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Pedagogies of Care and Justice: African American High School Art Teachers during the Civil Rights Era in the Segregated South

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Title: Pedagogies of Care and Justice: African American High School Art Teachers during the Civil Rights Era in the Segregated South
Language: English
Authors: Kwon, Hyunji
Source: Studies in Art Education: A Journal of Issues and Research in Art Education. 2022 63(3):256-274.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 19
Publication Date: 2022
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Evaluative
Education Level: High Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Caring, Social Justice, African American Teachers, High School Teachers, Art Teachers, Educational History, Civil Rights, School Segregation, Equal Education, Art Education, Student Attitudes, Teacher Attitudes
Geographic Terms: South Carolina
DOI: 10.1080/00393541.2022.2080998
ISSN: 0039-3541
2325-8039
Abstract: This study examines the art pedagogies at Southern African American high schools during the civil rights era (1955-1969). I examine three segregated high schools located in South Carolina as a lens to highlight art pedagogies that were practiced; I expose counterstories by three former students, a student teacher, and the wife of an art teacher; I support my findings by reviewing archival data; and I illustrate how several caring African American Art Educators contributed to the agency of African American Students to achieve racial equality and justice. By locating these counterstories alongside an African American care-and-justice framework developed by Siddle Walker and Snarey, I discuss how exemplary art teachers' pedagogical practices actualize and expand care and racial equality.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1366111
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0158633605;sae01jul.22;2022Aug23.05:15;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0158633605-1">Pedagogies of Care and Justice: African American High School Art Teachers During the Civil Rights Era in the Segregated South </title> <p>This study examines the art pedagogies at Southern African American high schools during the civil rights era (1955–1969). I examine three segregated high schools located in South Carolina as a lens to highlight art pedagogies that were practiced; I expose counterstories by three former students, a student teacher, and the wife of an art teacher; I support my findings by reviewing archival data; and I illustrate how several caring African American Art Educators contributed to the agency of African American Students to achieve racial equality and justice. By locating these counterstories alongside an African American care-and-justice framework developed by Siddle Walker and Snarey, I discuss how exemplary art teachers' pedagogical practices actualize and expand care and racial equality.</p> <p>"Collective accounts acknowledge the important role that caring art pedagogies played in constructing racial equality and justice during the civil rights era."</p> <p>Although we had secondhand books... they [teachers] made us know that we could do anything we wanted to do. (Furgess, personal communication, March 13, 2020)</p> <p>Despite unequal circumstances during the civil rights era (1955–1969), some teachers in African American[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] high schools cared about, inspired, and demonstrated the possibilities of survival and prosperity of African American Students against white supremacy. By underlining interviewees' counterstories regarding the caring art pedagogies practiced by several art teachers at three segregated high schools during the mid-20th century along with the care-and-justice framework by Siddle Walker and Snarey ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref2">69</reflink>]), I analyze the contribution of art pedagogies[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref3">2</reflink>] and curricular emphasis to the agency[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref4">3</reflink>] of African American Students toward achieving racial equality and social justice.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref5">4</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0158633605-2">Care, Justice, and African American Art Education</hd> <p>During the civil rights era, the widespread resistance by white supremacists and segregationists in Southern states prevented desegregation for nearly 2 decades after the Supreme Court's landmark <emph>Brown v. Board of Education</emph> ruling of 1954 (McRae, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref6">55</reflink>]).[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref7">5</reflink>] Except for a very few white scholars who acknowledged the importance of teaching African American achievement to enhance the self-respect of students (Powdermaker, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref8">61</reflink>]) and how African American Teachers fostered "racial pride, [B]lack culture, and mutual respect" (Woodward, 1955/[<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref9">80</reflink>], p. 217), the dominant white supremacist scholarship had long neglected the care and justice approaches in education by African American Teachers (Baker, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref10">3</reflink>]; Hale, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref11">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>Similarly, Euro-American art education scholars during the late 1950s and 1960s assumedly knew and saw the world based on the dominant Western culture, practicing epistemological racism or the "racially biased ways of knowing... based on the supremacy of white modernism and civilization" (Scheurich & Young, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref12">65</reflink>], pp. 4, 7) that is prevalent in education research. Thus, major journals in the field (<emph>Studies in Art Education</emph>, <emph>Art Education</emph>) did not reflect the vibrancy of the Black cultural resistance movement.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref13">6</reflink>] Instead, some white scholars compared Black and white students on their creativity (Bolton, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref14">8</reflink>]), perceptual and thinking abilities (Renick, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref15">62</reflink>]), and drawing scores (Eisner, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref16">22</reflink>]) without fully acknowledging the structural, systemic, and economic inequalities among races and their potential effects on student achievement.</p> <p>Despite this, several white scholars partially recognized the economic and social disenfranchisement of Black Students (E. P. Cohen, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref17">11</reflink>]; H. L. Cohen, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref18">12</reflink>]) and introduced relatable resources for them (Hudson, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref19">40</reflink>]; Johnson & Raven, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref20">41</reflink>]; Westby-Gibson, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref21">79</reflink>]). A few white scholars had a care- and justice-oriented perspective akin to education administrator Richard Foster ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref22">25</reflink>]), who raised questions about structural racism in the educational system; and another scholar, John Povey ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref23">60</reflink>]), who analyzed how Eurocentric racial prejudice produces a "cultural hierarchy" (p. 16) between European art and African art and how "race is judged ultimately... by its technology and its power, but [should be judged] by its art" (p. 16).