternal variables highlights the interdependence between partners. As to be expected, dyadic coping, common dyadic coping, and supportive dyadic coping by the partner were highly correlated between each other. The same was observed between stress appraised as a loss or a threat. Both of these variables were negatively linked to stress appraised as a challenge for parents. Coparenting was highly correlated with dyadic coping (Mothers: <emph>r</emph> = 0.63, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001; Fathers: <emph>r</emph> = 0.61, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001), common dyadic coping (Mothers: <emph>r</emph> = 0.56, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001; Fathers: <emph>r</emph> = 0.61, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001), supportive dyadic coping by the partner (Mothers: <emph>r</emph> = 0.69, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001; Fathers: <emph>r</emph> = 0.49, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001), and parents' sense of competence (Mothers: <emph>r</emph> = 0.46, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01; Fathers: <emph>r</emph> = 0.49, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). For fathers, coparenting was also related to their cognitive stress appraisal of having a child on the autism spectrum depending on whether they appraised their situation as a challenge (<emph>r</emph> = 0.29, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05), threat (<emph>r</emph> = −0.26, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05), or loss (<emph>r</emph> = −0.27, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05). Mothers' sense of competence was associated with dyadic coping (<emph>r</emph> = 0.34, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01), common dyadic coping (<emph>r</emph> = 0.26, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05), cognitive stress appraisal perceived as a challenge (<emph>r</emph> = −0.28, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05), time since diagnosis, (<emph>r</emph> = −0.28, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05), and the child's age (<emph>r</emph> = −0.36, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01). Fathers' sense of competence was related to dyadic coping (<emph>r</emph> = 0.44, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001), common dyadic coping (<emph>r</emph> = 0.31, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05), supportive dyadic coping by the partner (<emph>r</emph> = 0.27, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05), threat (<emph>r</emph> = −0.34, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01), and loss (<emph>r</emph> = −0.27, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05). Common dyadic coping was only associated with monthly household income (<emph>r</emph> = 0.25, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05) and stress appraised as a challenge (<emph>r</emph> = 0.35, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01), threat (<emph>r</emph> = −0.27, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05), or loss (<emph>r</emph> = −0.24, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05) for fathers. Time since diagnosis was strongly related to mothers perceiving their situation as a challenge (<emph>r</emph> = 0.32, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01).</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-15">APIM models</hd> <p>Various models were tested for saturation to find the most parsimonious models. The first model (Figure 1) examined the effect of overall dyadic coping on coparenting and presented a perfect fit, (χ<sups>2</sups>(0) = 0.00, comparative fit index (CFI) = 1.00, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.000). Regarding the actor effects of dyadic coping on coparenting, both mothers and fathers with a higher level of dyadic coping predicted a better coparenting relationship (<emph>B<subs>mothers</subs></emph> = 0.524, <emph>p</emph><emph><</emph> 0.002, power = 0.96; <emph>B<subs>fathers</subs></emph> = 0.377, <emph>p</emph> < 0.008, power = 0.78). Partner effects of mothers' dyadic coping on fathers' coparenting was statistically significant (<emph>B</emph> = 0.300, <emph>p</emph><emph><</emph> 0.036, power = 0.57), whereas fathers' dyadic coping was not significantly related to mothers' coparenting (<emph>B</emph> = 0.154, <emph>p</emph><emph><</emph> 0.35, power = 0.19). We decided to constrain mothers' and fathers' actor and partner effects to be equal across genders. This did not worsen the model fit, actor: χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref94">1</reflink>) = 0.214, <emph>p</emph> = 0.644; partner: χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref95">1</reflink>) = 0.170, <emph>p</emph> = 0.681, meaning that partner and actor effects of dyadic coping on coparenting did not differ by gender. Dyadic coping explained a similar part of variation in coparenting for both mothers and fathers (<emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups><subs><emph>mothers</emph></subs> = 0.42; <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups><subs><emph>fathers</emph></subs> = 0.40).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. APIM model testing the association between dyadic coping and coparenting.*** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.</p> <p>The second saturated model explored the dyadic patterns of parents' sense of competence on coparenting (Figure 2). With regard to the actor effects, both mothers and fathers with a higher sense of competence reported high levels of coparenting (<emph>B<subs>mothers</subs></emph> = 0.326, <emph>p</emph><emph><</emph> 0.001, power = 0.83; <emph>B<subs>fathers</subs></emph> = 0.493, <emph>p</emph> < 0.00, power = 0.99). Fathers' sense of competence had a significant positive partner effect on mothers' coparenting (<emph>B</emph> = 0.313, <emph>p</emph><emph><</emph> 0.009, power = 0.78), whereas the partner effect of mothers' sense of competence on fathers' coparenting was not statistically significant (<emph>B</emph> = −0.020, <emph>p</emph><emph><</emph> 0.85, power = 0.05). The model did not deteriorate when actor, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref96">1</reflink>) = 0.109, <emph>p</emph> = 0.741, and partner, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref97">1</reflink>) = 2.996, <emph>p</emph> = 0.083, effects were constrained to be equal across genders. Sense of competence explained 28% of maternal perceptions of coparenting quality and 24% of paternal perceptions of coparenting quality.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. APIM model testing the association between parental sense of competence and coparenting.*** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-16">Discussion</hd> <p>This study explored interactions between dyadic coping, sense of parenting competence, and perceptions of coparenting quality among parenting couples following their child's diagnosis with autism. Results confirmed that dyadic coping is linked to parents' coparenting relationship. However, partner effects showed that only mothers' dyadic coping predicted fathers' coparenting. Fathers' dyadic coping was not significantly linked to mothers' coparenting. The second model supported previous research showing that parents' sense of competence was related to their coparenting relationship. But only fathers' sense of competence was linked to an increased level of coparenting among mothers.</p> <p>The first model showed that higher levels of dyadic coping were linked to higher levels of coparenting for both mothers and fathers. This supports other studies among couples raising a child on the autism spectrum showing that dyadic coping is an added resource for these parents ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref98">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref99">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref100">40</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref101">44</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref102">87</reflink>]). Higher levels of dyadic coping may help these partners support each other during stressful situations, which in turn leads to a higher quality coparenting relationship. This is concurrent with findings from longitudinal and observational studies among the general population showing that supportive relationships between parents positively impact various domains of coparenting ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref103">20</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref104">89</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref105">97</reflink>]). Interestingly, only mothers' dyadic coping was significantly related to fathers' coparenting in the current study. As a result, fathers presented better coparenting when both them and their partners engaged in higher levels of dyadic coping, whereas mothers' coparenting was only related to their own level of dyadic coping. Indeed, fathers raising a child on the autism spectrum may be more likely to negatively coparent when they experience higher levels of stress than mothers ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref106">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref107">68</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref108">92</reflink>]). In our sample, fathers also spent more time at work than mothers, which has been associated with higher levels of stress for fathers ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref109">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref110">47</reflink>]). Fathers who spend more time at work may rely more on their partner for support and information, whereas mothers could have more direct access to professional support ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref111">65</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref112">79</reflink>]). Thus, mothers' dyadic coping may act as fathers' primary source of support to cope with stressors, which then helps fathers engage in positive coparenting behaviors. Overall, this finding showing that only mothers' dyadic coping predicts their partners' coparenting is consistent with previous research among the general population. Indeed, a recent study showed that a higher level of support provided by mothers of neurotypical 2-year-old children was related to less competitive coparenting and more father involvement. However, fathers' level of support toward mothers' parenting was unrelated to coparenting quality ([<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref113">75</reflink>]). Mothers tend to remain highly involved in coparenting and caregiving regardless of fathers' involvement or support ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref114">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref115">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref116">75</reflink>]).</p> <p>A higher parenting sense of competence was related to greater coparenting quality for both parents. This indicates that parents may feel more capable in their parenting role when they act in accordance with their parental beliefs. These parental cognitions could motivate parents to engage in their coparenting relationship ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref117">35</reflink>]). In this study, only fathers' sense of competence was related to higher levels of coparenting among mothers, meaning mothers tended to be more positive about their coparenting relationship when fathers felt more competent and satisfied in their parenting role. The link between coparenting quality and autism-specific parenting self-efficacy has been shown to be more important among fathers ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref118">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref119">68</reflink>]). Indeed, in our sample, mothers' sense of competence did not significantly predict fathers' coparenting relationship quality, meaning that paternal perceptions of coparenting quality were not linked to maternal perceptions of parenting competence. These mothers also spent more time at home with their child than fathers, so fathers may have expected mothers to be more competent accomplishing certain parenting tasks, especially as these mothers could have had more time to receive support from care service professionals. Among parents of children on the autism spectrum, mothers and fathers do not necessarily fulfill the same roles and responsibilities as they seem to divide tasks in a complementary manner after the autism diagnosis to accommodate their child's special care needs ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref120">29</reflink>]). It is possible that these parents may feel more competent completing certain parenting tasks and less competent with others, so they may choose their parenting tasks depending on their sense of competence with each task. This may lead to a more harmonious coparenting relationship as parents work together depending on their level of competence and natural affinity with certain tasks to complete their daily parenting responsibilities ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref121">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref122">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>Mothers' sense of competence was lower when children were older, which was not found for fathers. This finding seems to confirm other studies in