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Exploring the Ideologies of 76 Teachers from One Guatemalan Community

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Title: Exploring the Ideologies of 76 Teachers from One Guatemalan Community
Language: English
Authors: Daniel, Mayra C. (ORCID 0000-0003-2702-0071), Burgin, Ximena (ORCID 0000-0002-3494-569X)
Source: Teacher Development. 2022 26(1):1-16.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2022
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Ideology, Teacher Attitudes, Foreign Countries, Diversity, Academic Achievement, Culturally Relevant Education, Elementary School Teachers, Secondary School Teachers, Cultural Pluralism, Indigenous Populations, Learner Engagement, Cultural Background, Equal Education
Geographic Terms: Guatemala
DOI: 10.1080/13664530.2021.1991996
ISSN: 1366-4530
Abstract: This study explored 76 Guatemalan teachers' ideologies related to students' diversity, and how these influenced their work. Educators representing 79.1% of teachers from a community of 135,000 were gathered in seven focus groups ranging in size from nine to twelve participants. Recurrent themes documented teachers' espoused attitudes toward diverse students, and their perceptions of their ability to advocate for learners. Findings suggest that while Guatemalan educators are committed to helping students achieve academically, they struggle to determine what they can do to take on leadership roles and advocate for their students.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2022
Accession Number: EJ1335564
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0155733320;ntd01jan.22;2022Mar15.07:26;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0155733320-1">Exploring the ideologies of 76 teachers from one Guatemalan community </title> <p>This study explored 76 Guatemalan teachers' ideologies related to students' diversity, and how these influenced their work. Educators representing 79.1% of teachers from a community of 135,000 were gathered in seven focus groups ranging in size from nine to twelve participants. Recurrent themes documented teachers' espoused attitudes toward diverse students, and their perceptions of their ability to advocate for learners. Findings suggest that while Guatemalan educators are committed to helping students achieve academically, they struggle to determine what they can do to take on leadership roles and advocate for their students.</p> <p>Keywords: Teacher ideologies; teacher empowerment; diverse contexts; democratic schools; Mayanization</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Societal and educational problems in Guatemala have been influenced by the country's political history and its 30-year civil war (Bell et al. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref1">10</reflink>]; Grandin [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref2">48</reflink>]; Orozco and Valdivia [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref3">60</reflink>]; Taylor [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref4">68</reflink>]; United States Institute of Peace [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref5">69</reflink>]). Still in the twenty-first century, Guatemalan educators face issues that affect children's health, such as the high poverty levels of the Maya, and the assimilationist pressures on the indigenous. Guatemala's MINEDUC (Ministry of Education) and OEER (General Office of Evaluation and Educational Research) ([<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref6">56</reflink>]) documented unequal access to schooling and wide disparities in student achievement between urban and remote rural areas. OEER also highlighted that the numbers of students completing secondary or tertiary level study remain low. It is also concerning that educational problems begin to surface at elementary levels when children drop out of school to help support their families (World Fact Book [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref7">73</reflink>]).</p> <p>Freire's socio-cultural theory (Freire [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref8">34</reflink>]) emphasized that humanizing pedagogy is political, whether domesticating or liberating. Banking education is a method that uses the same instructional resources for all learners regardless of their abilities or cultural capital. In contrast, liberatory learning focuses on students' non-schooled knowledge and their <emph>funds of knowledge</emph> (González, Moll, and Amanti [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref9">45</reflink>]). Humanizing pedagogy is the vehicle that teachers use to develop students' critical consciousness – <emph>conscientização</emph> (Freire [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref10">34</reflink>], 26). Humanizing pedagogy creates classrooms contexts where power is shared between the teacher and the students (Bartolomé [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref11">5</reflink>]). In such environments, students learn that their voices matter as they experience problem-posing conversations about sensitive topics such as the worth of indigenous languages and poverty. This investigation provided practicing educators a venue to discuss their challenges and explore their attitudes (Clandinin and Husu [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref12">17</reflink>]; Cochran-Smith et al. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref13">18</reflink>]). During focus group conversations, teachers discussed their work and their support for Guatemala's diverse students (Aliakbari and Faraji [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref14">2</reflink>]; Daniel [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref15">25</reflink>]; Gay [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref16">40</reflink>]; Jakar and Milofsky [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref17">52</reflink>]; Rosenblatt [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref18">64</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-3">Theoretical framework</hd> <p>Holbrock ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref19">50</reflink>]) defined language ideologies as the 'attitudes and beliefs people have about language that can, in turn, influence language behavior and structure' (<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref20">62</reflink>). Educational mandates need to be shaped in consultation with teachers who have opportunities to reflect on their work and share their ideas (Avivara [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref21">4</reflink>]; Crowe [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref22">24</reflink>]; Daniel and Riley [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref23">26</reflink>]). When teachers' ideologies are expressed in classroom practices that demonstrate an appreciation of learners' funds of knowledge and an awareness of the role of privilege, the curriculum celebrates diversity (Goodman and Allen [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref24">47</reflink>]; McIntosh [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref25">55</reflink>]; Ruiz [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref26">65</reflink>]). Literacy practices need to focus on restoring marginalized indigenous groups to their rightful place as citizens of Guatemala (Daniel and Burgin [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref27">27</reflink>]). Perhaps instructional challenges for teachers in Guatemala stem from the assumption that only families and communities are responsible for sharing cultural traditions and teaching home languages to children, and not teachers.