View in EDS HTML Full Text PDF Full Text

Dyad Training in a Perceptual-Motor Task: 'Two Pairs of Eyes Are Better than One'

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Title: Dyad Training in a Perceptual-Motor Task: 'Two Pairs of Eyes Are Better than One'
Language: English
Authors: Panzer, Stefan (ORCID 0000-0002-7301-2374), Pfeifer, Christina, Leinen, Peter, Shea, Charles
Source: Journal of Motor Learning and Development. Aug 2022 10(2):245-256.
Availability: Human Kinetics, Inc. 1607 North Market Street, Champaign, IL 61820. Tel: 800-474-4457; Fax: 217-351-1549; e-mail: info@hkusa.com; Web site: https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jmld/jmld-overview.xml
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2022
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Task Analysis, Psychomotor Skills, Physical Activities, Perceptual Motor Coordination, Comparative Analysis, Computer Assisted Testing, Accuracy, Retention (Psychology), Recognition (Psychology), Learning Processes, Dialogs (Language), Handedness, Undergraduate Students, Reaction Time, Foreign Countries, Correlation, Tests
Geographic Terms: Germany
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Edinburgh Handedness Inventory
DOI: 10.1123/jmld.2021-0046
ISSN: 2325-3193
2325-3215
Abstract: The aim of this experiment was to determine if dyad practice helped individuals become aware, use, and retain information in a dynamically changing perceptual-motor task compared with practice alone. We used a computerized perceptual-motor task, where individuals were required to intercept balls that dropped from the top of the screen. A colored line at the top of the screen provided information about the direction of the dropping ball. Participants (N = 24) were randomly assigned to one of two groups: A dyad training group where two participants alternated between physical and observational practice after each block of 20 trials, and they also engaged in dialog about the task, and an individual training group where one participant practiced the task. Both groups improved their accuracy during acquisition. On the retention test, participants in the dyad group caught significantly more balls (73%) than individuals of the alone group (58%). Participants in the dyad group also showed a higher percentage of correctly identified stimuli in the recognition task. Dyad training induced performance advantages in a perceptual-motor task because individuals became aware and used information acquired during observation and/or from the dialog.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2022
Accession Number: EJ1355331
Database: ERIC
Full text is not displayed to guests.
FullText Links:
  – Type: pdflink
    Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwFCZ4judmbfDdKheAQwv1vcAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDPUlZFCnk6dQXHLXCwIBEICBmyLcchokZmJnko0-taRpIOavw6y9of30O6drw2wcj4NA48pxbPyTz3jOfaa3Kt9-swu-lR4B5pwHquTtmW3w388BXu_qnZki1xI4B4LVtJ5U0y4z1Fm6TaAvqrLPOc9Cldbrgs6J1Zp5wbbHgZNshniJAvT40__Ls-qJvBFTWbckaI9H-qHfAzH2OQzOiYPwq0-cyTnEUspSwUFZ
Text:
  Availability: 1
  Value: <anid>AN0158382836;[fqbl]01aug.22;2022Aug09.02:06;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0158382836-1">Dyad Training in a Perceptual-Motor Task: "Two Pairs of Eyes Are Better Than One" </title> <p>The aim of this experiment was to determine if dyad practice helped individuals become aware, use, and retain information in a dynamically changing perceptual-motor task compared with practice alone. We used a computerized perceptual-motor task, where individuals were required to intercept balls that dropped from the top of the screen. A colored line at the top of the screen provided information about the direction of the dropping ball. Participants (N = 24) were randomly assigned to one of two groups: A dyad training group where two participants alternated between physical and observational practice after each block of 20 trials, and they also engaged in dialog about the task, and an individual training group where one participant practiced the task. Both groups improved their accuracy during acquisition. On the retention test, participants in the dyad group caught significantly more balls (73%) than individuals of the alone group (58%). Participants in the dyad group also showed a higher percentage of correctly identified stimuli in the recognition task. Dyad training induced performance advantages in a perceptual-motor task because individuals became aware and used information acquired during observation and/or from the dialog.</p> <p>Keywords: attentional resources; motor learning; observation; physical practice</p> <p>In a dyad training protocol, the performers acquire a new skill in pairs to gain performance advantages ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref1">11</reflink>]). In one form of dyad training, individuals alternate between physical practice and observational practice on consecutive trials and are often permitted an intertrial period to exchange ideas about the task ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref2">9</reflink>]). Following acquisition in pairs, they had to perform the task individually. An obvious advantage of the combined practice format is that individuals physically practice the task for less time and thus expend less physical/mental energy. Furthermore, they reduce the probability of injuries or fatigue (cognitive, physical, or both) compared with performers who practice the physical task by themselves. In dyad training protocols, two participants can learn a new task in the time that it typically would take for one participant.