the field of autism even though there exists limited research relating parents' sense of competence with their child's age. Most research evaluates parenting self-efficacy, which is a construct of parenting sense of competence. A study assessing P-ESDM (Parent-Implemented Early Start Denver Model), offered mostly to mothers of children on the spectrum with an average age of 21 months, found a borderline significance suggesting that parenting self-efficacy decreased when the children became older ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref123">31</reflink>]). This finding was supported by a systematic review of parent training programs showing that parenting self-efficacy was higher when children were younger than 5 ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref124">51</reflink>]). In these programs, professionals provided early intervention guidance to help parents deal with developmental difficulties, such as imitation or communication skills ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref125">51</reflink>]). Parents learned techniques that had direct observable effects on the child's behavior from an early age. When children became older, the relationship between maladaptive child behaviors and mothers' parenting stress became more evident ([<reflink idref="bib96" id="ref126">96</reflink>]). This seems to mostly affect mothers as a study recently found that greater levels of autism symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors were related to a lower sense of parental efficacy among mothers but not fathers ([<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref127">67</reflink>]). Over time, mothers may experience more stress and feel like they are not succeeding at parenting if children continue to present challenging behaviors that are socially stigmatizing ([<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref128">74</reflink>]). Indeed, parenting self-efficacy decreases when parents believe they are not able to accomplish certain parenting tasks ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref129">43</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref130">53</reflink>]).</p> <p>Significant negative correlations were found between parents' sense of competence and their stress appraisal of raising a child on the spectrum. Fathers with a higher sense of competence experienced the situation as significantly less of a threat or loss. Whereas mothers with a higher sense of competence perceived the experience as significantly less of a challenge. A high challenge score was obtained when parents described their experience of having a child on the autism spectrum as stimulating, challenging, informative, exciting, enjoyable, and exhilarating ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref131">17</reflink>]). Theoretically, one would expect individuals with a higher sense of competence to encounter adversity as more of a challenge, rather than a threat or loss beyond their control ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref132">52</reflink>]). However, this was not the case for mothers in the current sample. A study found that mothers reported more positive appraisals of stressors 18 months after a diagnosis, such as finding their life as being more meaningful ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref133">71</reflink>]). However, negative appraisals did not decrease over time meaning mothers experienced as many positive appraisals as they did negative 18 months after the autism diagnosis ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref134">71</reflink>]). For mothers in the present study, the relationship between parenting sense of competence and perceiving their child's autism as a challenge could have been mediated by the time since diagnosis. Indeed, among mothers, time since diagnosis was related to a lower sense of competence and higher likelihood to appraise stress as a challenge. Moreover, appraising the situation as a challenge was positively related to time since diagnosis but not child's age for mothers, whereas their sense of competency was negatively linked to their child's age and time since diagnosis. Mothers may appraise raising a child on the spectrum as a challenge during the 36 months after a diagnosis but when the child gets older mothers could feel less competent as perceptions of their situation as a challenge fade with lived experience. Further research is needed to see how these variables evolve throughout the child's development. Especially as these parental cognitions are not fixed traits but vary depending on various factors, such as the changing demands of the environment, the task, as well as interpersonal and intrapersonal characteristics ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref135">21</reflink>]). For example, research has linked parenting sense of competence and stress appraisal among mothers to variables that were not assessed in the current paper, such as increased fatigue, diminished initial optimism, lack of success in parenting efforts, child's behavior problems, reflected appraisal, and perceived social support ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref136">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref137">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref138">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref139">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref140">41</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref141">60</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref142">61</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref143">76</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib95" id="ref144">95</reflink>]).</p> <p>A significant difference between mothers' and fathers' average score of perceiving the stress of raising a child on the spectrum as a threat was observed. Mothers felt more threatened than fathers by stressors related to raising a child on the spectrum, meaning they are more likely to anticipate future danger and believe they do not possess the resources necessary to deal with this danger ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref145">54</reflink>]). Interestingly, parents' stress appraisal of raising a child on the spectrum was not linked to their overall dyadic coping or partners' supportive dyadic coping. It was only associated with common dyadic coping among fathers: higher scores of common dyadic coping among fathers were related to perceiving the stress of raising a child on the autism spectrum as more of a challenge, and less of a threat or loss. Fathers who worked with mothers to cope with raising a child on the spectrum as a "we-problem" were more likely to perceive the situation as a challenge. Research suggests that parents who view their experience as a challenge are more likely to report greater levels of self-fulfillment, happiness, and less conflictual relationships with their child ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref146">19</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref147">18</reflink>]).