View in EDS HTML Full Text PDF Full Text

A Survey of the Experiences of Paraprofessionals with Roles, Training, and Communication When Working with Students with Autism

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Title: A Survey of the Experiences of Paraprofessionals with Roles, Training, and Communication When Working with Students with Autism
Language: English
Authors: Morin, Kristi L., Nowell, Sallie, Steinbrenner, Jessica, Sam, Ann, Waters, Victoria (ORCID 0000-0002-0137-1562), Odom, Samuel L.
Source: Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. Jun 2022 37(2):96-107.
Availability: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2022
Sponsoring Agency: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) (ED/OSERS)
Contract Number: R324A170028
R324B160038
H325E170001
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Autism, Pervasive Developmental Disorders, Students with Disabilities, Paraprofessional School Personnel, Public Schools, Role, Responsibility, Knowledge Level, Barriers, Professional Development, Interpersonal Communication
Geographic Terms: United States, Guam
DOI: 10.1177/10883576211066897
ISSN: 1088-3576
1538-4829
Abstract: Paraprofessionals are critical members of instructional teams for students with autism; however, little is known about their job preparation and professional development needs. This study addressed the gap in the literature by surveying 325 paraprofessionals in public school settings in the United States and Guam who reported working with students with autism. Data were gathered on paraprofessionals' (a) roles and responsibilities, (b) applied knowledge from different types of professional development, (c) perceived barriers to professional development, and (d) types and timing of communication with their supervising teachers. The results of this study have direct implications for individuals interested in developing a model of professional development that will meet the unique needs of paraprofessionals who work with students with autism.
Abstractor: As Provided
IES Funded: Yes
Entry Date: 2022
Accession Number: EJ1339976
Database: ERIC
Full text is not displayed to guests.
FullText Links:
  – Type: pdflink
    Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwHKW29h8gJZBJAqYEkewg2HAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDODIu2WAt_mi7btH0wIBEICBm5wv2OvKr7Rbq0Sq4nihDL42xRBb0hnusVDzmBcmruQNsknz6QFq3hEe_4J6PPmXsY9rcXHkGhByk3d-L8_Wn0mVDvmzQX94unQgPpInKTvoUnkdWr9DTggQrehnr6T3wjgZj4St45SigptkNZxudeccFiiirscqTWc9pSbINdn97cDcLInhKjXMSwH5tTCwo8OGtGLRY4nG9I1A
Text:
  Availability: 1
  Value: <anid>AN0156993836;fdd01jun.22;2022May24.02:29;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0156993836-1">A Survey of the Experiences of Paraprofessionals With Roles, Training, and Communication When Working With Students With Autism </title> <p>Paraprofessionals are critical members of instructional teams for students with autism; however, little is known about their job preparation and professional development needs. This study addressed the gap in the literature by surveying 325 paraprofessionals in public school settings in the United States and Guam who reported working with students with autism. Data were gathered on paraprofessionals' (a) roles and responsibilities, (b) applied knowledge from different types of professional development, (c) perceived barriers to professional development, and (d) types and timing of communication with their supervising teachers. The results of this study have direct implications for individuals interested in developing a model of professional development that will meet the unique needs of paraprofessionals who work with students with autism.</p> <p>Keywords: paraprofessional; special education; autism spectrum disorder; professional development; survey</p> <p>Paraprofessionals play a vital role in the instruction of students with disabilities, with more special education paraprofessionals employed in preschool through high school settings than special education teachers ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref1">29</reflink>]). Paraprofessionals, also termed <emph>paraeducators</emph> or <emph>teaching assistants</emph>, are defined as employees who provide instructional support, assist with classroom management, participate in parental involvement activities, and instruct students under the supervision of a teacher (U.S. Department of Education, 2019, p. 37). Given the importance of paraprofessionals in the education of students with disabilities, adequate preparation and training are critical for students to achieve the best outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref2">5</reflink>]). Although the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref3">17</reflink>]) mandates that paraprofessionals be appropriately trained and supervised, the requirements for appropriate training vary by state and are often unclear ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref4">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>The <emph>41st Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the IDEA</emph> ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref5">29</reflink>]) illustrates the lack of consensus on appropriate training for paraprofessionals, with the term "qualified" including both paraprofessionals meeting their states' standards for qualification and <emph>all</emph> paraprofessionals in states where there were no state certification or licensure requirement for employment at the time of the report. A small number of states have taken steps to ensure their paraprofessionals are adequately prepared for their roles (e.g., Colorado, Virginia); however, there are lingering concerns over the preparation that paraprofessionals receive. For example, a large-scale, multi-site research study conducted in 26 schools across six states found that a common concern among teachers, parents, and administrators was paraprofessionals' lack of training to work with students with disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref6">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>The lack of agreement across state policies regarding how paraprofessionals should be prepared and what ongoing training is required is concerning given that special education paraprofessionals now outnumber certified special education teachers (435,817 vs. 341,695; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref7">29</reflink>]; most recent data available). Research indicates that paraprofessionals often provide a significant amount of instruction to students with disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref8">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref9">18</reflink>]), many times without the oversight of special education teachers ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref10">12</reflink>]). Having paraprofessionals deliver instruction to students without adequate training is problematic and has led to paraprofessionals sometimes giving incorrect feedback, spending a large proportion of time on low-level skills, failing to keep students engaged, and implementing curricula with a low level of fidelity ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref11">18</reflink>]). Large caseloads of students, insufficient preparation of special education teachers themselves, and a lack of training for teachers on how to adequately supervise paraprofessionals can lead to paraprofessionals performing roles and responsibilities that are outside of their scope of duties and not aligned with [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref12">17</reflink>].</p> <p>When paraprofessionals work with students with autism, these issues are often compounded. Working effectively with students with autism requires knowledge of evidence-based practices specific to this population ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref13">16</reflink>]); knowledge that most paraprofessionals do not possess ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref14">24</reflink>]). In addition, students with autism often exhibit high levels of challenging behavior ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref15">6</reflink>]), making it difficult for some educators to effectively meet their instructional needs ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref16">31</reflink>]). Given that the most recent prevalence rate for autism in children is 1 in 54 ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref17">20</reflink>]) and data suggest that more than 50 million children and youth attend public schools ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref18">21</reflink>]), it is highly likely that many paraprofessionals are working directly with these students, making it even more important for paraprofessionals to receive effective professional development (PD) related to working with this population.</p> <p>Given the widespread lack of preparation and the complexities of working with students with autism, PD is needed for paraprofessionals serving students with autism to be more successful in their roles. Fortunately, research has demonstrated that (a) paraprofessionals are able to improve their knowledge and skills when they receive PD (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref19">19</reflink>]) and (b) this improvement has a subsequent positive impact on student outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref20">5</reflink>]). However, most of the research to date on training for paraprofessionals involves PD that is delivered by researchers ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref21">30</reflink>]). This model of PD is neither sustainable nor scalable. Instead, PD should be ongoing, delivered in authentic settings, and implemented by classroom teachers ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref22">30</reflink>]). When designing such a model of PD, it is important to know the current state of practice for paraprofessionals related to roles and responsibilities, current PD opportunities, barriers to PD, and availability for PD.