</p> <p>The majority of the studies which have used motor-related tasks reported that participants who learned in pairs showed the same or superior performance compared with individual learners (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref4">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref5">12</reflink>]) even though the participants physically practiced only half of the trials compared with participants in an individual physical practice condition ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref6">10</reflink>]). With a few exceptions (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref7">4</reflink>]), the majority of the researchers have concluded that the dyad training protocol maximizes learning (effectiveness) and minimizes the costs (efficiency). Dyad training performers are not only engaged in their own physical practice, in addition, but also they have the opportunity to observe another person and exchange information during the intertrial dialog to process task-specific information ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]). The benefits of dyad practice appear to be especially enhanced when the task is more difficult and cognitively demanding ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref9">17</reflink>]). To explain the results, researchers invoke both motor and cognitive factors derived from observation, physical practice, and dialog ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref10">3</reflink>]). Shea et al. ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref11">10</reflink>]) hypothesized that the unique advantage arising from observation in dyad training protocols is, in part, because the observer is not allocating cognitive and attentional resources to prepare and execute the movement. He/she can utilize these resources to discover important contextual information in the task environment to develop new performance strategies. Furthermore, it is assumed that interleaved periods of peer observation in-between physical practice promote information processing activities related to strategy evaluation that would be difficult, if not unfeasible, while the individual simultaneously prepares and executes an impending movement. This means, information that was observed or communicated in the intertrial dialog, that has the promise to increase performance, can be tested immediately in the following physical practice trial. This theoretical assumption is close to experiences from real-life sport settings. In beach volleyball, for example, it is known that teammates communicate between serves, and during the intervals between sets, about certain technical and tactical aspects that they observed during the game with the hope that this information will increase their performance ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref12">5</reflink>]). According to this view, dyad training offers individuals a chance to conduct processing that may be difficult if not impossible while practicing until the movement has become well learned or automated ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref13">9</reflink>]).</p> <p>From the dyad training research in the motor domain, it is evident that the most commonly employed tasks in dyad training protocols consisted of a single specific movement pattern learned in a relatively stable context. Examples utilized are a balance task ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref14">9</reflink>]), cup stacking ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref15">3</reflink>]), or a movement sequence task ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref16">8</reflink>]). Even though examples are obvious in real-life sport settings like in a tennis double or beach volleyball, limited research attention has been directed to tasks where individuals must respond to changing environmental/perceptual demands. In these kinds of tasks, motor processes have to be matched with perceptual processes ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref17">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>An open issue addressed in the following experiment was to determine if a dyad training protocol increases individuals' likelihood to become aware, retain, and utilize information in a task that specified contextual information in a changing environment. Note that in a dyad training protocol, individuals can become aware of environmental task information through physical practice, observation, or the verbal exchange during intertrial dialog. A computerized catch ball task was chosen where responses needed to be matched to visual changes to ball drop location. The catch ball task involves accurate estimation of the spatial and temporal trajectory of a stimulus coincident with changing contextual environmental information. The direction of the ball drop was alerted to by a colored line placed on top of the screen. When performers utilize this perceptual information to alter their control processes, enhanced performance can be achieved ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref18">14</reflink>]). Therefore, we hypothesized, if dyad training increases the performers opportunity in a changing environment to use perceptual information to determine the movement pattern required, then learning advantages should be observed. However, when the performers are only permitted to execute physical practice, they must concomitantly prepare and execute the movement. Therefore, the likelihood that they can extract and process important contextual environmental information that is linked to the version of the task that will be required is reduced. The outcome would result in learning decrements.