</p> <p>Finally, higher levels of common dyadic coping among fathers were also linked to higher monthly income. Common dyadic coping refers to responding to a stressor experienced by both partners or to shared difficulties viewed as a "we-problem." An important aspect of common dyadic coping is open communication between partners about the stressor, as well as finding solutions together ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref148">26</reflink>]). Multiple hypotheses may explain why fathers are more able to engage in joint efforts to cope and find solutions for their child when family finances are high and why this may be more difficult when finances are low. First, financial difficulties have been associated with multiple issues regarding individual and couples' functioning, which could prevent fathers from engaging in common dyadic coping ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref149">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref150">83</reflink>]). For example, fathers with a lower monthly income may experience more stress related to financial difficulties. Indeed, a recent qualitative study described financial difficulties as the most reported stressor among fathers of young children on the autism spectrum ([<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref151">79</reflink>]). This stress linked to a lower income may affect fathers by adding challenges, such as difficulty finding and financing their child's care, or by hindering their available resources to engage in effective coping efforts with their partner ([<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref152">77</reflink>]). For example, higher levels of stress have been linked to an increased use of negative dyadic coping strategies and a decreased use of positive dyadic coping strategies among parents of children on the autism spectrum ([<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref153">80</reflink>]).</p> <p>Second, common dyadic coping is more likely to occur when partners feel jointly affected by a stressor and engage together to deal with the issue, either via problem-focused or emotion-focused strategies ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref154">26</reflink>]). It is possible that fathers with higher monthly incomes felt they worked as a team with mothers to raise their child and confront difficulties linked to autism. Either by sharing time in paid employment, which would lead to a higher monthly income and give the impression of providing financially for their child's needs together, or, in a more complementary manner, by working full time while the other parent participates more in caregiving responsibilities ([<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref155">66</reflink>]). Third, fathers with a lower monthly income may have different needs and resources preventing them from engaging in the common dyadic coping effort. For example, a study showed that fathers in a lower income household reported a lower number of important support needs compared to fathers in higher income families. The researchers posited that this may be due to fathers being more preoccupied with providing for their family's basic needs, such as food and essential treatments ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref156">48</reflink>]). Finally, multiple factors, such as age, culture, or life experiences, could also be related to fathers' cognitions regarding their finances. These cognitions play a role within the couples' relationship and their dyadic coping, for example, fathers' standards and expectations toward their financial responsibilities ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref157">32</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-17">Limits and future directions</hd> <p>This is the first study to use dyadic data to assess how couples cope together and engage in coparenting efforts after their child is diagnosed with autism. Given the exploratory nature of this research project, there exist certain limits that can be improved in future analyses. First, as this is a cross-sectional study, it would be interesting to explore these study variables using a longitudinal study design, as well as including observational techniques. This would help to provide evidence of causal relationships and shed more light on the current findings. Certain methods show promising results, such as daily diary designs or ecological momentary assessment techniques ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref158">46</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib93" id="ref159">93</reflink>]). Second, the global pandemic of Covid-19 prevented us from recruiting a bigger sample size. As a result, we chose to use simple APIM models. These were sufficiently powered for actor effects, but were poorly powered to detect most partner effects. Furthermore, the focus of this study remains quite narrow, which prevented the exploration of other relevant variables, for example, challenging child behavior, familial support network, or sibling data. Future research with bigger sample sizes could explore other potentially relevant variables and more complicated models, by including mediators for example. It is also important to ensure that samples remain heterogeneous by recruiting families with different cultural backgrounds and socio-demographic characteristics (e.g. more girls, parents on the autism spectrum, LGBTQ+ families). Third, this research project consciously recruited parenting couples in an intimate relationship. However, other family structures including separated couples, single parents, or families with other children presenting a disability remain understudied in this domain.</p> <hd id="AN0154608783-18">Conclusion</hd> <p>These results highlight the importance of exploring transactional processes that contribute to understanding how families adapt to raising a child on the spectrum after their child's autism diagnosis. This is the first article to demonstrate a link between coparenting quality and dyadic coping in these families. Given parents' increased isolation after their child's diagnosis, these findings offer promising leads to help parents find resources within their relationship to support each other and work together while raising their child. This article calls for other research using longitudinal data as well as larger and more diverse sample populations to start focusing on coparenting and dyadic coping in the field of autism. This would provide the necessary knowledge to create best practice guidelines throughout the child's developmental stages to support both mothers and fathers, as well as their parenting couple relationship.