</p> <p>Beginning in the 1970s, Black Scholars have explicitly cared about and advocated for the equal value of Black artistic creations. Grigsby ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref24">29</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref25">30</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref26">31</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref27">32</reflink>]) explored Black and other minority ethnicities, heritage, and diversity in art, all of which were omitted from history. DePillars ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref28">17</reflink>]) navigated how Black aesthetics[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref29">7</reflink>] and racial consciousness are shaped in art and provided a comprehensive list of artists of the Black Chicago Renaissance in his posthumously published work (DePillars, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref30">18</reflink>]). Furthering the care-full and justice-minded works by Grigsby and DePillars, Young ([<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref31">82</reflink>]) argued that the collegial and supportive interaction between teachers, principals, and parents toward art and students can help defeat the deficit model[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref32">8</reflink>] imposed by the dominant Eurocentric view on Black Students.</p> <p>Since the 2000s, both Black and non-Black art education scholars have responded to the need to value and promote African American art education in history (Acuff et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref33">1</reflink>]; Bey, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref34">5</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref35">6</reflink>]; Bolin & Kantawala, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref36">7</reflink>]; Congdon, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref37">15</reflink>]; Hardy, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref38">34</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref39">35</reflink>]; Holt, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref40">38</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref41">39</reflink>]; Kee, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref42">49</reflink>]; Lawton, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref43">52</reflink>]). However, there is insufficient art education research on the four characteristics (i.e., professional teachers, curricular and extracurricular programs, parental support, and the leadership of principals; Siddle Walker, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref44">67</reflink>]) comprising art pedagogies at segregated schools that provided a caring environment and promoted racial equality and justice during the civil rights era.</p> <hd id="AN0158633605-3">My Positionality and Counterstorytelling</hd> <p>It's a misunderstanding that our [African American] education was not as good education and that we were victims.... [W]e had dedicated teachers. South Carolina was so silly to send them [teachers] to better colleges to segregate them, so they got better education than white teachers![<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref45">9</reflink>] (Furgess, personal communication, March 13, 2020)</p> <p>Although my positionality as an immigrant who migrated to the United States in the 2010s may seem irrelevant to this research, I aim to defy epistemological racism by acknowledging the commitment of African American Art Educators in promoting racial equality. In collecting the lived experiences of African American Individuals regarding art pedagogical practices in the 1950s and 1960s, I focus on three segregated high schools in South Carolina. These schools include C. A. Johnson High School (Johnson; 1949–present); Booker T. Washington High School (Booker; 1916–1975); and Wilkinson Orangeburg High School, formerly Wilkinson High School (Wilkinson; 1937–present). Johnson is and Booker was in Columbia, South Carolina, and Wilkinson is in Orangeburg, South Carolina. While Johnson was an academic school for college preparation, Booker and Wilkinson provided both academic and vocational paths[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref46">10</reflink>] (Hodges, personal communication, March 25, 2020; Williams, personal communication, October 5, 2020).</p> <p>In addition to archival data,[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref47">11</reflink>] one former art teacher, three former students, and the wife of a former art teacher provided stories about art pedagogies. Edith Friday Wilson graduated from Booker (1952–57), was a student teacher at Johnson (1960–61), and in 1961 became an art teacher at Fairwold Middle School, an African American–only junior high school in Columbia. Melvin Hodges and Alexzena Furgess were students at Booker (1951–56 and 1957–62, respectively). Cecil Williams was a student at Wilkinson (1949–54). Mary Boseman McAfee is the wife of a former art teacher, Charles L. McAfee (1930–2013), who worked at Booker from 1955 to 1973.</p> <p>Prior to my interviews, I shared my intention of looking for the connections between art pedagogical practices and the civil rights movement. I then posed open-ended questions about the four characteristics of segregated schools (i.e., art teachers, art curricular and extracurricular programs, parental support, and the leadership of principals). The central and recurring themes from these oral stories and archival data include caring teachers, teachers' concern for segregation, racial equality, a strong sense of agency, and community events, with religion being a minor theme.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref48">12</reflink>] All interviewees praised their unsung, caring, and leading African American Art Educators and the larger African American Communities that fostered the agency of African American Students. Their oral stories confront the social science majoritarian storytelling (Solórzano & Yosso, [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref49">71</reflink>]) that removes African American Educators from the dominant narrative of the civil rights movement (Baker, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref50">3</reflink>]) and victimizes them by focusing on their insufficient resources limited by white authority. Thus, their stories function as counterstorytelling, in the form of critical race theory methodology, and emphasize African American Community cultural wealth, or the "array of knowledge, skills, abilities, and contacts... [used] to survive and resist macro and micro-forms of oppression" (Yosso, [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref51">81</reflink>], p. 77).</p> <p>Importantly, the goal of counterstorytelling is "to illustrate broad principles regarding race and racial/social justice... not to vent or rant regarding one's own racial struggle" (Ladson-Billings, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref52">51</reflink>], p. 42). Hence, I locate the collective accounts of counterstories along with the five African American care-and-justice principles theorized by Siddle Walker and Snarey ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref53">69</reflink>]). I contextualize personally referenced stories within the broader, historical African American education context wherein pedagogical principles operated against laws, ordinances, and policies that worked to reinscribe racism. Collective and contextualized counterstories therefore "advance larger concerns" and make the "principled argument" (Ladson-Billings, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref54">51</reflink>], p. 42) that art pedagogies contributed to constructing and expanding care and racial equality.