</p> <p>Insufficient research has documented how Guatemalan teachers' ideologies influence the curriculum (Gee [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref28">41</reflink>]; Goldin [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref29">44</reflink>]; Holbrock [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref30">50</reflink>]). The theoretical framework that guided this study was sociocultural learning theory (Freire [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref31">36</reflink>]; González, Moll, and Amanti [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref32">45</reflink>]; Vygotsky [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref33">71</reflink>]). In their work, Freire ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref34">36</reflink>]) and Vygotsky ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref35">71</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref36">72</reflink>]) emphasized teachers' role in leading their students to dialogue so that they 'develop a critical awareness of how society perpetuates the status quo' (Daniel and Burgin [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref37">27</reflink>]). This work focused on empowering Guatemalan teachers through dialogue that would encourage them to go beyond top-down mandates to better support learners' academic and emotional needs and eliminate social injustice (Freire [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref38">35</reflink>]; Verhoeven and Durgunoglu [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref39">70</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-4">Mayan revitalization and education</hd> <p>The signing of the Peace Accords finalized the end of Guatemala's civil war. The Accords' democratic ideologies emphasized indigenous learners' need for equal access to schooling (United States Institute of Peace [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref40">69</reflink>]). The indigenous of Guatemala were defined as 'the Maya people, the Garifuna people, and the Xinca people' (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref41">2</reflink>) consisting of 'various socio-cultural groups having a common origin' (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref42">2</reflink>). In addition, the Accords acknowledged two existing challenges to equitable schooling: the lower status assigned to indigenous Guatemalan populations, and the plurality of the country's recognized languages (World Fact Book [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref43">73</reflink>]).</p> <p>Researchers argued that efforts to recognize the diverse nature of Guatemalans led to assimilationist (Bastos [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref44">8</reflink>]) and segregationist (Casaus [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref45">15</reflink>]) projects that blocked advocacy (Castillo [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref46">16</reflink>]). The goals of Mayan revitalization required that all school resources demonstrate respect for the interethnic, intercultural, and interlingual nature of Guatemalans. Resources would provide teachers age-appropriate materials to engage learners to think critically (Crowe [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref47">24</reflink>]; Gay [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref48">40</reflink>]). The agreements recognized that empowered teachers contribute to molding responsible citizens because they model democratic ideals and practice principles of critical pedagogy (Creese and Blackledge [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref49">23</reflink>]; Giroux [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref50">43</reflink>]). Guatemalan society needed to change if culturally responsive ideologies were to gain 'power' and take 'concrete shape' (Faundez [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref51">31</reflink>], 213). Educators needed to engage in inter- and intra-personal humanization (Bartolomé [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref52">5</reflink>]; Freire [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref53">36</reflink>]). Bastos ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref54">9</reflink>]) stated that ideologies of modernization that labeled the norms of the indigenous as 'symptoms of backwardness' (<reflink idref="bib164" id="ref55">164</reflink>) had to be stopped. Otherwise, education would ensure the indigenous adopt the cultural codes of mainstream urban society and discard the values of their ancestors. A shift in thinking was needed so that cultural norms incorporated into the school curriculum validated all communities' traditions.</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-5">Culturally responsive pedagogy</hd> <p>Culturally responsive pedagogues teach through lessons that evidence a respect for learners' funds of knowledge (Adichie [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref56">1</reflink>]; Coney [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref57">21</reflink>]; González, Moll, and Amanti [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref58">45</reflink>]; McIntosh [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref59">54</reflink>]; Norton and Toohey [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref60">59</reflink>]). They engage students to 'become active participants in their schooling and communities' (Daniel [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref61">28</reflink>], 39). They recognize the value of learners' cultural and linguistic diversity (Fránquiz, Ortiz, and Lara [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref62">33</reflink>]) because they are caring educators who strive to create rather than reproduce dominant societal norms (Giroux and Robbins [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref63">42</reflink>]; Goodman [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref64">46</reflink>]). Guatemalan teachers have not had sufficient time to explore and collaborate to identify ways to overcome the challenges they encounter in the schoolhouse. Reflection is not a luxury but an essential vehicle that empowers teachers to advocacy (Gay [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref65">40</reflink>]; Goodman [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref66">46</reflink>]). Through reflection, Guatemalan educators can become allies who intentionally identify how to adapt MINEDUC's curriculum to provide all learners windows and doors that accurately mirror their realities and concerns (Bishop [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref67">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>In democratic governments, educational agencies ensure educators acknowledge the value of students' languages and cultures in the school curriculum (García and Wei [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref68">37</reflink>]; Ruiz [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref69">65</reflink>]; Soto Gómez et al. [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref70">67</reflink>]). In Guatemala, a nation where there is one dominant language used in schooling and commerce, and numerous indigenous languages are part of everyday communication, educators face numerous challenges in their efforts to model democratic principles. Demands on the educational system and its educators, due to the learners' diversity, and the status the society assigns them, may result in the denigration of minority languages (Bartolomé [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref71">5</reflink>]; Magga et al. [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref72">53</reflink>]; Phillipson [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref73">61</reflink>]; Skutnabb-Kangas [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref74">66</reflink>]). Equity in education requires collaboration and respect be present and modeled in schools (Daniel [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref75">25</reflink>]; Faust [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref76">32</reflink>]; Freire [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref77">36</reflink>]; Gathercoal [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref78">39</reflink>]; Hawkins and Norton [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref79">49</reflink>]; Hornberger [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref80">51</reflink>]; Murillo and Smith [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref81">58</reflink>]; Rodriguez [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref82">63</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-6">Language, school funding, and the curriculum</hd> <p>Guatemala's linguistic diversity is a major concern in schooling, especially in remote areas outside the capital city. Ethnologue (Eberhard, Simons, and Fennig [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref83">30</reflink>]) reported that of the 27 languages spoken in Guatemala, 25 are indigenous and two non-indigenous. Of these 10 are considered institutional, six are developing, eight are at risk of disappearing, and three are dying. Indigenous groups share variations of the same language, as in the case of <emph>ixil</emph>, and not having a common written language poses a challenge for developing bi- or multi-literacy.</p> <p>The funding for education in Guatemala is low in comparison to other countries in Central America, as expenditures equal approximately 3% of the country's gross national product (MINEDUC [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref84">56</reflink>]). Oppression occurs when students are forced to learn academic content in Spanish if their teacher is monolingual, or if their native language does not have a writing system. The objectives of Mayan revitalization, that the ethnic and linguistic heritage of the Maya be fully incorporated into Guatemalan society and its schools, remain unmet (Bastos [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref85">9</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-7">Poverty concerns among the indigenous</hd> <p>Issues that stem from poverty such as childhood hunger, chronic malnutrition, and sub-standard living conditions pose formidable obstacles to schooling (Gargiulo [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref86">38</reflink>]). In Guatemala the reality is highly complex because historically, state policies have not adequately addressed inequities in societal structures and the high poverty levels of the Maya (AVANCSO [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref87">3</reflink>]; Bastos and Brett [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref88">7</reflink>]; Bastos and Camus [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref89">6</reflink>]; Camus [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref90">14</reflink>]; Cojtí [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref91">19</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref92">20</reflink>]: Richards and Richards [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref93">62</reflink>]). The levels of poverty in Mayan communities have been documented as high at 79% (Gargiulo [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref94">38</reflink>]) with 40% living in extreme poverty (Taylor [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref95">68</reflink>]). As of 2014 the rural income poverty line was 76.1% compared with the urban poverty line of 42%. When learners go to school hungry, their health and learning are compromised.</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-8">Rationale for study and methodology</hd> <p>This inquiry was developed based on data from prior investigations conducted in Guatemala by Mayra (first author) over the past 15 years. She has volunteered her time at least twice each year to work with members of the Guatemalan Literacy Council (GLC), delivering professional development (PD) in various areas of the nation. Both researchers are Spanish speakers, from Cuba and Ecuador. They received their post-graduate degrees from public universities in the United States. This study examined the ideologies of 76 Guatemalan teachers related to students' diversity, and documented participants' perceptions of how these influence their work. Data were gathered in focus groups ranging in size from 9 to 12 participants. The focus groups were conducted in Spanish after Institutional Board approval was obtained.</p> <p>The study questions asked:</p> <p>SQ1. What are Guatemalan teachers' instructional ideologies?</p> <p>SQ2. How do Guatemalan teachers' ideologies of multiculturalism inform their work?