</p> <p>We would like to thank all parents who participated in this research project, as well as the Centre Hospitalier de Versailles for supporting this project. 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Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(3), 798–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0260-1</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0154608783-20"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study is part of a mixed-methods doctoral dissertation that received funding of 2500€ from the Fondation Mustela.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> This research project was approved by the Ethics Commission for the Protection of Persons (CPP) in France.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Naomi Downes</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3997-9247 Pascale Isnard</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6664-3533</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Naomi Downes; Marie-Maude Geoffray; Pascale Isnard; Eric Lemonnier; Marie-Joëlle Orêve and Emilie Cappe</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib85" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib86" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib80" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Dyadic Coping and Coparenting among Couples after Their Child's Recent Autism Diagnosis
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Downes%2C+Naomi%22">Downes, Naomi</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3997-9247">0000-0003-3997-9247</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Geoffray%2C+Marie-Maude%22">Geoffray, Marie-Maude</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Isnard%2C+Pascale%22">Isnard, Pascale</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6664-3533">0000-0001-6664-3533</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lemonnier%2C+Eric%22">Lemonnier, Eric</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Orêve%2C+Marie-Joëlle%22">Orêve, Marie-Joëlle</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cappe%2C+Emilie%22">Cappe, Emilie</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Autism%3A+The+International+Journal+of+Research+and+Practice%22"><i>Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice</i></searchLink>. Jan 2022 26(1):121-134.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 14
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Rearing%22">Child Rearing</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parenting+Styles%22">Parenting Styles</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Autism%22">Autism</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pervasive+Developmental+Disorders%22">Pervasive Developmental Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Variables%22">Stress Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Coping%22">Coping</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Competence%22">Competence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Attitudes%22">Parent Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mothers%22">Mothers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Fathers%22">Fathers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Predictor+Variables%22">Predictor Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cooperation%22">Cooperation</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22France%22">France</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1177/13623613211020916
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1362-3613
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study explores how parenting couples use their relationship to support each other after their child's autism diagnosis by assessing the role of dyadic coping and parenting sense of competence as predictors of their coparenting quality. Mothers and fathers raising a child on the spectrum (N = 70 couples) individually completed self-report questionnaires measuring stress appraisal, dyadic coping, parenting sense of competence, and coparenting. Parents were recruited 1-36 months after their child's autism diagnosis and data were analyzed using the actor-partner interdependence model. Parents' dyadic coping and sense of competence were related to their level of coparenting. Partner effects were found as mothers' dyadic coping was positively linked to fathers' coparenting and a higher sense of competence among fathers predicted mothers' coparenting. Further research is needed to understand how these effects evolve throughout the child's development stages.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1323875
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1323875
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/13623613211020916
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 14
        StartPage: 121
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Child Rearing
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parenting Styles
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Autism
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pervasive Developmental Disorders
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Stress Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Coping
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Efficacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Competence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mothers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Fathers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Predictor Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cooperation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: France
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Dyadic Coping and Coparenting among Couples after Their Child's Recent Autism Diagnosis
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Downes, Naomi
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Geoffray, Marie-Maude
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Isnard, Pascale
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lemonnier, Eric
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Orêve, Marie-Joëlle
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Cappe, Emilie
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2022
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1362-3613
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 26
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice
              Type: main
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