</p> <hd id="AN0158633605-4">Pedagogies of Care and Justice in African American Art Education</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0158633605-5">Care-and-Justice Moral Framework</hd> <p>Studies on moral care and justice related to schooling were developed during the civil rights era. <emph>Care</emph> means "liberating others from their state of need and actively promoting their welfare" (Siddle Walker & Snarey, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref55">69</reflink>], p. 4). While caring is centered on empathy, <emph>justice</emph> is based on fairness and thus liberates "others from injustice and orienting oneself away from biases and partial passions and toward universal ethical principles" (Siddle Walker & Snarey, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref56">69</reflink>], p. 4). These two ethical orientations have often been white-centric, gendered, separated, and hierarchized (Siddle Walker & Snarey, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref57">69</reflink>]) by either subordinating care to justice (Kohlberg, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref58">50</reflink>]) or justice to care (Gilligan, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref59">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>Black feminist Patricia Hill Collins ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref60">13</reflink>]) refuted the gendered dichotomy between care and justice and epistemological racism by proposing that the ethic of caring comprising individual expressiveness, emotions in dialogue, and a capacity for empathy, is a lived experience of Black People (of all genders), a criterion of knowledge, and a means to achieve gender and racial equality. In line with this inseparability between care and justice in moral development for African Americans, Siddle Walker and Snarey ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref61">69</reflink>]) proposed five principles that historically contribute to the shaping of effective educational environments for African American Students, which intersect with the collected counterstories, and further provide implications for contemporary art education.</p> <hd id="AN0158633605-6">Gender–Race Association: Race Was Not Subordinate to Gender</hd> <p>The first value is that race is not subordinate to gender. Although men held most of the leadership positions in education (e.g., supervisors, principals) in the 1950s and 1960s, African American education Communities provided just and caring environments that contributed to racial equality. In part, this was because race was—and is—"the foremost prominent feature that defines how they [African Americans] are categorized" (Siddle Walker & Snarey, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref62">69</reflink>], p. 8).</p> <p>Gender divisions were present in some school events, curricula, and extracurricular clubs. At Booker, a painting class (as in furniture and house painting) for vocational training was taught by a male instructor to male students from the 1930s until its closure in 1975, whereas female teachers and students dominated other subjects (e.g., food, cosmetology, typing). However, art classes and art clubs did not have gender divisions. Although more male students generally participated in art clubs in Johnson and Booker, female students often took the leading roles (Johnsonian, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref63">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>McAfee was an excellent teacher who provided good education, but all [teachers] did! (Furgess, personal communication, March 13, 2020)</p> <p>All teachers were devoted, passionate, and knowledgeable about teaching and their students.... Our teachers were concerned about us and ongoing segregation, wanted to give us more, and tried to offer the best of all. (Williams, personal communication, October 5, 2020)</p> <p>Due to the intercentricity of race and racism, African American Teachers of all genders understood how race and racism are "central, endemic, permanent and a fundamental part" (Yosso, [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref64">81</reflink>], p. 73) of the lives of African American Students. As emphasized above, African American Teachers, regardless of gender, shared the understanding that race is the primary factor that defines the lives of their students.</p> <p>In the present day, a caring environment toward racial equality for Black Students and Students of Color is not the sole responsibility imposed on female or art teachers. Instead, mutual collaboration between teachers of all genders and subjects can build an environment in which careful pedagogical practices for racially equal education can manifest.</p> <hd id="AN0158633605-7">Resistance–Accommodation Association: Resistance Was Not Subordinate to Accommodation</hd> <p>Second, resistance[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref65">13</reflink>] is not subordinate to accommodation. Adopting W. E. B. Du Bois's approach to advocating for equal rights and education, resistance is to provide an academic education for African Americans equal to their white counterparts and to teach the values of African American history, heritage, and achievement. Drawing inspiration from Booker T. Washington, accommodation means advocating basic manual education and offering white-centric education "by concentrating on internal uplift... despite larger structural inequalities" (Siddle Walker & Snarey, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref66">69</reflink>], p. 8). Art teachers provided the same curriculum to students from both vocational and academic tracks and strategically used both accommodation and resistance in curriculum.</p> <p>I don't remember [learning about African American art]. Self-realization of Black art had not come forward [in the early 1950s] in the education system, certainly in the South. I think if art teachers put a lot of emphasis on African American art at that time, that would have been seen as subversive, and they could not have kept the job. (Hodges, personal communication, March 25, 2020)</p> <p>We [art teachers] had reference books, art history books [about the] history of master artists and Renaissance. (Wilson, personal communication, September 17, 2020)</p> <p>Using education to reinforce and maintain white supremacy, art textbooks, distributed to African American Teachers by Richland County, were primarily about European art history and master artists (Craven, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref67">16</reflink>]), elements of art and design practices (Goldstein & Goldstein, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref68">28</reflink>]), and the history of various art methods with a few non-Western contexts (e.g., Japan, Egypt; Nicholas et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref69">57</reflink>]). These textbooks nearly have no examples of African or African American art and design.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref70">14</reflink>] As a form of accommodation, African American Art Teachers/Educators generally taught mainstream European art history and techniques for drawing, painting, sculpture, ceramics, and calligraphy (Johnsonian, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref71">43</reflink>]; McAfee, personal communication, April 15, 2020; Wilson, personal communication, September 17, 2020; see Figure 1).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Johnsonian. ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref72">43</reflink>]). Art class at C. A. Johnson High School. The Walker Local and Family History Center Digital Collections. Richland Library, Columbia, SC.</p> <p>There were lots of self-portraits [and] lots of drawings and paintings.... He [Mr. McAfee] did all of the [art] history. We learned about Black Artists, but also [artists] from Africa. It helped us value our contributions to art. (Furgess, personal communication, March 13, 2020)</p> <p>As an art teacher, we need to improvise as we teach, not restricted by textbooks or curriculum.... African American art, design, and patterns were subjected to students' art creation. For example, when students painted a person, they painted an African American. There were lots of painting and depicting of African American subjects. (Wilson, personal communication, September 17, 2020; see Figure 2)</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Johnsonian. ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref73">44</reflink>]). Art class at C. A. Johnson High School. The Walker Local and Family History Center Digital Collections. Richland Library, Columbia, SC.</p> <p>The progress made by the civil rights movement and the lack of supervision by white authorities in Southern states left openings for African American Teachers to be more flexible in their curriculum (Baker, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref74">3</reflink>]). As a form of resistance, some African American Art Educators refused to entirely accept or comply with white curriculum and instead promoted Black aesthetics by including African American art and developing lesson plans that revolved around African American art, design, and subjects.</p> <p>The normalization of whiteness in art that perpetuates racism is a pervasive, ongoing problem in the field of art education (Buffington, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref75">10</reflink>]; Desai, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref76">19</reflink>]). Contemporary art teachers can teach mainstream art (as a form of accommodation), while relating it to artworks by Artists of Color that examine race, racism, and whiteness within a historical context (as a form of resistance).[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref77">15</reflink>] In doing so, addressing structural inequalities in the arts and empowering and inspiring Students of Color becomes possible.</p> <hd id="AN0158633605-8">Religion–Ethics Association: Religion Was Not Subordinate to Ethics</hd> <p>Third, religion is not subordinate to ethics. Influenced by "West African and Christian moral theory" (Siddle Walker & Snarey, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref78">69</reflink>], p. 9), African American Communities typically regard individuals as having equal worth and being equally cared for by God.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref79">16</reflink>] Therefore, ethical ideals are equally foregrounded as a matter of faith in many African American Communities.</p> <p>Religion was a backbone and was held in high esteem in African American school and the community.... We had a shared belief system throughout the whole school. In the African American community, education was our salvation. (Williams, personal communication, October 5, 2020)</p> <p>Based on the notions of the equality of individuals and the equal care provided by God, African American education and religion were interrelated. As a firm belief in religion was considered equivalent to strongly held ethical ideals, discussion about religion was common at Wilkinson (Williams, personal communication, October 5, 2020).</p> <p>At Johnson and Booker, art teachers offered an opportunity for students to create Christmas cards and used classes to create large-scale mural paintings and sculptures to be displayed at school events during the Christmas season, which were considered the most important school gatherings for parents and the community (Johnsonian, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref80">42</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref81">47</reflink>]; Washingtonian, [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref82">76</reflink>]; see Figures 3 and 4).</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 3. Johnsonian. ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref83">42</reflink>]). Art class at C. A. Johnson High School near the Christmas season.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 4. (right) Washingtonian. ([<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref84">77</reflink>]). Christmas card making in art class at Booker T. Washington High School near the Christmas season. The Walker Local and Family History Center Digital Collections. Richland Library, Columbia, SC.</p> <p>Relating the severe suffering of slavery to the contemporary hardship of Black People due to systemic racism, "religion... [as one of] the most spiritual human activities" (West, [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref85">78</reflink>], p. 100) is the center of Black life. By understanding the importance of religion and spirituality to many Black students, Black Scholar Mariah Spann Buchanan ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref86">9</reflink>]) proposed using Black art depicting work ethics, family connection, religious elements, and political positions to educate Black Youth about Black aesthetics and ethical behavior.</p> <hd id="AN0158633605-9">Agency–Legacy Association: Agency Was Not Subordinate to Legacy</hd> <p>Fourth, agency is not subordinate to legacy. Despite the oppressive legacies of slavery, Jim Crow law,[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref87">17</reflink>] and unequal access to work and education, African American Communities have continuously, cooperatively, and systematically engaged in activities that "define them as Americans and create opportunities for themselves and their children" (Siddle Walker & Snarey, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref88">69</reflink>], p. 10).</p> <p>McAfee's students created the murals.... [In the murals,] white man with a whip is standing over people picking up cotton.... [T]he mural was about the slavery period in the state. (Furgess, personal communication, March 13, 2020)</p> <p>He [Mr. McAfee] didn't do it [the murals] but he directed the students and assisted them in many ways. He spent many hours. I remember they [the murals] were huge, perfectly done, and so beautiful. (McAfee, personal communication, April 15, 2020)</p> <p>In terms of the legacy of slavery, McAfee's students at Booker created three mural paintings, each 8 feet tall and 8 feet wide, and hung them at the back of the school auditorium stage for the John W. Work Chorus performance in 1962. In this performance, senior students sang African American spirituals, which combine "Christian values... [with] the hardships of slavery" (National Museum of African American History & Culture, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref89">56</reflink>], para. 3). Furgess, who performed in the chorus, remembered that the murals were a visual rendition of the traumatic history of slavery and provided context for the songs (Figure 5).</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 5. Washingtonian. ([<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref90">75</reflink>]). John W. Work Chorus at Booker T. Washington High School. (part). The Walker Local and Family History Center Digital Collections. Richland Library, Columbia, SC.