</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-9">Participants and research site</hd> <p>Teachers who participated in this study composed a convenience sample of educators from <emph>Mélida</emph> (a pseudonym), a community of approximately 135,000 people located northwest of Guatemala City, Guatemala (Mongabay [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref96">57</reflink>]). Teacher recruitment was led by members of the current board of the GLC. The participants worked at the pre-K-secondary levels in schools with small number of staff (10 to 15 teachers). All 76 teachers were trained in Guatemala's Normal Schools during their last two years of high school as part of the teacher preparation focus. The 76 participants represented 79.1% of the teachers in the municipality where this research was conducted, the majority of whom taught at the elementary level. Focus groups were heterogeneous in reference to the grade level the teachers taught.</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-10">Procedures for the focus groups</hd> <p>Seven focus group conversations were held with teachers in groups ranging between 9 and 12 participants. A total of seven focus groups were held: five groups were composed of 11 teachers, one group consisted of 12 teachers, and one group had 9 participants. The teachers were not grouped by the grade level they taught. Questions addressed participants' educational ideologies, their interpretation of the national curriculum, and their challenges teaching in Guatemala's diverse schools.</p> <p>Participants were asked:</p> <p>Q 1: What is your understanding of the diversity in Guatemala's students?</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Share examples of efforts to address student diversity in your schools.</item> </ulist> <p>Q 2: How does students' cultural and linguistic diversity inform your work?</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-11">Methods used for analysis of the focus groups</hd> <p>Analysis of the focus group data was a two-step process. Analysis first served to identify significant and recurring themes that emerged in the conversations (Corbin and Strauss [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref97">22</reflink>]). Secondly, Symbolic Convergence Theory (SCT) was used to examine the recurrent and convergent themes that emerged. Significant themes were those that (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref98">1</reflink>) evidenced emotional commitment and convergence in the participants or (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref99">2</reflink>) suggested the creation of new ideas and interpretations during the focus groups (Bormann, Cragan, and Shields [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref100">12</reflink>]; Duffy [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref101">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>In educational research, SCT has been an effective method for conducting profound examinations of data because it is a theory that helps researchers acknowledge everyone's realities and perspectives. SCT analysis is based on the idea that human beings are challenged by situations that they cannot control. They are dramatists who develop fantasies that result in rhetorical visions that justify their actions. These rhetorical visions allow teachers to interpret the actions of the people around them and justify their own behaviors (Bormann [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref102">13</reflink>]; Bormann, Cragan, and Shields [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref103">12</reflink>]). Human beings are thus actors who justify their philosophies in conversations as they create new realities. In this study, examination of shared ideas, and convergence across propositions and fantasies, served to reveal the teachers' thoughts, challenges, and fears. Establishing accuracy of the shared ideas was not the purpose for using SCT. The goal was to allow all ideas to rise to the surface in a safe environment in which the participants would not hesitate to share their honest sentiments. As such, the Guatemalan educators revealed obstacles that challenge them in their work and delimit their efforts to empower themselves and their students.</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-12">Findings and discussion</hd> <p>We examined patterns in the teachers' responses during the focus group conversations (Corbin and Strauss [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref104">22</reflink>]). As the data were gathered, recurrent themes were identified as they emerged and were then quantified. Recurrent comments revealed issues that affect schooling in Guatemala and pose barriers to planning culturally responsive instruction and implementing mandates from MINEDUC. Themes that recurred across and within a single focus group composed key data because their recurrence demonstrated high levels of concern in the participants (Bormann, Cragan, and Shields [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref105">12</reflink>]). The teachers' ideas converged to reveal their uncertainties and demonstrate their desire to support students. Some statements revealed teachers' desire to engage in advocacy and at the same time highlighted their doubts aboutwhat they might dare attempt. Comments that hinted at how teachers might become agents of change suggested that Guatemala's educational system has not focused on helping its educators see themselves in leadership roles. A young fifth-grade teacher shared a sentiment that was supported by his colleagues and generated excitement in his focus group. He may have revealed the root of the barriers that Guatemalan educators face.</p> <p>Our classrooms are crowded, and the lighting and ventilation can be bad. Most of our schools do not have libraries. This is the way it is. Students can still learn. It is up to me, but I don't know what to do.</p> <p>The other teachers in his group nodded their heads and applauded.</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-13">Discussion and analysis of focus group responses</hd> <p> <emph>Q1: What is your understanding of the multiculturalism present in Guatemala's student population?</emph> </p> <p>Data from the focus groups indicated participants' support for the diversity in their world, while at the same time many of the teachers admitted they did not know how to individualize instruction effectively within the goals of the Accords, the available resources, and the instructional mandates and expectations from MINEDUC. The teachers' words evidenced their fears related to voicing both their challenges as educators and their students' academic and affective needs (Bartolomé [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref106">5</reflink>]). The participants' attitudes gleaned from their responses reflected educators' uncertainties about the leeway that they have to interpret and adapt MINEDUC's curriculum, and suggest as teachers struggle to define their ideologies.