</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-2">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0158382836-3">Participants</hd> <p>Undergraduate students (<emph>N</emph> = 24) participated in the experiment for course credit (13 male and 11 female; mean age = 23.54 years; <emph>SD</emph> ± 3.38 years). None of them had prior experience with the experimental task or were informed of the specific purpose of the study. Handedness was determined by the Edinburgh-Handedness Inventory ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref19">7</reflink>]). Informed consent approved by the Human and Business Science, Saarland University ethics committee was obtained prior to participation by all participants. The experiment was conducted in accordance with the revised version of the Declaration of Helsinki ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref20">15</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-4">Apparatus</hd> <p>The apparatus consisted of a horizontal lever affixed at one end to a frictionless vertical axle. The lever was fixed on the right side of a table, allowing the lever to move in the horizontal plane over the table surface. At the distal end of the lever, a vertical handle was fixed. The handle's position could be adjusted so that when grasping the handle, the participants' elbow could be aligned with the axis of rotation. A potentiometer (Midori Orange Pot CP-45 H, linearity ±0.4%) was attached to the lower end of the axis to record the position of the lever, and its output was directed to a computer, programmed (version 2019, MathWorks) to read the output at 200 Hz (Agilent U2300 series USB Multifunctional Data Acquisition Device, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA).</p> <p>A projector (with a spatial resolution of 1024 × 768 pixels and a temporal resolution of 100 Hz) connected by an Arduino (sampling rate 200 Hz) microcontroller with the computer was used to display the task information (Figure 1) on the wall facing the participant. The participants were seated at a frontal plane at a 90° angle and approximately 2 m from the wall, and 2 × 2 m image was projected in front of them on the wall. The recognition test, following the retention test was run on a PC, Dell, Pentium(R) Dual-Core 2.80 GHz, with keyboard and a 21″ computer screen (temporal resolution was 75 Hz and spatial resolution was 1,024 × 768 pixels). The recognition test on the computer was controlled by a script run on GNU Octave (version 2019).</p> <p>Graph: Figure. 1 —Schematic illustration of an individual and the presented information facing the individual. On the top of display a white bar is presented cueing that the ball—green circle—will be dropping straight to the bottom. The red line at the bottom of the display is used by the participant to catch the falling ball.</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-5">Task, Procedure, and Experimental Groups</hd> <p>The participants were instructed to sit in front of the apparatus on a height adjustable chair. The chair was adjusted so that the participants' lower right arm was positioned at approximately an 85° angle to his/her upper arm in the starting position. The task was to "catch a series of dropping balls." Participants were instructed to catch as many balls as possible. The participant caught the ball (circle, 3 cm diameter) by moving a paddle (rectangle, 10 cm long) at the bottom of the screen to the horizontal position of the ball before it reached the bottom of the screen. The position of the paddle was controlled by the movement of the lever with the right limb. When the participant indicated that he/she was ready, the experimenter started the block. During a trial, a sequence of 20 balls dropped from the top to the bottom each 1.3 s (mean drop velocity 0.92 m/s) in the display. The horizontal start position at the top of the display for each ball was randomly determined. When a ball reached the bottom, the next ball in the sequence began falling until the end of the block. In one condition, the ball moved from the top to the bottom of the display in a straight line. In two other conditions, the ball changed direction and fell in a straight line during the first 2/3 of display and then moved either to the right or left direction (15°) while continuing to move to the bottom of the display. Individuals were not provided any direct information about the movement of the ball. However, a colored horizontal line (5 cm width) was presented on the top of the screen during the drop. A white bar indicated the straight direction, a purple the left and a green the right direction of the ball. Note that no specific information about the line color was provided to the participants. They had to discover this cue in the task environment. Within each block of 20 trials, the distribution of the dropping balls was as follows: 12 straight lines, four left deviations, and four right deviations. The dropping order was generated randomly. To be as successful as possible and to anticipate the direction of the dropping ball, required the individuals to link the color of the line with the pattern of the dropping ball.</p> <p>Prior to the experiment, participants were assigned to one of two experimental groups: A dyad training (dyad; <emph>n</emph> = 12) group where two participants alternated between physical and observational practice and an individual training (alone; <emph>n</emph> = 12) group where each participant acquired the task individually. In the dyad training group, participants alternated following each block of 20 trials. During acquisition one participant in the dyad group was positioned to the side and back of the physical practice participant so that he/she had a clear view of the movement and display provided to the physical practice participant. Following each block, participants in the dyad group were encouraged to exchange experiences, strategies, and ideas how to perform the task within a time interval of 30 s. The participants in the alone group also had a 30 s rest interval between trials. After the experiment, the participants of the dyad group were individually interviewed about their dialogs and the answers were noted. Acquisition consisted of 10 blocks of 20 trials each. Following a rest interval of 10 min, all participants performed a retention test (one block of 20 trials) individually.