</p> <p>First, when designing PD, it is important to know what responsibilities paraprofessionals currently have to teach content that is relevant to their role. Although a small number of studies provide information on the roles and responsibilities of paraprofessionals, research on this topic is limited and questions still remain. For example, three studies conducted surveys of paraprofessionals or other school personnel to determine what roles and responsibilities paraprofessionals have in the classroom ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref23">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref24">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref25">18</reflink>]). The results of these studies are consistent in the types of roles in which paraprofessionals engage (e.g., instructional support, managing behavior, supervising students, etc.). There are, however, discrepancies across studies in the percentage of time that paraprofessionals are reported to engage in these activities. Because the samples in the prior studies were drawn either from a single district or state, it is still unknown how frequently paraprofessionals across the United States engage in different roles and responsibilities.</p> <p>It is also important to consider which types of PD result in applied knowledge for paraprofessionals. There are many different approaches to engaging in PD in education, including workshops, conferences, degree programs, peer observation, professional networks, research, coaching, online learning modules, and professional literature ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref26">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref27">27</reflink>]). Research on PD aligned with adult learning principles suggests that learner-centered models of PD that are sustained over longer periods of time include practice opportunities in authentic contexts, and incorporating peer coaching is most effective for effecting change ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref28">22</reflink>]). Similarly, the use of video analysis, or the viewing of one's own video for the purpose of improvement, also has demonstrated efficacy for improving a variety of instructional and behavioral skills ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref29">23</reflink>]); however, most of the research on effective PD focuses on improvement of teachers' skills (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref30">22</reflink>]), and less is known about which approaches result in paraprofessionals applying knowledge about effective instructional techniques with their students with disabilities. Furthermore, although there is support for sustained models of PD ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref31">3</reflink>]), these models are often not implemented with paraprofessionals ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref32">28</reflink>]). As such, additional information on the specific approaches that paraprofessionals find useful would help when designing a model of PD that is relevant to this population.</p> <p>Knowing the barriers that prevent paraprofessionals from engaging in training is also essential to PD developers. Having information on whether paraprofessionals perceive a lack of prerequisites, funding, employer support, time, resources, availability of training, and interest as reasons for not engaging in training will help PD providers design a model of PD that is feasible and likely to be used by paraprofessionals. Although there has been some speculation about possible barriers ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref33">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref34">7</reflink>]), no study to date has directly investigated the barriers to PD as reported by paraprofessionals. Failing to consider and plan for these barriers prior to delivering PD is likely to lead to low participation ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref35">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref36">7</reflink>]).</p> <p>Finally, information on timing or when teachers and paraprofessionals communicate is important to determine the most feasible time to deliver the PD. Although prior research has established that communication between teachers and paraprofessionals is crucial for effective practice ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref37">9</reflink>]), information on when that communication occurs has not been previously explored. Knowing when communication occurs (e.g., during school, before or after school, on workdays) is valuable for developers of PD. With this information, developers can plan the model around times that are already established as preferred, particularly when designing a model of PD that involves the teacher as the facilitator ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref38">30</reflink>]).</p> <p>The purpose of this study was to gather information that could serve as the foundation for the development of a PD program aligned with adult learning principles for paraprofessionals working with students with autism. Specific research questions addressed as follows:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> Research Question 1 (RQ1): </bold> What are the roles and responsibilities of paraprofessionals working with students with autism in school settings?</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Research Question 2 (RQ2): </bold> What types of PD result in applied knowledge for paraprofessionals who work with students with autism?</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Research Question 3 (RQ3): </bold> What are the barriers to PD?</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Research Question 4 (RQ4): </bold> When do paraprofessionals and teachers of students with autism communicate?</item> </ulist> <p>Secondary research questions explored whether paraprofessionals' responses to these questions differed by setting (i.e., general education or special education) or grade level (i.e., preschool/elementary or middle/secondary).</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-2">Method</hd> <p>The research team designed a survey to answer the research questions and gather contextual information to inform the development of a feasible and accessible PD model for paraprofessionals serving students with autism. The survey questions were developed based on professional experience and a review of paraprofessional literature. Three questions (Q5, Q8, and Q9) were adapted from a previous survey, the Teacher and Learning International Survey (TALIS; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref39">25</reflink>]); other questions were created to gather specific data related to online learning or information unique to the paraprofessional role. The questions were reviewed by multiple team members with experience working with paraprofessionals, special education teachers, and students with autism in public school settings to ensure the content validity of the questions. In addition, the research team conducted an internal consistency analysis on the survey items (Items 5–9, see survey questions in online supplemental appendix S1) to ensure the reliability of the measure. Cronbach alphas ranged from.64 to.97 (mean α =.84).</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-3">Survey Content</hd> <p>The survey, administered through Qualtrics ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref40">26</reflink>]), consisted of 24 questions organized into four sections (see online supplemental appendix S1). The first section consisted of four survey eligibility questions related to whether the respondent was currently working as a paraprofessional, teacher's assistant/aide, or an instructional assistant (Q1), whether the respondent was currently working with learners with autism (Q2), the age range of learners with autism with which the respondent was working (Q3), and the setting in which the respondent was working (Q4).</p> <p>The second section consisted of questions about the frequency with which respondents engaged in various roles and responsibilities within the classroom (e.g., grading work, providing academic instruction, data collection; Q5), the amount of time respondents spend in various settings (Q6), and the frequency and mode of communication between the paraprofessional and supervising teacher (Q7). The third section included questions related to the types of PD opportunities that respondents engaged in (Q8), the barriers to PD (Q9), and respondents' demographics (Qs10–16). When feasible, text-based responses for the "other" categories were recoded. For example, when asked what setting they worked in, multiple respondents chose "other" and then typed some form of "both general education and special education." As such, the research team created a new category based on these responses (i.e., "both"). The fourth section consisted of an additional eight questions that were related to specific features of a larger PD study and did not inform the research questions; thus, they are not reported in the "Results" section. One sub-question was also specific to the PD study and excluded from analyses (see online supplemental appendix S1, Question 8; application of information from online learning modules); however, the descriptive results are reported in the participant section to provide information about the respondents.