</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-14">Indigenous clothing</hd> <p>At least one or two teachers in every focus group mentioned that after the Peace Accords were signed (United States Institute of Peace [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref107">69</reflink>]), students were allowed to wear their indigenous garb to school instead of the traditional uniforms. The topic came up in all seven focus groups with participants voicing the argument that this change was tokenism and had not validated the diversity in their schools. A sixth-grade teacher's statement summarized the teachers' overwhelming attitude: 'The girls can wear their indigenous skirts. What does this have to do with the curriculum? Just wearing a <emph>huipil</emph> is supposed to raise self-esteem!' This statement suggests the need to foster acceptance and respect for the diversity in Guatemala's schools (Giroux and Robbins [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref108">42</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-15">Use of instructional resources</hd> <p>Many factors affect what the teachers perceive they can do to adapt the school curriculum for their student populations. The majority of the teachers shared that they do not feel free to plan lessons that do not reflect MINEDUC's standards. They explained that the national curriculum limits their creativity as it does not assist them to validate the diversity in the nation. They perceive that resources provided to schools do not help learners engage in critical thinking (Gay [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref109">40</reflink>]). Teachers from all grade levels described the time spent in workshops delivered by MINEDUC as 'unproductive'. They labeled the PD provided by the government as 'a waste of time'. In reference to their ability to adapt resources for their context, the majority of the teachers admitted they did not have the confidence to tackle all students' academic and emotional needs using available materials. The teachers expressed the need for opportunities to engage in dialogue focused on ways to implement MINEDUC's mandates while addressing social injustices in their society (Freire [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref110">35</reflink>]; Vygotsky [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref111">71</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref112">72</reflink>]).</p> <p>Teachers in the focus groups who had attended workshops from the GLC had explored ways to adapt materials supplied by MINEDUC for their community. While frustrations were evident, these teachers demonstrated a desire to improve instruction using the limited available materials available. One kindergarten teacher said, 'I only have one story book. I read it to the class and some students understand, and some don't.' Following this comment, another teacher offered her solution to the problem: 'I do what I can. I copy the books, put students in groups, and in each of the groups I put one student who understands and reads to the others.<emph>'</emph> A third teacher commented, 'I buy books with my own money because I want to keep the students interested.' In this same group, a fourth teacher changed the topic of the conversation to address the socio-emotional environment in schools, and the effects of the home on what learners accomplish at school. Almost immediately, a secondary level educator added, 'We don't have psychologists to help us confront the problems that children face at home. We are not psychologists, yet we take on this role.' A seventh-grade male teacher followed with 'some of my girls experience great emotional hardships. They are abused or see their father abuse their mother. I want to help them cope but I can't change their home life.'</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-16">Student engagement</hd> <p>While participants shared challenges engaging students that extend beyond availability of resources and mandates from MINEDUC, they repeatedly mentioned both societal and resource issues. It seemed they could not separate challenges into distinct categories that they might address singularly. A fourth-grade teacher stated, 'I know that my students are out late at night selling handicrafts with their mothers. They are tired and come to school without breakfast.' A second-grade teacher added, 'You'd be amazed at how young they are when their mothers send them out to sell. Their cuteness helps them gain sympathy from the tourists and they make more money.' A fifth-grade teacher shared, 'I struggle to keep the students' interest. So often they chit chat with their classmates and there are so many that I cannot see them in my dark classroom, much less ensure their participation.' These comments elicited nods of agreement and statements such as 'the Ministry disempower us', 'Nothing ever changes', 'We need books about topics that will help the students cope with what happens in their homes and neighborhoods.' Engaging students is not easy in a society in which learners work to help their families cover needs for food and shelter. While the teachers expressed their understanding of familial problems, they struggle to incorporate learners' funds of knowledge (González, Moll, and Amanti [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref113">45</reflink>]) in a curriculum that dehumanizes (Bartolomé [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref114">5</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-17">Advocacy</hd> <p>In terms of advocacy actions, some of the teachers were willing to confront each other. They questioned colleagues' level of commitment. These participants had begun their own empowerment. Their comments showed that they were taking chances in their lesson planning and implementing ideologies of liberatory learning and humanizing pedagogy (Bartolomé [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref115">5</reflink>]; Freire [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref116">36</reflink>]; González, Moll, and Amanti [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref117">45</reflink>]; Vygotsky [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref118">72</reflink>]). A pre-K teacher reminded her group that they had attended revolutionary PD from the GLC. She told them, 'Hey, you have heard about the funds of knowledge. Many of you were at the same workshops that I've attended. You are being lazy if you don't plan lessons that the children can understand.' Another pre-K teacher said, 'If your kids are hungry, they need to eat. Maybe now that the government is giving us snacks, they can eat a little something extra at snack time.' A fifth-grade teacher added, 'If they come to school dirty, bring towels from home and fill the school water bucket. Kids don't want to feel dirty.'