</p> <p>After completion of the retention test, all participants were required to perform a recognition test. This was done to determine the extent to which the individuals were aware of the colored line that cued the direction of the dropping balls. For the recognition test, individuals were placed in front of a 21″ computer screen on a height adjustable chair. The screen was positioned at eye level at approximately 75 cm distance from the participant. Each trial started with a fixation cross (750 ms; 20 mm in the vertical and horizontal level). The fixation cross was positioned at the midpoint of the screen. The stimuli were presented for 1 s. The stimuli of recognition test consisted of 30 pictures in a full screen format, including the dropping ball at the beginning of the trial and the colored line. Participants were instructed to press the corresponding arrow keys "left," "down," or "right" as fast as possible with the dominant right hand when they thought the ball was dropping to the left side, in a straight line, or to the right side. The participants were instructed to use their index finger for the left arrow, their middle finger for the straight, and their ring finger for the right arrow. The fingers were positioned on the corresponding keys. Following the recognition test, all participants were interviewed to determine if the colored bar on top of the screen provided information about the movement of the ball as it moved from the top to bottom of the screen.</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-6">Data Analysis</hd> <p>The primary variable was the number of balls caught in each block. For this, the percentage of the caught balls (%caught) was computed. For the recognition test, reaction time (RT) of responses was analyzed by excluding trials with extremely short or extremely long RTs. The outlier criterion was based on the RT bounds: The lower bound was 150 ms, and the upper bound was determined by the mean and <emph>SD</emph>, calculated separately for each group and any trials exceeding the mean by more than three <emph>SD</emph>s were excluded. In total, 3.3% of the trials had to be excluded. The RT was measured from the beginning of the trial until key press registered by the computer. In addition, for the recognition test, the percentage of correct responses (%correct) were analyzed.</p> <p>The statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS software (version 25.0, IBM Corp.). Adjustments were made for violations of homogeneity and sphericity. Partial eta square (η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups>) and Cohen's <emph>d</emph> were used as the effect sizes and are reported for all significant effects ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref21">2</reflink>]). The %caught for both groups during acquisition was analyzed in a 2 (group: dyad, alone) × 5 (block: 1–5) analysis of variance with repeated measure on block. Note that in the alone group every second block was included in the statistical analysis. This was done so that the physical practice trials of the dyad group matched with those of the alone. Block 1 at the acquisition, retention data (%caught), the RT, and the %correct at the recognition test were analyzed with a <emph>t</emph> test for independent samples. The significance level was set at <emph>p</emph> <.05. Furthermore, Pearson's product–moment correlation was calculated to determine the covariation of the %caught of the retention test and the %correct of the recognition test.</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-7">Results</hd> <p>The average %caught and the <emph>SE</emph> of the means for the acquisition phase and the retention test are displayed in Figure 2a. The mean RT and mean %correct are presented in Figure 2b and 2c, respectively. Figure 2d presents a scatter plot of the %caught and %correct scores for each participant.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2 —Mean values and the SEM of the %caught during the acquisition phase and the retention test are displayed in Figure 2a. Figures 2b and 2c illustrated the mean values and the SEM of the RT in milliseconds and the %correct from the recognition test. The correlations between %caught and %correct from the dyad and alone groups are displayed in Figure 2d. The black symbols illustrated the dyad group and the gray symbols the alone group. The same black marker types illustrate the pairs in the dyad group. RT = reaction time; SEM = SE of the mean.</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-8">Acquisition Phase</hd> <p>For the acquisition phase, the analysis indicated main effects of block, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref22">4</reflink>, 88) = 6.49, <emph>p</emph> <.01, <ephtml> <math overflow="scroll" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><msubsup><mi mathvariant="normal">η</mi><mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi><mn>2</mn></msubsup><mo>=</mo><mn>.23</mn></mrow></math> </ephtml> , and group, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref23">1</reflink>, 22) = 4.37, <emph>p</emph> <.05, <ephtml> <math overflow="scroll" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><msubsup><mi mathvariant="normal">η</mi><mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi><mn>2</mn></msubsup><mo>=</mo><mn>.16</mn></mrow></math> </ephtml> . The interaction Group × Block, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref24">4</reflink>, 88) < 1, <emph>p</emph> >.05, failed to reach significance. This finding indicated that the %caught increased significantly for both groups and that the participants in the dyad group outperformed the individuals in the alone group. Note that at the start of practice (Block 1), there were no group differences in %caught, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref25">22</reflink>) = 1.16, <emph>p</emph> >.05, alone: 95% confidence interval (CI) [41.43%, 56.06%] and dyad: 95% CI [42.29%, 62.87%].</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-9">Retention Test</hd> <p>The %caught was higher for participants in the dyad group compared with individuals in the alone group, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref26">22</reflink>) = 2.54, <emph>p</emph> <.01, <emph>d</emph> = 1.03, alone: 95% CI [50.19%, 65.63%]; dyad: 95% CI [62.47%, 83.36%].