</p> <p>At the same time, a sense of community was celebrated in the murals. While its details are difficult to discern due to the low quality of the photograph, based on the difference in attire, the paintings at both ends seem to progress toward more modern African American history. In the painting on the left, a man appears to be preaching to a crowd, and, in the painting on the right, the front figures seem to incite others to join them. Although the content is unclear, a sense of belonging, commitment to the community, and respected African American Figures all seem to be present.</p> <p>We observed a Black Week, which further along in time became a month. [During this week,] in the art club, we painted portraits of Frederick Douglass [an abolitionist from the 1800s] and George Washington Carver [an agricultural scientist in the 1900s] in poster form and displayed them on the bulletin board and around the school. (Williams, personal communication, October 5, 2020)</p> <p>The fundamental objective of art is to remove from the pupil any form of prejudice. (Johnsonian, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref91">46</reflink>], p. 33)</p> <p>For our democratic way of life, art strives to provide experiences to foster individual growth in thinking, feeling, and being. (Johnsonian, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref92">48</reflink>], p. 21)</p> <p>The schools tried to uplift the agency of students by observing Negro Achievement Week. Likewise, Ruby E. Burrell, an art teacher at Johnson in the late 1960s, emphasized the contribution of art to the development of core elements of agency, such as "self-reflection, responsibility, decision-making ability, and self-reliance" (Siddle Walker & Snarey, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref93">69</reflink>], p. 10), which aligned with the culture of these schools.</p> <p>As seen above, devoted African American Education Communities acknowledged the oppressive legacy of slavery and strengthened a sense of agency and community. Because human agency "transforms... [the] response[s] to the problems posed by... historical situations" (Emirbayer & Mische, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref94">23</reflink>], p. 970), and the arts are "[the] growing capacity to creatively imagine a different world" (Gaztambide-Fernández et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref95">26</reflink>], p. 12), some arts and agency are similar in nature and constitutive of one another. Thus, art teachers can provide a space where Students of Color are conscious of their historically oppressive circumstances, while imagining alternative possibilities for the future via art.</p> <hd id="AN0158633605-10">Community–Individual Association: The Community Was Not Subordinate to the Individual</hd> <p>Fifth, the community is not subordinate to the individual. In African American Education and Communities, the survival of the community is mutually implicated in the survival of an individual African American. As an example, "otherparenting" (i.e., grandmothers and other mothers taking care of children regardless of their household bond) is practiced collectively by Principals, Parents, and Teachers for the care of and fairness toward African American Communities (Siddle Walker & Snarey, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref96">69</reflink>]).</p> <p>We had an outside art exhibition once a year in spring. We exhibited our posters and drawings, and all parents and community were invited. (Williams, personal communication, October 5, 2020)</p> <p>He [Mr. McAfee] provided group tours in Columbia and out-of-state like Atlanta to enrich students' experiences. (McAfee, personal communication, April 15, 2020)</p> <p>African American Parents were involved in their children's education, as narrated by Williams, and via the Parent–Teacher Association, as archived in the <emph>Johnsonian</emph>, <emph>Washingtonian</emph>, and <emph>Comet</emph>. African American Parents were seen as "agitators to the system, searching for ways to achieve better educational opportunities for their children" (Siddle Walker, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref97">66</reflink>], p. 9). Additionally, McAfee, an art teacher at Booker, supplied transportation to students and took his art club students on various field trips. Art-related extracurricular activities were "opportunities for students to learn to appreciate certain cultural activities... to counter the negative influence and social inequalities outside the school" (Siddle Walker & Tompkins, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref98">70</reflink>], p. 86).</p> <p>In working with Students of Color, art teachers can employ otherparenting, or shared parenting, by utilizing the influence and resources in the community. The community cultural wealth, or knowledge, skills, abilities, and contacts possessed by Teachers, Parents, and Communities of Color, can provide the content and context for art curricular and extracurricular activities to survive and thrive in opposition to white supremacy (Young, [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref99">82</reflink>]). As such, a caring community is instrumental for individual Students of Color to progress despite inequalities.</p> <hd id="AN0158633605-11">Beyond the Care-and-Justice Framework</hd> <p>Art is in our culture. (Wilson, personal communication, September 17, 2020)</p> <p>Why don't you include Jonathan Green in your research, saying how important his work is? (Furgess, personal communication, March 13, 2020)</p> <p>I recommend that you look into Floyd Gordon, who is specialized in low country South Carolina scenes and Richard Samuel Roberts who captured African American lives in the 1920s and 1930s. (Hodges, personal communication, March 25, 2020)</p> <p>Wilson, a former art teacher, remarked on the importance of art in African American culture. Furthering Wilson's point, Furgess and Hodges, who have had nonart-related professions, shared their continuing interest in art and knowledge on historical and contemporary South Carolina–based artists. Their shared appreciation of art may have its roots in the historical emphasis in African American education.</p> <p>In the 1930s, Andrew Simmons, a principal at Booker (1932–1945), valued the arts and enabled the incorporation of "the arts into the curriculum" (Edwards, 1999, p. 12) and "music and art in community" (Comet, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref100">14</reflink>], p. 3). Robert E. Howard, a principal at Wilkinson in the 1950s, provided the best cameras and a dark room in the community for students to document school and community events (Williams, personal communication, October 5, 2020). In 1952, art was suggested to "be of the greatest value in the future" (Felton et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref101">24</reflink>], p. 60) to African American principals in the state. While not generalizable, collective accounts and archival data imply that the attention given to art in historical African American Education may have had a lasting impact on their students, as they continued to advocate for the significance of Black aesthetics in raising racial consciousness for both Black and non-Black viewers.</p> <p>Lots of Black people are seen as being not as intelligent or not as literate as others.... They just don't have the same access [as white people].... When you start way back here and everybody else is way up here, you've got to catch up! And you can't catch up by yourself. (Furgess, personal communication, March 13, 2020)</p> <p>Later in my career, lots of African American Artists and books became available and I included them in my classes. (Wilson, personal communication, September 17, 2020)</p> <p>I was an eyewitness, artist, and activist in the American civil rights movement. (Williams, personal communication, October 5, 2020)</p> <p>Beyond narrating the lived art pedagogical experiences in segregated high schools, three interviewees willingly talked about their postgraduation involvement in advancing the agency of African Americans. In opposition to the deficit model applied to Black students, Furgess and Wilson, former teachers, considered (art) education a vital force for agency and equality, utilizing resources deemed fitting for African American Students. Practicing "artivism," or using art to bring about sociopolitical change, Williams founded the Cecil Williams South Carolina Civil Rights Museum in Orangeburg to commemorate the civil rights movement, mainly through his historical photography works.