</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-18">Diversity</hd> <p>A first-grade teacher voiced a heartfelt comment: 'We need to change our attitudes about how to teach.' A high school teacher added, 'Our students will think and take a stand on issues of social justice if we listen to them.' A pre-K teacher voiced a theme that elicited overwhelming agreement: 'the diversity in our country poses barriers to children's schooling because we let it'. A colleague added, 'there is so much diversity in my second-grade class that I am unsure what the best way is to incorporate culture in the curriculum.' A third teacher in the same focus group added, 'We are a diverse society, yes, but we don't know too much about the differences between us. This is not a topic that was a part of our preparation to teach.' A fourth-grade teacher voiced a concerning thought when she said, 'I don't know that we respect the indigenous even when we ourselves are indigenous. We've been taught to assimilate. Notice how we are dressed just like you! [referring to the researcher]'. A sixth-grade teacher stood up and asked the members of his group a question. He said to them, 'Own up to who you are. We have made mistakes. You learned Spanish at school, and now you have forgotten the language of your grandparents!'</p> <p> <emph>Q2: How does students' cultural and linguistic diversity inform your work?</emph> </p> <p>Responses to this question differed between teachers from the schools in the Mélida community who had attended PD sessions from MINEDUC, compared with those who had worked with mentors from the GLC. It was apparent that the teachers from the Mélida community who had attended GLC workshops believe their work, and the curriculum, have to mirror their ideologies and support their self-reflection and professional growth. The Mélida teachers shared their belief in humanizing pedagogy that nurtures students' critical consciousness (Freire [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref119">34</reflink>]). They believe culturally responsive teaching allows power to be shared between teachers and students and offers a medium where all voices are heard (Bartolomé [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref120">5</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-19">PD from the Guatemalan Literacy Council</hd> <p>Comments evidenced how participation in workshops delivered by the GLC, within the six months prior to when this study was conducted, influenced the attitudes and ideologies of the participants. In the GLC workshops, teachers explored ways to help learners read critically. They experienced using books that the workshop leaders anticipated would help students voice their ideas and question the word and the world (Rosenblatt [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref121">64</reflink>]). In contrast, educators who had not attended GLC workshops were eager to voice frustrations with MINEDUC, and they shared concerns that presented their disempowerment.</p> <p>Five teachers who composed part of the faculty of Buenavista School (a pseudonym), a pre-K school which had been involved in a two-year study focused on critical literacy, presented an interesting subgroup in a focus group of 12 educators. Although some of the teachers were reserved in sharing their ideas, their visions of what teachers and students should do in classrooms were visible when they berated colleagues about what they needed to do to engage learners. While they voiced frustrations, they also shared details of the steps they had taken to change their school. Their main foci were the revised student-centered curriculum and the relationships they had built that informed and engaged parents in the work that was taking place at school. These teachers had embarked on a quest to empower students and families (Bartolomé [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref122">5</reflink>]). They were living in a moment when they realized their own professional growth had empowered their entire school community.</p> <p>Besides the teachers from Buenavista School, other participants voiced a positive vision of possibilities for improving the curriculum. Many had been invited by members of the GLC to visit schools where books authored by teachers with student populations similar to those in the Mélida community were used. The teachers shared details of their take-aways from the GLC workshops. A second-grade teacher stated, 'There is so much work to do to change my school. I hope I can do it.' A kindergarten teacher explained, 'I learned that my little ones think at very high levels.' Another teacher in the same focus group added, 'They can color first and then we need to hear what their drawings mean to them.' A first-grade teacher commented that when students from Buenavista School moved to her elementary school, she could see they had worked with teachers trained in GLC workshops. She shared, 'Those kids know so much! The problem is that they ask a lot of questions and have too many opinions. It is impossible to keep them quiet.' At that point in the focus group conversation, one of the Buenavista teachers said, 'Isn't that what we want? How else do we support students to become responsible citizens? All children need to know their rights.'</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-20">Linguistic diversity</hd> <p>The teachers' concerns related to validating students' rights to learn in classrooms with appropriate resources (Gay [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref123">40</reflink>]). The teachers did not express worries related to maintaining or promoting Guatemala's languages. A pre-K teacher who had recently moved to the Buenavista community from the area of the Guatemalan highlands shared her attitudes towards indigenous languages:</p> <p>Once you leave the area where I was born, you need Spanish. You don't have to speak our language. My students here don't know a single word in Kaqchiquel. When children move away from their origins, after a year or two they lose the home language. This is what happens. When they visit their grandparents, they can't communicate.