</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-10">Recognition Test</hd> <p>The participants in the dyad group tended to have higher %correct compared with the participants in the alone group (Figure 2c), but this was not statistically significant, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref27">22</reflink>) = 1.92, <emph>p</emph> >.05, alone: 95% CI [26.33%, 62.00%] and dyad: 95% CI [47.87%, 86.14%]. The analysis for the RT failed to reach significance, <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref28">22</reflink>) =.86, <emph>p</emph> >.05, alone: 95% CI [567 ms, 1,112 ms] ms and dyad: 95% CI [534 ms, 892 ms].</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-11">Correlation Between %Caught and %Correct</hd> <p>Figure 2d illustrates the relationship between %correct and %caught for the dyad and the alone groups. As portrayed and as shown by the black symbols in Figure 2d, individuals at the dyad group generally caught more balls at the retention test and had more corrected responses on the recognition test. Particularly, individuals who practiced as a pair in the dyad group showed a high covariation (e.g., if one of the dyads showed a high %caught and high %correct the other showed the same pattern). Only one pair did not show this pattern. A Pearson's product–moment correlation analysis indicated a significant positive correlation between the %caught and %correct, <emph>r</emph> =.79, <emph>p</emph> <.01 (<emph>r</emph><sups>2</sups> =.62). The higher %caught on the retention test covaried positively with the %correct in the recognition test. Note the correlation includes both the alone and the dyad groups. It is also interesting to contrast the covariation of the subgroups that composed the correlation. Therefore, a supplemental analysis was performed that contrasted the product moment correlations of the dyad and the alone groups. Both correlations were significant. The correlation for the dyad group was <emph>r</emph> =.85 (<emph>r</emph><sups>2</sups> =.72), and for the alone group was <emph>r</emph> =.63 (<emph>r</emph><sups>2</sups> =.39). The analysis of the Fisher <emph>z</emph>-transformed correlations indicated that both correlations were not statistically different.</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-12">Intertrial Dialog</hd> <p>During the breaks of the alternating practice blocks, participants in the dyad group were encouraged to share information about the task. The comments of the participants fell primarily into categories of time and precision. With regard to time and precision, participants noted "focus more on accuracy" and "try to watch the color of the line on the top to catch the ball."</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-13">Discussion</hd> <p>The primary purpose of the present experiment was to determine the effect of a dyad training protocol, designed to enhance learning in a perceptual-motor task, on task performance. This task required the participant to make an arm movement in order to catch balls (circle in the display) that fall from the top to bottom of the display in one of three ways. Unknown to the participant at the beginning of practice was that the line color on the top of the screen indicated the pattern in which the ball would fall. The results of the present experiment indicated that during acquisition both groups increased their performance in the catch ball task. The %caught of the dyad group was significantly higher compared with the alone group. This indicated that dyad training accelerated the acquisition of the catch ball task. On the retention test, the %caught was significantly different between the two groups. Participants in the dyad group caught 73% of the balls compared with 58% in the alone group. This result is in line with previous findings in the dyad training research that practicing in pairs and taking turns between observation and dialog and physical practice-induced learning advantages (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref29">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref30">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref31">9</reflink>]). Even though participants in both groups had 100 practice trials, individuals in the alone group had twice as many physical practice trials compared with participants in the dyad group. However, retention performance of the dyad group was superior compared with the alone group. Note, retention trials were performed individually. Furthermore, in the dyad group, two participants were trained in the same amount of time as one participant in the alone group. This suggests that dyad training in a catch ball task with subtle, cued information about the ball trajectory, is not only more effective, but also more efficient (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref32">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>With regard to the recognition data, participants of the dyad group were not faster in their response compared with the individuals in the alone group, but they demonstrated a tendency toward a higher percentage of correct responses compared with the participants in the alone group. In addition, the significant positive correlation of the %caught and %correct indicated that the percentage of caught balls covaried with the percentage of correctly identified stimuli. This indicated that the relationship of the recognized color of the line coinciding with the direction of the dropping ball was an important determiner of successful response production and learning the catch ball task.</p> <p>Although in both groups the covariation of the assigned stimuli and the caught balls were high, individuals in the dyad group caught significantly more balls. This is in line with our initial hypothesis that dyad training provides individuals an opportunity to extract and/or exchange important information indicating that the color of the line was associated with the trajectory of the ball. The analysis of the intertrial dialog in the dyad group enhanced this result, because the exchange of ideas focused on the task environment related to the fact that the color of the line coincided with the ball trajectory.