</p> <p>While Siddle Walker and Snarey's ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref102">69</reflink>]) care-and-justice framework helps people comprehend the art pedagogies practiced in segregated high schools within a larger historical context, the collective counterstories underline the distinctive role of art in actualizing this framework. Moreover, counterstories reveal how art enables ongoing care-full and justice-oriented advocacy for contemporary African Americans, further showing that art is not only instrumental, but also constitutes, continues, and expands the care-and-justice framework. By highlighting previously underaddressed vital, resistant, and caring art pedagogical practices, counterstories provide a means by which African American Communities defied white supremacy and thrived during and after the civil rights era.</p> <hd id="AN0158633605-12">Discussion and Implications for Art Education</hd> <p>Whereas the involvement of art teachers may not be seen as influential to promoting civil rights[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref103">18</reflink>] (i.e., organizing protests, advising student councils, etc.), counterstories emphasize how several racially and politically conscious African American Art Educators, with the support of administrators and parents, cared about and promoted the agency of African American Students and thereby contributed to the larger civil rights movement. Collective accounts acknowledge the important role that caring art pedagogies played in constructing racial equality and justice during the civil rights era, thereby creating expansive civil rights narratives that include African American Art Teachers/Educators.</p> <p>Additionally, counterstories underscore the insight that caring is the shared responsibility of all teachers, principals, parents, and the community. In addition to caring for individual students, these schools provided art curricula and a supportive environment for the arts that countered the negative influences from an unequal society. This is called "institutional caring" and includes both interpersonal caring and the "institutional structures" (Siddle Walker, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref104">66</reflink>], p. 201) that prepare students to confront unequal and undemocratic structures. Aside from the suggested art curricula (discussing race, racism, and whiteness; relating spiritual aspects of Black art to ethical behaviors; and juxtaposing oppressions and alternative agency), art teachers in partnership with school administrators and parents can collaboratively and systematically perform institutional caring by utilizing community cultural wealth for extracurricular, school-wide arts events.</p> <p>It is my hope that this research can help familiarize art educators with caring art pedagogies and stimulate more historical research on African American Art Teachers/Educators and their achievements. Due to different histories, cultures, and localities, it is possible that the care-and-justice moral framework may not be applicable to all contemporary African American Students while also potentially being suitable for some Students of Color. Yet, caring art pedagogies provide a structure on which art teachers can develop care-full and justice-oriented art education in which Students of Color are cared for and have a wider spectrum of experiences to confront a world of injustice. Also, by learning about portraiture and narratives regarding caring African American Art Teachers/Educators in the past, Black Students (and Students of Color) may join the teaching profession by "see[ing] possibilities for themselves in the art [teaching] world"[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref105">19</reflink>] (Lawton, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref106">52</reflink>], p. 112).</p> <p>Despite the oppressive political reality and teaching in the racially segregated South, some African American Art Educators believed the arts could help teachers and students imagine and reinforce a different world, and they provided various curricular and extracurricular artistic activities that were more diverse than those offered in a segregated society (Bey, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref107">5</reflink>]). Considering how white-centric art curricula (Buffington, 2019; Desai, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref108">19</reflink>]) and teacher education (St. John & Cadray, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref109">72</reflink>]), along with the insufficient presence of Black Art Teachers (Lawton, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref110">53</reflink>]), are representative and the result of white-privileged institutional racism, teaching and expanding caring art pedagogies is one way to challenge and disrupt institutional racism by means of institutional caring.</p> <hd id="AN0158633605-13">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <p>Endnotes</p> <ref id="AN0158633605-14"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Acuff, J. B., Hirak, B., & Nangah, M. (2012). Dismantling a master narrative: Using culturally responsive pedagogy to teach the history of art education. 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Race Ethnicity and Education, 8 (1), 69 – 91.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Young, B. (1990). The minority family as a mediator for their children's art and academic education. In B. Young (Ed.), Art, culture, and ethnicity (pp. 33 – 52). National Art Education Association.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0158633605-15"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> I use the term <emph>African American</emph> to denote the people and "descendants of persons brought as slaves" (Agyemang et al., [2], p. 1017), as they comprised most of the Black population in the American South until 1965 (Berlin, [4]). Since 1965, the influx of immigrants from the Caribbean (Afro-Caribbean or African Caribbean), Africa (Black African or African), and Europe and the Pacific Rim (Black) diversified the term, while Black includes the heterogeneity within these populations (Agyemang et al., [2]). Thus, I use the term <emph>Black</emph> to include all types of Black populations while differentiating them from African Americans as the descendants of persons brought as slaves. The terms <emph>African American education</emph> or <emph>African American art education</emph> denote the segregated education for African Americans (people and descendants of persons brought as slaves) in the American South until the education system was desegregated in the mid-1970s. The U.S. Census Bureau ([74]) defined <emph>White</emph> as "a person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa" (para. 2). Yet the social definition of "white" is debated regarding racial and sociocultural (Hispanic and Latino Americans) and religious associations (Islam, Judaism, etc.). In this study, <emph>white</emph> indicates Protestant Americans of European ancestry residing in the American South who benefited from and were complicit in white supremacy, which is the belief in the superiority of white people over other races by defending their power and privilege as manifested in African American slavery, the antebellum status quo, and the legal and sociocultural segregation of the races during the Jim Crow era. Additionally, I acknowledge that "white is a construct of power, rather than an authentic human ethnicity" (Rolling, [64], p. 248). Following Rolling ([64]), I use the lowercase "white" as an antiracism effort when identifying an individual or structure (e.g., white scholar, white supremacy). In this regard, I also intentionally capitalize when identifying a minority individual or group (i.e., African American Students, African American Art Teachers/Educators, Black Scholar, Students of Color, Communities of Color, etc.).