</p> <p>A pre-K teacher from the same rural area commented, 'in rural schools the teachers have some beginning alphabet books in Kaqchiquel. The problem is that as the children go up the grades the books available are only in Spanish.' A secondary level teacher in another focus group addressed issues of both language and culture. She stated, 'Families move near the capital to make a living. People work so hard to meet basic needs that they don't have time to teach their children the languages of the past.' The reality is that, as the teachers voiced the importance of respecting Guatemala's indigenous languages, they also seemed to accept the denigration of the minority languages in their society (Hornberger [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref124">51</reflink>]; Murillo and Smith [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref125">58</reflink>]; Rodriguez [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref126">63</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-21">Equity and possibilities for the future</hd> <p>Indigenous learners and their teachers need to experience validation of their heritage (Taylor [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref127">68</reflink>]). A recurrent theme in responses was teachers' interest in helping students become critical readers (Gay [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref128">40</reflink>]). It seemed that a seed had been planted that a curricular focus on learners' funds of knowledge was needed, and would provide scaffolds to support students' abilities and give them a start to achieve their dreams (Giroux and Robbins [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref129">42</reflink>]; González, Moll, and Amanti [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref130">45</reflink>]; McIntosh [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref131">55</reflink>]). This interest was evident in comments across the focus groups that generated excitement and feelings of community among the participants. A first-grade teacher stated, 'In Guatemala we are not taught to ask questions at school.' A kindergarten teacher commented that 'even young learners will learn to appreciate the talent they see at home. We need to talk about the planning that goes into weaving a skirt or a <emph>huipil</emph>.' A second-grade teacher commented, 'As children, we learn to be quiet and to never consider different points of view. This is wrong. Our children do not need to be quiet. None of us needs to be afraid and submissive.' An often-heard complaint was evidenced in a statement from a third-grade teacher: 'We are given no tools to develop interesting lessons based on our heritage and struggles. We need to get in there and do it ourselves.' A high school teacher shared, 'Guatemalan society needs a vision of equity and it is my job to present this idea.'</p> <p>In discussing young learners' comprehension when they read independently, five first-grade and three second-grade teachers in two different focus groups shared that their students do not understand the material they are asked to read. A comment from one of the first-grade teachers elicited nods from others in her group: 'We are supposed to ask students ages six to eight to read independently and to comprehend print that is unsupported by images.' Another teacher followed up with 'It depends on us to stock our classroom library. This is why we might have just a small shelf of books.'</p> <p>Visions of possibilities for empowering teachers and students were evident in a fourth-grade teacher's sentence: 'Many of my colleagues ask their students to copy what they write on the board and that is the lesson of the day. Imagine that! This has to stop.' A fifth-grade teacher generated applause when he said, 'We have to do what is right. We have to teach students that they should not be afraid to share their ideas in our classrooms.' One secondary school teacher in his fifties discussed a positive change in the educational system:</p> <p>We have been slowly changing our schools. Very slowly. We are also changing behaviors in our homes. When I was in school and my teacher corrected me, she would hit me. Then I would go home, and my father would do the same thing. At least we don't hit children at school anymore.</p> <p>His comment offered proof that, along with the teachers' continued need to voice their frustrations in the schoolhouse, they are seeing some improvements. The task is to find ways to expedite change.</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-22">Limitations of this study</hd> <p>Findings from this research and discussions related to MINEDUC's mandates and to the reflections of the 76 participating teachers are limited in generalizability because the data gathered represent only the Mélida community.</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-23">Conclusions</hd> <p>The data gathered highlighted participating teachers' uncertainties about how to help students achieve academically while adhering to MINEDUC's mandates in ways that address social injustices (Freire [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref132">36</reflink>]). While the teachers understand their context, they struggle to adjust lessons to incorporate their own realities (Orozco and Valdivia [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref133">60</reflink>]) and learners' funds of knowledge (González, Moll, and Amanti [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref134">45</reflink>]) and languages (Ruiz [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref135">65</reflink>]). Conversations about appropriate methods for teaching Guatemala's diverse students have not answered the questions the country's educators have (Bastos [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref136">9</reflink>]) about how to teach through culturally responsive pedagogy that places the value of learners' cultural and linguistic diversity at the center of the curriculum (Franquíz, Ortiz, and Lara [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref137">33</reflink>]; Giroux [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref138">43</reflink>]).</p> <p>Many of the teachers vehemently voiced the opinion that the national curriculum and available resources do not lend themselves to supporting culturally responsive models of instruction (Gay [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref139">40</reflink>]). As they shared their ideas and perceived limitations, their words suggested that in Guatemala, innovations are made one teacher and one classroom at a time. This is why teachers will only be empowered when PD offers a setting for honest dialogue, reflection, and collaborative goal setting (Giroux [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref140">43</reflink>]). In the future, ideologies of liberatory learning will spread across Guatemala's schools once the country's leaders nurture optimism in the teachers and admit that the politics of the dominant culture, which have disempowered teachers, students, and families, can change (Freire [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref141">34</reflink>]; Giroux and Robbins [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref142">42</reflink>]). Teachers want the freedom to acknowledge the value of the multiethnic, multicultural, and multilingual nature of Guatemalans in the