</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-4">Participants</hd> <p>Potential participants were individuals who had registered as users of the Autism Focused Intervention Resources & Modules ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref41">1</reflink>]) and elected for AFIRM staff to contact them in the future. The research team sent surveys to 1,988 individuals with unique, valid email addresses who identified in their AFIRM user profile as working (a) as paraprofessionals, teacher's assistants/aides, or instructional assistants, (b) in public school settings, (c) in the United States or U.S. Territories, and (d) with students with autism. Surveys were not included if they had missing data about the background questions. Recipients received up to three email reminders over a 12-day period resulting in 572 respondents (29%). After applying our inclusion criteria (see the following), the final data set consisted of 325 respondents (16% of the survey recipients).</p> <p>Of the respondents, 92% (<emph>n =</emph> 299) were female, 6% (<emph>n =</emph> 21) were male, and 2% (<emph>n =</emph> 5) preferred not to disclose their gender. Regarding race and ethnicity, 62% (<emph>n =</emph> 199) of respondents were White/Caucasian, 15% (<emph>n =</emph> 48) were Hispanic/Latin American, 7% (<emph>n =</emph> 21) were Black/African American, 3% (<emph>n =</emph> 9) were Asian, 2% (<emph>n =</emph> 5) were American Indian/Alaskan Native, and 1% (<emph>n =</emph> 3) were Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. A total of 8% (<emph>n =</emph> 27) preferred not to disclose their race/ethnicity and 3% (<emph>n =</emph> 11) selected "Other" for race/ethnicity. Respondents reported the following levels of education: 19% (<emph>n =</emph> 60) had a high-school diploma or General Education Development (GED); 45% (<emph>n =</emph> 144) had an associate's degree, technical training, or partial college; 31% (<emph>n =</emph> 99) had a bachelor's degree; and 6% (<emph>n =</emph> 19) had a master's, doctorate, or other professional degree. Regarding number of years working as a paraprofessional, 15% (<emph>n =</emph> 50) had 0 to 2 years of experience, 26% (<emph>n =</emph> 84) had 3 to 5 years of experience, 21% (<emph>n =</emph> 68) had 6 to 10 years of experience, and 37% (<emph>n =</emph> 121) had 11 or more years of experience. Most respondents reported working with students with autism in a special education classroom (59%; <emph>n =</emph> 193), but they also worked in general education classrooms (34%; <emph>n =</emph> 109), or a combination of the two (7%; <emph>n =</emph> 23). Respondents worked with students with autism from a variety of age categories: 15% (<emph>n =</emph> 48) worked in preschool (ages 3–5 years); 45% (<emph>n =</emph> 145) worked in elementary (ages 6–11 years); 17% (<emph>n =</emph> 56) worked in middle school (ages 12–14 years); and 23% (<emph>n =</emph> 76) worked in high school (ages 15–22 years). Regarding urbanicity, respondents worked in suburban areas (45%; <emph>n =</emph> 145), rural areas (30%; <emph>n =</emph> 95), and urban areas (25%; <emph>n =</emph> 80). Respondents reported working in the following U.S. Territories and U.S. Census Bureau Regions: 45% (<emph>n =</emph> 145) worked in the West, 20% (<emph>n =</emph> 66) in the Midwest, 20% (<emph>n =</emph> 64) in the South, 15% (<emph>n =</emph> 48) in the Northeast, and <1% (<emph>n =</emph> 2) in Guam. Finally, 88% of respondents (<emph>n =</emph> 204) reported applying knowledge from online learning modules in their role as a paraprofessional.</p> <p>No significant difference was found between responders and non-responders to the survey by U.S. region, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref42">4</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 1,<reflink idref="bib854" id="ref43">854</reflink>) = 8.70, <emph>p</emph> >.07, or age range taught, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref44">4</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 1,<reflink idref="bib854" id="ref45">854</reflink>) = 5.31, <emph>p</emph> >.26; therefore, we were confident that our results represented the larger recipient pool, despite the modest response rate.</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-5">Data Analysis</hd> <p>We conducted descriptive analyses on paraprofessionals' responses to each survey question. Responses to yes/no questions are reported using frequency counts and percentages of total responses, and responses to multiple-choice questions are reported using frequency counts, percentages of total response, means, and standard deviations. We used <emph>t</emph> tests for multiple-choice items and chi-square tests for yes/no answer choices to determine whether there were differences in paraprofessionals' survey responses by grade level and setting. The team made a priori decisions to create two categorical variables for both grade level and setting data for these analyses. We combined responses for respondents who indicated they worked in a preschool or elementary setting and for those who indicated they worked in a middle or high school setting based on similarities in structure for preschool/elementary classrooms (e.g., single teacher, core class of peers) and middle/high school classrooms (e.g., multiple teachers, rotating classes). In addition, we combined responses for respondents who indicated they worked in a self-contained or separate setting with respondents who indicated they worked in a resource or cross-categorical setting to create a new variable (i.e., special education), which we compared to respondents who indicated they worked in general education. For the setting variable, the decision to combine resource and cross-categorical settings was based on the types of students in the settings (e.g., all students with individualized education programs [IEPs] versus inclusive) and the roles and responsibilities of the paraprofessionals working in those settings. For example, paraprofessionals in resource/cross-categorical settings are generally in the same room as their supervising teacher; whereas, in general education classrooms paraprofessionals are more likely to be working with general education teachers rather than their supervising teacher. Any missing data were excluded from the analyses, and the Bonferroni–Holm correction was used to address the increased potential for Type 1 errors from multiple statistical comparisons ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref46">15</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-6">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0156993836-7">Roles and Responsibilities</hd> <p>Respondents first indicated the frequency in which they engaged in various tasks (i.e., never, 1 time per week, 2 times per week, 3 times per week, 4 times per week, or every day). See online supplemental appendix S3 for a list of the tasks and the number of respondents reporting participation in these tasks. During a typical work week and on a daily basis, most paraprofessionals indicated that they provided the following to students with autism: (a) support or supervision related to behavior (89%), (b) support in instructional settings (80%), (c) supervision for non-instructional times (80%), (d) academic instruction (74%), and (e) self-help instruction (68%). In addition, most paraprofessionals indicated that they communicated with their supervising teacher (89%) and collected data (64%) on a daily basis. There was more variability in the amount of time spent on tasks such as planning and preparing lessons (i.e., 33% reported never planning/preparing lessons, 27% reported doing it on a daily basis), grading student work (53% never, 24% daily), performing administrative tasks (22% never, 44% daily), and communicating with students' family members (45% never, 29% daily). Finally, some of the paraprofessionals surveyed indicated that they had "other" duties, such as collaborating with other members of students' support teams, participating in staff meetings, and working on social skills with students. See online supplemental appendix S2 for a full list of their responses.</p> <p>When examining differences by setting and grade, paraprofessionals working in special education settings reported spending significantly more time planning and preparing for student lessons, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib300" id="ref47">300</reflink>) = 3.19, <emph>p</emph> = <.01, <emph>d</emph> = 0.39, and providing self-help instruction, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib298" id="ref48">298</reflink>) = 6.19, <emph>p</emph> = <.01, <emph>d</emph> = 0.72, than paraprofessionals working in general education (see Table 1). In addition, paraprofessionals working with younger students (i.e., preschool or elementary school) provided significantly more self-help instruction to students with autism, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib321" id="ref49">321</reflink>) = −3.88, <emph>p</emph> = <.01, <emph>d</emph> =.43, compared to paraprofessionals working with older students (i.e., middle or high school). Finally, paraprofessionals working with younger students reported significantly more time spent on data collection, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib320" id="ref50">320</reflink>) = −2.88, <emph>p</emph> = <.01, <emph>d</emph> = 0.32, and communicating with students' family members, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib320" id="ref51">320</reflink>) = −2.58, <emph>p</emph> = <.01, <emph>d</emph> = 0.30, than did paraprofessionals working with older students.