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> In this study, pedagogies include formal courses, methods, hidden curricula, and extracurricular activities.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Human agency is "a temporally embedded process of social engagement, informed by the past (in its habitual aspect), but also oriented toward the future (as a capacity to imagine alternative possibilities)" (Emirbayer & Mische, [23], p. 963). Through the interplay of habit, imagination, and judgment, human agency reproduces and transforms the responses to "problems posed by... historical situations" (Emirbayer & Mische, [23], p. 970).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Justice encompasses the behavioral, ethical, and legal practice toward creating equal respect, equal rights, and formal equality (Siddle Walker & Snarey, [69]). The "impartial fairness or respect for all persons" (Siddle Walker & Snarey, [69], p. 5) as a universal claim is the primary principle and the ultimate goal of justice. In this study, the educational efforts to dismantle not only formal inequality but also the "cultural, institutional, and tacit forms of subordination and exclusion" (Gaztambide-Fernández et al., [26], p. 6) devised by whites employed principally against African Americans are considered as pursuing justice. I acknowledge that my small case study is not representative of African American art education taught at the secondary level during the civil rights era.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Brown v. Board of Education</emph> is the landmark ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court that U.S. state laws establishing racial segregation in public schools are unconstitutional.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> In the cultural realm, the arts encompass practice, materials, and contexts as well as "ideas and structures" that shape what is "classified as the arts" (Gaztambide-Fernández et al., [26], p. 13). Because what is deemed to be the arts is implicated by and belongs to whiteness, the arts are therefore "white property" (Gaztambide-Fernández et al., [26], p. 15). Thus, cultural resistance movements to promote Black aesthetics in opposition to the arts as white property is an act of care for justice, liberating Black people from the needs and injustice in which Black artistic creations are not equally valued and are considered inferior in the art world. These cultural resistance movements include the Black Chicago Renaissance and Black Arts Movement, which were aligned with the civil rights movement from its inception. Both movements explored the history, heritage, and strength of Black visual arts, highlighting distinctive Black aesthetics. Whereas the Black Chicago Renaissance emerged in Chicago in the 1930s and had its defining period until the 1960s (Hine & McCluskey, [37]), the Black Arts Movement began in New York City and became national in the 1960s and 1970s.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Considering that race is a social construct and aesthetics is a set of principles and practices with an appreciation of beauty, Black aesthetics cannot be easily defined. Following Black philosopher Paul C. Taylor ([73]), "to do 'Black aesthetics' is to use art, criticism, or analysis to explore the role that expressive objects and practices play in the creation and maintenance of Black life-worlds" (p. 12).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The deficit model is the application of epistemological racism in education research, which only considers the sociocultural traits of Students of Color that differ from their white counterparts as the reason for educational failure and not the educational system or prevalent socioeconomic disparities in society (Solórzano & Yosso, [71]).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> During the Jim Crow era, to preserve segregation in higher education, 12 Southern states provided out-of-state scholarships for teachers to finance more advanced study (Baker, [3]), which enabled African American Teachers to obtain higher education degrees at prestigious universities. McAfee obtained his master's degree in art education from New York University in 1963 (McAfee, personal communication, April 15, 2020).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> All students and the majority of faculty were African American. Johnson and Wilkinson were similar in size in terms of students, and Booker was smaller (952, 910, and 642, respectively); while the student–teacher ratios were diverse (16:1, 21:1, 10:1). Racial identification may not be accurate because there are no surviving documents recording the race of teachers and students, and I only identified their race by viewing surviving yearbooks. It seems that there have been very few white educators at Johnson since the mid-1950s. At Booker, there seemed to be several white staff from the early 1960s and white faculty from the late 1960s. Wilkinson had only African American Educators in 1964. I selected the yearbooks to count the number of students and faculty, but also to provide the context to the stories told by my narrators: The Johnson yearbook was from 1961 (the year when Wilson was a student teacher), the Booker yearbook was from 1962 (when Furgess graduated), and the Wilkinson yearbook was from 1964 (the only version archived online, while 1964 is a similar period to other yearbooks I selected). It is unclear why Booker had a smaller student–teacher ratio than the other two segregated schools. This may be due to the gap in salary between the counties (as detailed in the "Local Context of African American Education and Art Education" section). Additionally, well-studied and well-known principals of Booker, such as Andrew Simmons (principal from 1932 to 1945), who were "instrumental in advocating for equal teachers' pay for the African-American [T]eachers in... South Carolina" (Edwards, 1999, p. 14), might have had an impact on the recruitment and retention of faculty at Booker.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Primary resources for "first-person accounts of events" (Lundy, [54], p. 396) that were created during the time period under study that I used include the Central County Board of Education Minutes (1950–69); State Department of Education Annual Reports (State Report, 1951–71); original documents and letters from the Palmetto Education Association (African American Teacher's Association, 1951–70; Palmetto); local newspapers (1951–70); surviving yearbooks from Johnson (Johnsonian), Booker (Washingtonian), and Wilkinson (Wilkinsonian) ranging from 1951 to 1970; and <emph>Comet</emph>, the student newspaper at Booker (1933–66). Secondary resources include art textbooks used in Richland County where Johnson and Booker were located (Craven, [16]; Goldstein & Goldstein, [28]; Nicholas et al., [57]) and relatable historical research (Baker, [3]; Edwards, [20], 1999).