school curriculum (Fránquiz, Ortiz, and Lara [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref143">33</reflink>]). They know that students need to learn in schools that offer them windows and doors that mirror their realities and identities in the curriculum (Bishop [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref144">11</reflink>]; González, Moll, and Amanti [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref145">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>The teachers' disempowerment was evident in their need to place responsibility for educational woes on MINEDUC while at the same time they explored how they could modify the curriculum. PD models presented in workshops by the GLC have encouraged teachers to support humanizing pedagogy and foster the development of critical readers (Bartolomé [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref146">5</reflink>]; Freire [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref147">34</reflink>]). More Guatemalan teachers need to explore the influence of their ideologies and levels of empowerment on their role as instructional leaders who strive to model democratic ideologies and practice critical pedagogy (Giroux [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref148">43</reflink>]). Teachers seem to be fighting the ideology of Mayanization policies that require that they wait for permission before taking action (Bastos [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref149">9</reflink>]; Goodman and Allen [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref150">47</reflink>]; Murillo and Smith [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref151">58</reflink>]; Rodriguez [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref152">63</reflink>]). Such policies prevent teachers from believing that they can advocate for themselves and lead their students to conscientization (Freire [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref153">34</reflink>]). A necessary future goal will be for MINEDUC to share the message that Guatemalan teachers cannot afford to use situational contexts that affect learning – such as institutional, constitutional, and experiential influences – as reasons for not holding high expectations for students' academic success and for their own leadership abilities. It is key for Guatemala's teachers to hear that their ideas matter and that they are at the helm of schools when they interpret the national curriculum for their community's context (Freire [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref154">35</reflink>]; Giroux and Robbins [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref155">42</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0155733320-24">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0155733320-25"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref56" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Adichie, C. N. 2009. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Exploring the Ideologies of 76 Teachers from One Guatemalan Community
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Daniel%2C+Mayra+C%2E%22">Daniel, Mayra C.</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2702-0071">0000-0003-2702-0071</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Burgin%2C+Ximena%22">Burgin, Ximena</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3494-569X">0000-0002-3494-569X</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Teacher+Development%22"><i>Teacher Development</i></searchLink>. 2022 26(1):1-16.
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  Label: Availability
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 16
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ideology%22">Ideology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Diversity%22">Diversity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Culturally+Relevant+Education%22">Culturally Relevant Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Teachers%22">Elementary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+School+Teachers%22">Secondary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cultural+Pluralism%22">Cultural Pluralism</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Indigenous+Populations%22">Indigenous Populations</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learner+Engagement%22">Learner Engagement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cultural+Background%22">Cultural Background</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Equal+Education%22">Equal Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Guatemala%22">Guatemala</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/13664530.2021.1991996
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1366-4530
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study explored 76 Guatemalan teachers' ideologies related to students' diversity, and how these influenced their work. Educators representing 79.1% of teachers from a community of 135,000 were gathered in seven focus groups ranging in size from nine to twelve participants. Recurrent themes documented teachers' espoused attitudes toward diverse students, and their perceptions of their ability to advocate for learners. Findings suggest that while Guatemalan educators are committed to helping students achieve academically, they struggle to determine what they can do to take on leadership roles and advocate for their students.
– Name: AbstractInfo
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  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1335564
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/13664530.2021.1991996
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 16
        StartPage: 1
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Ideology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Diversity
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      – SubjectFull: Academic Achievement
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      – SubjectFull: Culturally Relevant Education
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      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Secondary School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cultural Pluralism
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Indigenous Populations
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      – SubjectFull: Learner Engagement
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      – SubjectFull: Cultural Background
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Equal Education
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      – SubjectFull: Guatemala
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      – TitleFull: Exploring the Ideologies of 76 Teachers from One Guatemalan Community
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