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 1. Results of Unpaired t Tests for Differences Between Grade Levels and Settings for Roles and Responsibilities.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2">Survey questions and response options<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn2">a</xref></th><th align="center" colspan="2">PreK–elementary</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Middle–high school</th><th align="center" colspan="3">Grade-level differences</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Special education</th><th align="center" colspan="2">General education</th><th align="center" colspan="3">Settings differences</th></tr><tr><th align="center"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>SD</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>SD</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>df</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>t</italic> test</th><th align="center"><italic>d</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>SD</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>SD</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>df</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>t</italic> test</th><th align="center"><italic>d</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="15">In a typical work week, how often do you participate in the following tasks in your role as a paraprofessional?<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn2">b</xref></td></tr><tr><td> Planning/preparation of lessons</td><td>2.17</td><td>2.05</td><td>1.78</td><td>1.99</td><td>322</td><td>−1.69</td><td>.19</td><td>2.30</td><td>2.08</td><td>1.53</td><td>1.89</td><td>300</td><td>3.19<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">**</xref></td><td>.39</td></tr><tr><td> Grading work</td><td>1.68</td><td>2.14</td><td>1.60</td><td>2.04</td><td>321</td><td>−0.34</td><td>.04</td><td>2.84</td><td>2.15</td><td>1.37</td><td>2.00</td><td>298</td><td>1.88</td><td>.11</td></tr><tr><td> Academic instruction</td><td>4.15</td><td>1.67</td><td>4.00</td><td>1.79</td><td>317</td><td>−0.75</td><td>.08</td><td>2.23</td><td>1.56</td><td>3.83</td><td>1.96</td><td>295</td><td>1.80</td><td>.22</td></tr><tr><td> Self-help instruction</td><td>4.05</td><td>1.80</td><td>3.18</td><td>2.24</td><td>321</td><td>−3.88<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">**</xref></td><td>.43</td><td>4.16</td><td>1.73</td><td>2.70</td><td>2.30</td><td>298</td><td>6.19<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">**</xref></td><td>.72</td></tr><tr><td> Support in instructional settings</td><td>4.27</td><td>1.55</td><td>4.42</td><td>1.42</td><td>323</td><td>0.88</td><td>.10</td><td>4.21</td><td>1.58</td><td>4.51</td><td>1.35</td><td>298</td><td>−1.70</td><td>.21</td></tr><tr><td> Support/supervision related to behavior</td><td>4.73</td><td>.99</td><td>4.66</td><td>1.00</td><td>320</td><td>−.059</td><td>.07</td><td>4.67</td><td>1.05</td><td>4.69</td><td>.98</td><td>297</td><td>−0.20</td><td>.02</td></tr><tr><td> Administrative tasks</td><td>3.14</td><td>2.07</td><td>2.55</td><td>2.14</td><td>322</td><td>−2.44</td><td>.28</td><td>3.06</td><td>2.04</td><td>2.65</td><td>2.21</td><td>298</td><td>1.63</td><td>.19</td></tr><tr><td> Supervision for non-instructional times</td><td>4.38</td><td>1.50</td><td>2.78</td><td>.16</td><td>320</td><td>−1.42</td><td>.16</td><td>4.41</td><td>1.46</td><td>3.96</td><td>1.91</td><td>297</td><td>2.27</td><td>.27</td></tr><tr><td> Data collection</td><td>4.01</td><td>1.72</td><td>3.40</td><td>2.01</td><td>320</td><td>−2.88<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">**</xref></td><td>.32</td><td>3.93</td><td>1.77</td><td>3.55</td><td>2.00</td><td>295</td><td>1.72</td><td>.20</td></tr><tr><td> Communications w/ family members</td><td>2.14</td><td>2.22</td><td>1.51</td><td>2.01</td><td>320</td><td>−2.58<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">**</xref></td><td>.30</td><td>1.95</td><td>2.13</td><td>1.85</td><td>2.20</td><td>297</td><td>.37</td><td>.04</td></tr><tr><td> Communications w/ supervising teacher</td><td>4.73</td><td>.88</td><td>4.76</td><td>.81</td><td>322</td><td>0.34</td><td>.04</td><td>4.76</td><td>.86</td><td>4.72</td><td>.83</td><td>297</td><td>.35</td><td>.05</td></tr><tr><td colspan="15">On a typical workday, how often do you instruct students in the following settings?<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn2">c</xref></td></tr><tr><td> Individual student</td><td>2.49</td><td>1.21</td><td>2.66</td><td>1.24</td><td>318</td><td>1.20</td><td>.14</td><td>2.64</td><td>1.21</td><td>2.45</td><td>1.28</td><td>295</td><td>1.24</td><td>.15</td></tr><tr><td> Small group</td><td>2.05</td><td>1.17</td><td>2.38</td><td>1.17</td><td>316</td><td>2.44<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>.28</td><td>2.28</td><td>1.17</td><td>1.99</td><td>1.17</td><td>294</td><td>2.05<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">*</xref></td><td>.25</td></tr><tr><td> Large group</td><td>1.28</td><td>1.29</td><td>1.57</td><td>1.41</td><td>311</td><td>1.83</td><td>.21</td><td>1.42</td><td>1.37</td><td>1.41</td><td>1.30</td><td>289</td><td>.09</td><td>.01</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note. d</emph> = Cohen's <emph>d</emph>.</p> <ulist> <item>2 Response options are abbreviated for space considerations; for exact wording of the question and response options, please see supplementary appendix S1. <sups>b</sups>0 = never, 1 = 1 time per week, 2 = 2 times per week, 3 = 3 times per week, 4 = 4 times per week, 5 = daily. <sups>c</sups>0 = never, 1 = less than 1 hr, 2 = 1 to 2 hr, 3 = 3 to 4 hr, 4 = more than 5 hr.</item> <item>3 Significant at the.05 level. **Significant at the.01 level.</item> </ulist> <p>Paraprofessionals also indicated how many hours per day (i.e., never, <1 hr, 1–2 hr, 3–4 hr, or 5+ hr) they spent working in the following settings: (a) individual students, (b) small groups of students, and (c) large groups of students. Most paraprofessionals spent at least some time working with individual students (96%; <emph>n =</emph> 308) or small groups (92%; <emph>n =</emph> 293), although a large percentage also reported working with large groups (66%; <emph>n =</emph> 208). The amount of small-group instruction was significantly higher for paraprofessionals providing instruction in special education than those in general education settings, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib294" id="ref52">294</reflink>) = 2.05, <emph>p</emph> = <.05, <emph>d</emph> = 0.25, and in middle and high school as compared to preschool or elementary settings, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib316" id="ref53">316</reflink>) = 2.44, <emph>p</emph> = <.05, <emph>d</emph> = 0.28.</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-8">Applied Knowledge From PD</hd> <p>To gain a better understanding of the types of PD opportunities paraprofessionals engage in, paraprofessionals indicated if they applied knowledge from a variety of formats of PD (see Table 2). The majority of paraprofessionals surveyed indicated they applied knowledge from PD received during (a) courses and workshops (89%), (b) independently reading professional literature (74%), (c) education conferences (68%), and (d) mentorship, coaching, and/or observation from peers (58%). Less frequently, paraprofessionals reported that they engaged in individual or collaborative research on a topic of interest, applied knowledge from a degree program, participated in a professional network, and observed at other schools.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 2. Descriptive and Statistical Analyses for the Types of Professional Development That Paraprofessionals Engage in and the Perceived Barriers to Engaging in Professional Development.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2">Survey questions & response options<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">a</xref></th><th align="center" colspan="2">Overall</th><th align="center" colspan="2">PreK–elementary</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Middle–high</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Grade differences</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Special education</th><th align="center" colspan="2">General education</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Setting differences</th></tr><tr><th align="center">%</th><th align="center"><italic>N</italic></th><th align="center">%</th><th align="center"><italic>n</italic></th><th align="center">%</th><th align="center"><italic>n</italic></th><th align="center">χ<sup>2</sup></th><th align="center"><italic>d</italic></th><th align="center">%</th><th align="center"><italic>n</italic></th><th align="center">%</th><th align="center"><italic>n</italic></th><th align="center">χ<sup>2</sup></th><th align="center"><italic>d</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="15">Types of Professional Development Paraprofessionals Engage In</td></tr><tr><td> Courses/workshops</td><td>89</td><td>217</td><td>89</td><td>130</td><td>88</td><td>87</td><td>.08</td><td>.04</td><td>90</td><td>125</td><td>88</td><td>79</td><td>.12</td><td>.06</td></tr><tr><td> Education conferences</td><td>68</td><td>166</td><td>69</td><td>99</td><td>67</td><td>67</td><td>.14</td><td>.05</td><td>66</td><td>93</td><td>70</td><td>62</td><td>.41</td><td>.08</td></tr><tr><td> Degree program</td><td>32</td><td>81</td><td>34</td><td>50</td><td>30</td><td>31</td><td>.19</td><td>.06</td><td>34</td><td>51</td><td>34</td><td>29</td><td>.00</td><td>.00</td></tr><tr><td> Observation visits to other schools</td><td>20</td><td>52</td><td>23</td><td>35</td><td>16</td><td>17</td><td>1.87</td><td>.17</td><td>18</td><td>27</td><td>25</td><td>22</td><td>1.55</td><td>.16</td></tr><tr><td> Participation