</p> <p>Considering the present results of the recognition and retention test, it appears that dyad training protocols offer individuals the opportunity to discover contextual information in the task environment that can be used to enhance response production and to exchange this information in the dialog during the rest intervals between trials. Importantly, the individuals can apply this information on the retention test, which was performed individually. It seems that dyad training allows participants to utilize contextual information through observation and provide this information during the intertrial dialog and leverage sources of motor information through physical practice for learning a perceptual-motor task. Note that the balls moved quite fast, and one started as soon as the previous one finished this limited the processing of contextual information during physical practice.</p> <p>The important point is that when performing the task, the cognitive demands of finishing one response and beginning the next was quite high. This reduced the opportunity for the participants to detect the line color and its relationship to the ball trajectory. However, during observation, the cognitive resources were available to process this relationship or exchange it with the partner and use it on upcoming performance trials ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref33">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref34">10</reflink>]). This shows up precisely when motor and perceptual processes had to be matched for successful response execution in a changing environment ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref35">14</reflink>]). In comparison to the alone group, it appears, continuously taking turns between observation and physical practice in a perceptual-motor task enables individuals the opportunity to process the contextual environmental information that can complement the processing engaged during individual physical practice ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref36">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>Even though, this was not the main interest of the experiment, it should also be noted that in addition to the enhanced perceptual cognitive and motor processes, social interaction (e.g., suggestions, motivation) could play a beneficial role in dyad training ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref37">18</reflink>]). During acquisition, individuals had a direct interaction with the other member of the dyad that could induce some social interaction that may contribute to the advantage exhibited by the dyad group.</p> <p>Information that was observed or communicated during the intertrial dialog could act to reinforce and enhance the "still-active memory trace of the behavior" ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref38">13</reflink>], p. 3). Moreover, some research indicated that reinforcement has been linked to an increase in the neurotransmitter dopamine, which has a positive impact on memory consolidation processes ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref39">16</reflink>]). However, on the retention test, the prime determiner of learning was that all performers had to perform the task individually. Therefore, social interaction had a limited role on the retention test but the influence of the social interaction during acquisition and how motivation supports individuals to succeed and affects memory consolidation is an interesting question for future research.</p> <p>To summarize, in the present study, we have tested a dyad training protocol where individuals must respond to changing environmental demands. To increase successful response execution, participants had to notice the color of a line which showed subtle changes in color in direct correlation with ball drop direction. We found that more dyad performers utilized this perceptual information from the task environment or from the dialog between the blocks to alter their motor processes to increase the likelihood of successful response execution. On a more practical note, dyad training seems an attractive training format that can reduce fatigue or cognitive effort ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref40">6</reflink>]) on students in physical exercise classes when learning a new technique, because in half of the physical practice trials, they can be trained with the same or better success as participants that physically practiced in all trials. According to sample size, there is a possible limitation in the current experiment that should be discussed. There were six pairs in the dyad condition and as such, having two or three individuals notice the relationship between the line changing color and the ball movement would significantly skew the results for the dyad group, as they would then tell their partner (with three individuals, this would translate to 50% of the sample knowing assuming this knowledge was shared). If three individuals knew in the alone group, only 25% of the sample would be aware of the line change. Future research is necessary to replicate the present findings and to determine if the learning advantage was due to the effects of observation, the dialog, or both.</p> <p>Panzer (s.panzer@mx.uni-saarland.de) is corresponding author, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7301-2374</p> <hd id="AN0158382836-14">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>This work was supported by a grant from the German Research Foundation (PA 774/13-2; SPP 1772). The authors thank Ms. Vetter for support of the data collection.</p> <ref id="AN0158382836-15"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref23" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Blandin, Y., Lhuisset, L., & Proteau, L. (1999). Cognitive processes underlying observational learning of motor skills. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,52A(4), 957–972. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724989939088210.1080/713755856</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref21" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Erlbaum.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref3" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Granados, C., & Wulf, G. (2007). Enhancing motor learning through dyad practice. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport,78(3), 197–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2007.10599417</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref7" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Karlinsky, A., & Hodges, N.J. (2017). Turn-taking and concurrent dyad practice aid efficiency but not effectiveness of motor learning in a balance-related task. Journal of Motor Learning and Development,6(1), 35–52. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2017-002910.1123/jmld.2017-0029</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref12" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Klostermann, A., Vater, C., Kredel, R., & Hossner, E.-J. (2015). Perceptual training in beach volleyball defence: Different effects of gaze-path cueing on gaze and decision-making. Frontiers Psychology,6,1834. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.0183410.3389/fpsyg.2015.01834</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref33" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Lee, T., Swinnen, S., & Serrien, D.J. (1994). Cognitive effort and motor learning. Quest,46,328–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297<ulink href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00336297.1994.1048413010.1080/00336297.1994.10484130">http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00336297.1994.1048413010.1080/00336297.1994.10484130</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref19" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Oldfield, R.C. (1971). The assessment and analysis of handedness: The Edinburgh inventory. Neuropsychologia,9(1), 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(71)90067-410.1016/0028-3932(71)90067-4</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref4" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Panzer, S., Haab, T., Massing, M., Pfeifer, C., & Shea, C.H. (2019). Dyad training protocols and the development of a motor sequence representation. Acta Psychologica,201,1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.10294710.1016/j.actpsy.2019.102947</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref2" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Shea, C.H., Wulf, G., & Whitacre, C. (1999). Enhancing training efficiency and effectiveness through the use of dyad training. Journal of Motor Behavior,31(2), 119–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022289990960098310.1080/00222899909600983</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shea, C.H., Wright, D.L., Wulf, G., & Whitacre, C.A. (2000). Physical and observational practice afford unique learning opportunities. Journal of Motor Behavior,32,27–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022289000960135710.1080/00222890009601357</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shebilske, W.L., Regian, J.W., Arthur, W., & Jordan, J.A. (1992). A dyadic protocol for training complex skills. Human Factors: Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society,34,369–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/00187208920340030910.1177/001872089203400309</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Tolsgaard, M.G., Madsen, M.E., Ringsted, C., Oxlund, B.S., Oldenburg, A., Sorensen, J.L., Ottesen, B., & Tabor, A. (2015). The effect of dyad versus individual simulation‐based ultrasound training on skills transfer. Medical Education,49(3), 286–295. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.1262410.1111/medu.12624</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wise, R.A. (2004). Dopamine, learning and motivation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience,5,1–12.10.1038/nrn1406</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Weeks, D.L. (1992). A comparison of modeling modalities in the observational learning of an externally paced skill. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,63(4), 373–380.10.1080/02701367.1992.10608759</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. Journal of the American Medical Association,310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic Bulletin Review,23,1382–1414. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9<ulink href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-910.3758/s13423-015-0999-9">http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-910.3758/s13423-015-0999-9</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wulf, G. Shea, C.H., & Lewthwaite, R. (2010). Motor Skill learning and performance: A review of influential factors. Medical Education,44,75–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03421.x10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03421.x</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zajonc, R.B. (1965). Social facilitation. Science,149(3681), 269–274. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470479216<ulink href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy089010.1126/science.149.3681.269">http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy089010.1126/science.149.3681.269</ulink></bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Stefan Panzer; Christina Pfeifer; Peter Leinen and Charles Shea</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref39"></nolink>
Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1355331
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Dyad Training in a Perceptual-Motor Task: 'Two Pairs of Eyes Are Better than One'