in a network</td><td>26</td><td>63</td><td>26</td><td>37</td><td>25</td><td>26</td><td>.01</td><td>.01</td><td>26</td><td>38</td><td>26</td><td>23</td><td>.01</td><td>.01</td></tr><tr><td> Individual or collaborative research</td><td>48</td><td>118</td><td>51</td><td>73</td><td>45</td><td>45</td><td>.86</td><td>.12</td><td>44</td><td>64</td><td>57</td><td>48</td><td>3.42</td><td>.25</td></tr><tr><td> Being mentored by peers</td><td>58</td><td>140</td><td>58</td><td>81</td><td>57</td><td>59</td><td>.06</td><td>.03</td><td>53</td><td>77</td><td>65</td><td>54</td><td>2.90</td><td>.23</td></tr><tr><td> Independently reading professional literature</td><td>74</td><td>172</td><td>73</td><td>101</td><td>76</td><td>71</td><td>.39</td><td>.08</td><td>69</td><td>95</td><td>85</td><td>68</td><td>6.62<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn6">**</xref></td><td><bold>.35</bold></td></tr><tr><td colspan="15">Barriers to Professional Development</td></tr><tr><td> Prerequisites</td><td>13</td><td>43</td><td>15</td><td>29</td><td>11</td><td>14</td><td>1.36</td><td>.13</td><td>11</td><td>21</td><td>17</td><td>19</td><td>2.60</td><td>.19</td></tr><tr><td> Money</td><td>34</td><td>112</td><td>38</td><td>74</td><td>29</td><td>38</td><td>3.17</td><td>.20</td><td>31</td><td>60</td><td>38</td><td>41</td><td>1.32</td><td>.13</td></tr><tr><td> Employer support</td><td>24</td><td>78</td><td>25</td><td>48</td><td>23</td><td>30</td><td>.19</td><td>.05</td><td>25</td><td>48</td><td>22</td><td>24</td><td>.31</td><td>.06</td></tr><tr><td> Time</td><td>55</td><td>180</td><td>52</td><td>101</td><td>60</td><td>79</td><td>1.79</td><td>.15</td><td>58</td><td>111</td><td>53</td><td>58</td><td>.52</td><td>.08</td></tr><tr><td> Resources</td><td>23</td><td>74</td><td>26</td><td>50</td><td>18</td><td>24</td><td>2.66</td><td>.18</td><td>21</td><td>40</td><td>28</td><td>30</td><td>1.81</td><td>.16</td></tr><tr><td> Appropriate training</td><td>44</td><td>143</td><td>47</td><td>91</td><td>39</td><td>52</td><td>1.91</td><td>.15</td><td>45</td><td>86</td><td>46</td><td>50</td><td>.05</td><td>.03</td></tr><tr><td> Interest</td><td>2</td><td>8</td><td>3</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>.03</td><td>.02</td><td>3</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>.18</td><td>.05</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>4 <emph>Note.</emph> Degrees of freedom for all analyses = 1; <emph>d</emph> = Cohen's <emph>d</emph>.</item> <item>5 Response options are abbreviated for space considerations; for exact wording of the question and response options, please see supplementary appendix S1. Data displayed indicate the number and percentage of "Yes" responses for subsample; for Question 2, <emph>n</emph> = 325 for grade level, <emph>n</emph> = 302 for setting.</item> <item>6 Significant at the.01 level.</item> </ulist> <p>When analyzing differences in participants' responses by setting and grade level for questions related to how paraprofessionals apply knowledge from training, the only significant difference found was with independently reading professional literature. Paraprofessionals working in general education settings were more likely to engage in this activity than paraprofessionals working in special education settings, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref54">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 163) = 6.62, <emph>p</emph> <.01, <emph>d</emph> = 0.35.</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-9">Barriers to PD</hd> <p>Paraprofessionals selected barriers to PD that applied to them (see Table 2). According to the paraprofessionals surveyed, the largest barriers to completing PD were lack of time (55%) and lack of appropriate training offered (44%). Additional barriers to PD, as reported by paraprofessionals, were lack of (a) money (34%), (b) employer support (24%), and (c) resources (23%). Only 2% of paraprofessionals reported they did not seek PD due to lack of interest. Several paraprofessionals elaborated on these barriers in an open-ended question (see supplementary appendix S2). When examining participant responses by work setting, there were negligible differences for most barriers to PD reported (see Table 2).</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-10">Communication With Supervising Teacher</hd> <p>Paraprofessionals responded to questions about which times during the day they communicated with their supervising teacher and which forms of communication they typically used (see Table 3). Paraprofessionals frequently reported that they communicated with their supervising teachers about students with autism during downtime in the classroom (87%), before or after school (84%), during teacher workdays (75%), and during planning periods (71%). It was less common for paraprofessionals to communicate with supervising teachers during lunch (60%) or school breaks (57%); however, the majority of paraprofessionals still reported some communication during these times. Supervising teachers and paraprofessionals communicate by a variety of means throughout a typical workweek, with email (75%) and text (74%) being the most common forms of communication. Classroom notes (67%) and phone calls (56%), although slightly less common, were still reported by more than half of the paraprofessionals surveyed.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 3. Descriptive and Statistical Analyses for How and When Paraprofessionals and Supervising Teachers Communicate.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2">Survey questions & response options<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn8">a</xref></th><th align="center" colspan="2">Overall</th><th align="center" colspan="2">PreK–elementary</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Middle–high</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Grade differences</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Special education</th><th align="center" colspan="2">General education</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Setting differences</th></tr><tr><th align="center">%</th><th align="center"><italic>N</italic></th><th align="center">%</th><th align="center"><italic>n</italic></th><th align="center">%</th><th align="center"><italic>n</italic></th><th align="center">χ<sup>2</sup></th><th align="center"><italic>d</italic></th><th align="center">%</th><th align="center"><italic>n</italic></th><th align="center">%</th><th align="center"><italic>n</italic></th><th align="center">χ<sup>2</sup></th><th align="center"><italic>d</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="15">When Paraprofessionals and Supervising Teachers Communicate</td></tr><tr><td> Teacher workdays</td><td>75</td><td>195</td><td>82</td><td>124</td><td>66</td><td>71</td><td>9.07<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn9">**</xref></td><td>.38</td><td>77</td><td>116</td><td>73</td><td>66</td><td>.37</td><td>.08</td></tr><tr><td> Before/after school</td><td>84</td><td>202</td><td>88</td><td>126</td><td>78</td><td>76</td><td>4.13<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn9">*</xref></td><td>.26</td><td>83</td><td>117</td><td>87</td><td>72</td><td>.57</td><td>.10</td></tr><tr><td> During school: Planning</td><td>71</td><td>173</td><td>73</td><td>105</td><td>69</td><td>68</td><td>.65</td><td>.10</td><td>75</td><td>106</td><td>67</td><td>56</td><td>1.55</td><td>.17</td></tr><tr><td> During school: Break</td><td>57</td><td>140</td><td>58</td><td>85</td><td>56</td><td>55</td><td>.12</td><td>.04</td><td>58</td><td>81</td><td>59</td><td>51</td><td>.01</td><td>.01</td></tr><tr><td> During school: Lunch</td><td>60</td><td>146</td><td>62</td><td>91</td><td>57</td><td>55</td><td>.66</td><td>.07</td><td>61</td><td>86</td><td>64</td><td>54</td><td>.31</td><td>.07</td></tr><tr><td> During school: Downtime</td><td>87</td><td>206</td><td>87</td><td>124</td><td>86</td><td>82</td><td>.05</td><td>.03</td><td>88</td><td>120</td><td>86</td><td>73</td><td>.14</td><td>.05</td></tr><tr><td colspan="15">How Paraprofessionals and Supervising Teachers Communicate</td></tr><tr><td> Text</td><td>74</td><td>181</td><td>75</td><td>111</td><td>71</td><td>70</td><td>.39</td><td>.08</td><td>75</td><td>110</td><td>70</td><td>59</td><td>.71</td><td>.11</td></tr><tr><td> Email</td><td>75</td><td>183</td><td>72</td><td>105</td><td>80</td><td>78</td><td>2.26</td><td>.19</td><td>70</td><td>99</td><td>82</td><td>70</td><td>4.46<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn9">*</xref></td><td>.28</td></tr><tr><td> Phone</td><td>56</td><td>136</td><td>59</td><td>87</td><td>51</td><td>49</td><td>1.78</td><td>.17</td><td>57</td><td>80</td><td>56</td><td>49</td><td>.02</td><td>.02</td></tr><tr><td> Notes</td><td>67</td><td>153</td><td>70</td><td>93</td><td>63</td><td>60</td><td>1.15</td><td>.14</td><td>65</td><td>86</td><td>68</td><td>56</td><td>.22</td><td>.06</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>7 <emph>Note.</emph> Degrees of freedom for all analyses = 1; Data displayed indicate the number and percentage of "yes" responses for subsample; <emph>d</emph> = Cohen's <emph>d</emph>.</item> <item>8 Response options are abbreviated for space considerations; for exact wording of the question and response options, please see supplementary appendix S1.</item> <item>9 Significant at the.05 level. **Significant at the.01 level.</item> </ulist> <p>Regarding communication with their supervising teacher, pre-K and elementary paraprofessionals reported that they were significantly more likely to communicate on teacher workdays, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref55">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 195) = 9.07, <emph>p</emph> <.01, <emph>d</emph> = 0.38, and before or after school, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref56">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 202) = 4.13, <emph>p</emph> <.05, <emph>d</emph> = 0.26, than middle and high school level paraprofessionals. Paraprofessionals in general education were significantly more likely to use email to communicate with their supervising teacher than those in special education, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref57">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 169) = 4.46, <emph>p</emph> <.05, <emph>d</emph> = 0.28.</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-11">Discussion</hd> <p>This study captures the immense variability of paraprofessionals' roles and responsibilities and illustrates their need for quality PD. The results corroborate related research that indicates paraprofessionals provide academic instruction to students with autism ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref58">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref59">18</reflink>]) and add to the body of literature on this topic by reporting on the frequency in which paraprofessionals engage in this activity. Given that prior research has reported academic instruction provided by paraprofessionals is often not supervised by a certified teacher ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref60">12</reflink>]), the finding that paraprofessionals provide academic instruction an average of 4 to 5 days per week is concerning as it is likely that they are not receiving adequate supervision. The myriad of other roles paraprofessionals reported adds to the literature demonstrating how critically involved paraprofessionals are in the daily instruction of students with autism. Considering the variety of roles reported, as well as the unique learning needs of students with autism, quality PD specific to students with autism is crucial for paraprofessionals' success in fulfilling their roles and positively impacting student outcomes.</p> <p>Despite the importance of PD in enhancing paraprofessionals' skills, many paraprofessionals reported a lack of time and appropriate training opportunities as barriers to receiving additional knowledge and skills. This finding is aligned with prior research that found time was a barrier to engaging in PD by paraprofessionals ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref61">28</reflink>]). A lack of appropriate training opportunities offered to paraprofessionals is also problematic as it indicates that content delivered in workshops and seminars may not be relevant to their specific roles with students. This finding is further supported by paraprofessionals' comments to open-ended questions (see online supplemental appendix S2). For instance, students with the most intensive behavioral and self-care needs are the ones most likely to need paraprofessional support; however, content on how to best meet these needs are generally not covered in seminars focused on supporting students in inclusive settings. Despite these challenges, it is encouraging that less than 2% of paraprofessionals surveyed indicated a lack of interest as a barrier to receiving additional training. These results support similar findings in a related study that indicate paraprofessionals do have a desire to improve their skills ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref62">24</reflink>]). Given the pivotal role of paraprofessionals in the lives of students with autism, there is a need to overcome these barriers if paraprofessionals are to engage in meaningful PD that improves their work with their students.</p> <p>Survey responses surrounding communication with supervising teachers revealed that paraprofessional–teacher teams engaged in a communication during various points in the school day using a variety of methods. However, teacher workdays, before or after school, downtime during the school day, and planning periods were the most frequently cited times among all respondents. This information is important to consider when developing a PD model and indicates that training delivered by supervising teachers may be most effective if planned during these times. The different forms of communication used by paraprofessional–teacher teams reveal the creative methods that teams use when competing responsibilities preclude more formal, in-person meetings and is an important consideration when exploring alternative modes of delivering information to paraprofessionals.</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-12">Implications for Practice</hd> <p>Taken together, these results have important implications for developing a model of PD that is broadly relevant for paraprofessionals who work with students with autism. First, given the finding that a large percentage of paraprofessionals who work with students with autism indicated a lack of appropriate training offered as a barrier to engaging in PD, PD content should be tailored to the unique needs of paraprofessionals working with this population. In addition, the finding of statistically significant differences between roles of paraprofessionals working in different grade levels and settings indicate that PD content should also consider these variables.</p> <p>Targeting areas that are relevant to paraprofessionals and aligned with guidance from professional organizations ensures that they will receive the most benefit from the training. In our sample, paraprofessionals supported students with autism in multiple learning environments, including in general and special education settings, as well as non-instructional periods; thus, content must cover the broad scope of learning needs and behavioral characteristics of students with autism across these settings to be broadly relevant to paraprofessionals rather than focusing on only one setting or characteristic. The examples used in training for paraprofessionals should be in real-world instructional contexts, with students who exhibit a wide range of abilities that reflect the diversity of students with autism that paraprofessionals may experience. Furthermore, the content of PD programs should be aligned with guidance by professional organizations on the preparation of paraprofessionals (see [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref63">8</reflink>]). By including relatable examples based on best practices, PD providers increase the likelihood that paraprofessionals will apply what they learn when working with their students.</p> <p>Second, PD needs to be flexibly scheduled during times paraprofessionals indicated as feasible and be considerate of the time constraints experienced by many paraprofessionals. More than half of the paraprofessionals surveyed in this study indicated time was a barrier to receiving PD. These findings corroborate previous research that also found time to be a significant barrier to receiving PD for paraprofessionals ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref64">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref65">28</reflink>]). Given these findings, asynchronous online learning modules may be especially desirable as they can be completed at a time that is convenient for the paraprofessional. In addition, prior research suggests that both paraprofessionals and their supervising teachers value online modules as a method of delivery for PD ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref66">11</reflink>]). Ideally, content would be delivered in short, concise modules that can easily be paused and re-started given that paraprofessionals may only have short amounts of time to dedicate to PD in the work day.</p> <p>Finally, prior research has indicated that the most sustainable model of PD involves supervising teachers delivering training to paraprofessionals ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref67">30</reflink>]). The results of this study support this model. For example, 89% of surveyed paraprofessionals reported communicating with their supervising teacher daily, although communication was not operationally defined in this study and could be interpreted differently by paraprofessionals given their unique experiences and the contexts in which they work. The frequency with which paraprofessionals communicate with their supervising teachers indicates that there are many opportunities throughout the day for supervising teachers to provide constructive feedback and on-the-job coaching, a model of PD supported by research aligned with adult learning principles ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref68">22</reflink>]) and preferred by both paraprofessionals and supervising teachers ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref69">11</reflink>]). That said, teachers and paraprofessionals are already over-burdened; thus, it will be important to work closely with school districts to consider options that would provide more time for this necessary training and collaboration (e.g., paraprofessionals working beyond hours of instruction, coordinating release of before/after school duties for teachers and paraprofessionals).