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Panzer%2C+Stefan%22">Panzer, Stefan</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7301-2374">0000-0002-7301-2374</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Pfeifer%2C+Christina%22">Pfeifer, Christina</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Leinen%2C+Peter%22">Leinen, Peter</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Shea%2C+Charles%22">Shea, Charles</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Motor+Learning+and+Development%22"><i>Journal of Motor Learning and Development</i></searchLink>. Aug 2022 10(2):245-256.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Human Kinetics, Inc. 1607 North Market Street, Champaign, IL 61820. Tel: 800-474-4457; Fax: 217-351-1549; e-mail: info@hkusa.com; Web site: https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jmld/jmld-overview.xml
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 12
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Task+Analysis%22">Task Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychomotor+Skills%22">Psychomotor Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Activities%22">Physical Activities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Perceptual+Motor+Coordination%22">Perceptual Motor Coordination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Comparative+Analysis%22">Comparative Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Assisted+Testing%22">Computer Assisted Testing</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Accuracy%22">Accuracy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Retention+%28Psychology%29%22">Retention (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Recognition+%28Psychology%29%22">Recognition (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learning+Processes%22">Learning Processes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Dialogs+%28Language%29%22">Dialogs (Language)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Handedness%22">Handedness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undergraduate+Students%22">Undergraduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reaction+Time%22">Reaction Time</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Tests%22">Tests</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Germany%22">Germany</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectThesaurus
  Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Edinburgh+Handedness+Inventory%22">Edinburgh Handedness Inventory</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1123/jmld.2021-0046
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 2325-3193<br />2325-3215
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The aim of this experiment was to determine if dyad practice helped individuals become aware, use, and retain information in a dynamically changing perceptual-motor task compared with practice alone. We used a computerized perceptual-motor task, where individuals were required to intercept balls that dropped from the top of the screen. A colored line at the top of the screen provided information about the direction of the dropping ball. Participants (N = 24) were randomly assigned to one of two groups: A dyad training group where two participants alternated between physical and observational practice after each block of 20 trials, and they also engaged in dialog about the task, and an individual training group where one participant practiced the task. Both groups improved their accuracy during acquisition. On the retention test, participants in the dyad group caught significantly more balls (73%) than individuals of the alone group (58%). Participants in the dyad group also showed a higher percentage of correctly identified stimuli in the recognition task. Dyad training induced performance advantages in a perceptual-motor task because individuals became aware and used information acquired during observation and/or from the dialog.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1355331
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1355331
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1123/jmld.2021-0046
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 245
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Task Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychomotor Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physical Activities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Perceptual Motor Coordination
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Comparative Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Computer Assisted Testing
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Accuracy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Retention (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Recognition (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Learning Processes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Dialogs (Language)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Handedness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Undergraduate Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reaction Time
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Tests
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Germany
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Edinburgh Handedness Inventory
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Dyad Training in a Perceptual-Motor Task: 'Two Pairs of Eyes Are Better than One'
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Panzer, Stefan
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Pfeifer, Christina
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Leinen, Peter
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Shea, Charles
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2022
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 2325-3193
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 2325-3215
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 10
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Motor Learning and Development
              Type: main
ResultId 1