</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-13">Limitations and Future Directions</hd> <p>Several limitations exist for this study. First, the sample was drawn from an existing registry of online AFIRM module users. Because these paraprofessionals had already accessed evidence-based practice modules for students with autism and voluntarily responded to this survey, it is likely that (a) they are highly motivated to receive PD and/or (b) have strong opinions about PD that prompted them to respond to the survey. Due to this sampling, survey responses may or may not reflect the PD experiences of all paraprofessionals. Second, less than a third of the paraprofessionals who initially received the survey link completed the survey. Although it is possible that the low response rate introduced bias into the results, analyses between responders and non-responders revealed no significant differences for region of the United States or age range of students taught. Third, no operational definitions or additional explanations of the terms used in the survey (e.g., clinical/community based, etc.) were provided beyond what is delineated in supplementary appendix S1, so it is possible that some terms were not well understood.</p> <p>Fourth, there was no way to account for instances where paraprofessionals worked in multiple settings. Although we did have an open-ended response option where respondents could add additional settings in which they worked, we acknowledge that not having a response option specific to multiple settings is a limitation. Fifth, the paraprofessionals in this study had a wide range of experience, with most paraprofessionals having six or more years of experience. As such, it is possible that paraprofessionals' experience level impacted their response. To better understand how years of experience impacts roles and responsibilities and training needs, future research should explore the correlation between these variables.</p> <hd id="AN0156993836-14">Conclusion</hd> <p>Based on this survey, creation of quality PD materials for paraprofessionals is essential to fulfilling their wide variety of roles and responsibilities, as well as for meeting the unique learning needs of students with autism. Given the findings that time is a major barrier to engaging in PD for a majority of paraprofessionals and that supervising teachers and paraprofessionals engage in frequent communication throughout the day, flexibly scheduled online learning platforms with on-going supervision from a supervising teacher may be the most sustainable model for training paraprofessionals who work with students with autism. Incorporating information learned from this study increases the likelihood that the PD model is feasible and acceptable to paraprofessionals to meet the needs of students with autism in school-based settings.</p> <ref id="AN0156993836-15"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref41" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Autism Focused Intervention Resources & Modules. (2015). Autism focused intervention resources & modules (AFIRM). National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorder, FPG Child Development Center, University of North Carolina. <ulink href="http://afirm.fpg.unc.edu">http://afirm.fpg.unc.edu</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref33" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Barrio B. L., Hollingshead A. (2017). Reaching out to paraprofessionals: Engaging professional development aligned with universal design for learning framework in rural communities. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 36(3), 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/8756870517721693</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref31" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Bertuccio R. F., Runion M. C., Culler E. D., Moeller J. D., Hall C. M. (2019). A comparison of autism-specific training outcomes for teachers and paraeducators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 42(4), 338–354. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406419839771</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref26" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Broad K., Evans M. (2006). A review of literature on professional development content and delivery modes for experienced teachers. Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref2" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Brock M. E., Carter E. W. (2013). A systematic review of paraprofessional-delivered educational practices to improve outcomes for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons With Severe Disabilities, 38(4), 211–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/154079691303800401</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref15" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Busby R., Ingram R., Bowron R., Oliver J., Lyons B. (2012). Teaching elementary children with autism: Addressing teacher challenges and preparation needs. Rural Educator, 33(2), 27–35.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref34" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Chopra R., Banerjee R., DiPalma G., Merrill L., Ferguson A. (2013). Colorado's model for preparing paraprofessionals for rural early intervention programs. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 32(1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/875687051303200104</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref63" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Council for Exceptional Children. (2015). Paraeducator preparation guidelines. In What every special educator must know: Ethics, standards, & guidelines (7th ed., pp. 144–148).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref37" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Docherty R. (2014). A complete circuit: The role of communication between class teachers and support staff and the planning of effective learning opportunities. Educational Psychology in Practice, 30(2), 181–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2014.899997</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fisher M., Pleasants S. L. (2012). Roles, responsibilities, and concerns of paraeducators: Findings from a statewide survey. Remedial and Special Education, 33(5), 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932510397762</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Frantz R., Douglas S., Meadan H., Sands M., Bhana N., D'Agostino S. (2020). Exploring the professional development needs of early childhood paraeducators and supervising teachers. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121420921237</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Giangreco M. F., Broer S. M. (2005). Questionable utilization of paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: Are we addressing symptoms or causes? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(1), 10–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576050200010201</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Giangreco M. F., Broer S. M., Suter J. C. (2011). Guidelines for selecting alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals: Field-testing in inclusion-oriented schools. Remedial and Special Education, 32(1), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932509355951</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hall L. J., Odom S. L. (2019). Deepening supports for teens with autism. Educational Leadership, 76(8).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Holm S. (1979). A simple sequential rejective multiple test procedure. Scandinavian Journal of Statistics, 6(2), 65–70.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hume K., Steinbrenner J. R., Odom S. L., Morin K., Nowell S. W., Tomaszewski B., Szendrey S., McIntyre Yücesoy-Özkane S., Savage M. (2021). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism: Third generation review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51, 4013–4032. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04844-2</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of2004, 20 U.S.C. §§ 1412(a)(14).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Jones C. R., Ratcliff N. J., Sheehan H., Hunt G. H. (2012). An analysis of teachers' and paraeducators' roles and responsibilities with implications for professional development. Early Childhood Education, 40(1), 19–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-011-0487-4</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Layden S., Hendricks D., Inge K., Sima A., Erickson D., Avellone L., Wehman P. (2018). Providing online professional development for paraprofessionals serving those with ASD: Evaluating a statewide initiative. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 48(2), 285–294. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-180932</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Maenner M. J., Shaw K. A., Baio J., Washington A., Patrick M., DiRenzo M., Christensen D. L., Wiggins L. D., Pettygrove S., Andrews J. G., Lopez M., Hudson A., Baroud T., Schwenk Y., White T., Rosenberg C. R., Lee L. C., Harrington R. A., Huston M.,... Dietz P. M. (2020). Prevalence of autism spectrum among aged-8 years—Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 sites, United States, 2016. MMWR Surveillance Summary, 69(4), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6904a1</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> McFarland J., Hussar B., de Brey C., Snyder T., Wang X., Wilkinson-Flicker S., Gebrekristos S., Zhang J., Rathbun A., Barmer A., Bullock Mann F., Hinz S. (2017). The condition of education 2017 (NCES 2017-144). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> McLeskey J. (2011). Supporting improved practice for special education teachers: The importance of learner-centered professional development. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 24, 26–35.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Morin K., Ganz J. B., Vannest K. J., Haas A., Nagro S., Peltier C., Fuller M., Ura S. (2019). A systematic review of single-case research on video analysis as professional development for special educators. The Journal of Special Education, 53, 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466918798361</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Morin K., Sam A., Tomaszewski B., Waters V., Odom S. (2021). Knowledge of evidence-based practices and frequency of selection among school-based professionals of students with autism. The Journal of Special Education, 55, 143–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466920958688</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2013). Teacher and learning international survey (TALIS). <ulink href="http://www.oecd.org">http://www.oecd.org</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Qualtrics. (2017). https://<ulink href="http://www.qualtrics.com">www.qualtrics.com</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Snell E. K., Hindman A. H., Wasik B. A. (2019). A review of research on technology-mediated language and literacy professional development models. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 40(3), 205–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901027.2018.1539794</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sobeck E. E., Robertson R. (2019). Perspectives on current practices and barriers to training for paraeducators of students with autism in inclusive settings. Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals, 131–159.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> U.S. Department of Education. (2019). 41st annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Exhibit 43-44: Special educators and paraprofessionals employed (FTE) to provide special education and related services to children ages 6 through 21 under IDEA, Part B: Fall 2016. https://www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep/2019/parts-b-c/index.html</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Walker V. L., Smith C. G. (2015). Training paraprofessionals to support students with disabilities: A literature review. Exceptionality, 23(3), 170–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2014.986606</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> White M. L., Smith J. D., Smith T. E. C., Stodden R. (2012). Autism spectrum disorders. In Zager D., Wehmeyer M. L., Simpson R. L. (Eds.), Educating students with autism spectrum disorders (pp. 3–12). Routledge.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0156993836-16"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The research reported in this article was supported by Grants R324A170028 and R324B160038 funded by the Institute of Education Sciences. Additional support came from a subcontract from Grant No. H325E170001, a project funded by the Office of Special Education Programs. Both funding entities are part of the U.S. Department of Education, but the contents of this article do not necessarily reflect or represent the policy of that department.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Victoria Waters</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0137-1562</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Supplemental material is available on the <emph>Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities</emph> webpage with the online version of the article.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Kristi L. Morin; Sallie Nowell; Jessica Steinbrenner; Ann Sam; Victoria Waters and Samuel L. Odom</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib854" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib300" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib298" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib321" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib320" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib294" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib316" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref64"></nolink>
CustomLinks:
  – Url: https://eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ1339976
    Name: ERIC Full Text
    Category: fullText
    Text: Full Text from ERIC
Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1339976
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: A Survey of the Experiences of Paraprofessionals with Roles, Training, and Communication When Working with Students with Autism
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Morin%2C+Kristi+L%2E%22">Morin, Kristi L.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Nowell%2C+Sallie%22">Nowell, Sallie</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Steinbrenner%2C+Jessica%22">Steinbrenner, Jessica</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sam%2C+Ann%22">Sam, Ann</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Waters%2C+Victoria%22">Waters, Victoria</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0137-1562">0000-0002-0137-1562</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Odom%2C+Samuel+L%2E%22">Odom, Samuel L.</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Focus+on+Autism+and+Other+Developmental+Disabilities%22"><i>Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities</i></searchLink>. Jun 2022 37(2):96-107.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 12
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: SourceSuprt
  Label: Sponsoring Agency
  Group: SrcSuprt
  Data: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)<br />Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) (ED/OSERS)
– Name: NumberContract
  Label: Contract Number
  Group: NumCntrct
  Data: R324A170028<br />R324B160038<br />H325E170001
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Autism%22">Autism</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pervasive+Developmental+Disorders%22">Pervasive Developmental Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Paraprofessional+School+Personnel%22">Paraprofessional School Personnel</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Public+Schools%22">Public Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Role%22">Role</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Responsibility%22">Responsibility</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Knowledge+Level%22">Knowledge Level</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Barriers%22">Barriers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Professional+Development%22">Professional Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Communication%22">Interpersonal Communication</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22United+States%22">United States</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Guam%22">Guam</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1177/10883576211066897
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1088-3576<br />1538-4829
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Paraprofessionals are critical members of instructional teams for students with autism; however, little is known about their job preparation and professional development needs. This study addressed the gap in the literature by surveying 325 paraprofessionals in public school settings in the United States and Guam who reported working with students with autism. Data were gathered on paraprofessionals' (a) roles and responsibilities, (b) applied knowledge from different types of professional development, (c) perceived barriers to professional development, and (d) types and timing of communication with their supervising teachers. The results of this study have direct implications for individuals interested in developing a model of professional development that will meet the unique needs of paraprofessionals who work with students with autism.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: CodeSource
  Label: IES Funded
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Yes
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1339976
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1339976
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/10883576211066897
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 96
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Autism
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pervasive Developmental Disorders
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Students with Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Paraprofessional School Personnel
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Public Schools
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Role
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Responsibility
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Knowledge Level
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Barriers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Professional Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Communication
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: United States
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Guam
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: A Survey of the Experiences of Paraprofessionals with Roles, Training, and Communication When Working with Students with Autism
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Morin, Kristi L.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Nowell, Sallie
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Steinbrenner, Jessica
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Sam, Ann
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Waters, Victoria
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Odom, Samuel L.
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 06
              Type: published
              Y: 2022
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1088-3576
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1538-4829
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 37
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities
              Type: main
ResultId 1