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> During the interviews, although I did not search for the values emphasized in the care-and-justice framework developed by Siddle Walker and Snarey ([69]), the recurring themes resonate with their framework.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Resistance in this study indicates the collective efforts and movement to refuse to accept or comply with formal inequality. On the other hand, accommodation in this study means an act to partially conform to racially unequal and oppressive standards, regulations, and laws.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The only example of African art is in the book <emph>Art in Everyday Life</emph> (Goldstein & Goldstein, [28]). Out of 350 figures, one African wood sculpture is included, with the statement "primitive Negro art is decorative and full of imagination" (p. 422).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> For example, Kehinde Wiley subversively inserts contemporary African American Men and Women with hip-hop culture items into traditional European portraits. Rolling ([64]) provided an in-depth analysis on whiteness in visual culture through the case of Wiley and other African American Artists by using visual culture archaeology.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> African American Christianity is the result of enslavement, with the large-scale conversions of slaves in the mid-18th century. These conversions were possible because biblical themes resonated with Black oppression, such as the captivity of Israel and the Hebrew exodus from Egypt with plantation slavery and escape to the North (Pluralism Project, [59]). Yet, during the antebellum period, most white church leaders in the South reinforced a religious system as "a rationale for slaveholding" (Pluralism Project, n.d., para. 3).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Following the Reconstruction era (1865–1877), Jim Crow law was officially enacted in 1896 in the Southern United States through the case of <emph>Plessy v. Ferguson</emph>. As the U.S. Supreme Court sanctioned separate but equal legal practice, the facilities, including housing, education, employment, medical care, and transportation, were racially segregated until Jim Crow law was overruled by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (Packard, [58]). Jim Crow was "codified in a statute and <emph>lived</emph>, every minute of every day.... [The discrimination] was rigidly enforced by both the law enforcement agencies and... by ordinary white citizens who... often took the law into their own hands" (Packard, [58], pp. vii–viii).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Despite the increase in research on the contribution of African American Teachers to the civil rights movement, mainstream studies have focused on principals (Edwards, 1999; Siddle Walker, [68]), social studies teachers (Hale, [33]), English teachers (Hale, [33]; Henry, [36]; Robinson, [63]), math teachers (Baker, [3]), and music teachers (Siddle Walker, [66]).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wilson, a former art teacher, mentioned how David R. Clark (an art teacher at Johnson) was a good role model for her, while Williams, the renowned civil rights movement photographer, remarked how Robert E. Howard (a principal at Wilkinson) guided him to believe that artist is a professional job and also inspired students to become teachers.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Hyunji Kwon</p> <p>Reported by Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib80" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib79" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib82" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib81" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib76" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib77" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib78" firstref="ref85"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref89"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref90"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref91"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref92"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref94"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref95"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref97"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref98"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref101"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref109"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref110"></nolink>
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  Data: Pedagogies of Care and Justice: African American High School Art Teachers during the Civil Rights Era in the Segregated South
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  Data: English
– Name: Author
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kwon%2C+Hyunji%22">Kwon, Hyunji</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Studies+in+Art+Education%3A+A+Journal+of+Issues+and+Research+in+Art+Education%22"><i>Studies in Art Education: A Journal of Issues and Research in Art Education</i></searchLink>. 2022 63(3):256-274.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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– Name: Pages
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  Data: 19
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
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  Data: 2022
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Evaluative
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Caring%22">Caring</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Justice%22">Social Justice</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22African+American+Teachers%22">African American Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+School+Teachers%22">High School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Art+Teachers%22">Art Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+History%22">Educational History</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Civil+Rights%22">Civil Rights</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Segregation%22">School Segregation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Equal+Education%22">Equal Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Art+Education%22">Art Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22South+Carolina%22">South Carolina</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1080/00393541.2022.2080998
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  Data: 0039-3541<br />2325-8039
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  Label: Abstract
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  Data: This study examines the art pedagogies at Southern African American high schools during the civil rights era (1955-1969). I examine three segregated high schools located in South Carolina as a lens to highlight art pedagogies that were practiced; I expose counterstories by three former students, a student teacher, and the wife of an art teacher; I support my findings by reviewing archival data; and I illustrate how several caring African American Art Educators contributed to the agency of African American Students to achieve racial equality and justice. By locating these counterstories alongside an African American care-and-justice framework developed by Siddle Walker and Snarey, I discuss how exemplary art teachers' pedagogical practices actualize and expand care and racial equality.
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      – Text: English
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        PageCount: 19
        StartPage: 256
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      – SubjectFull: Caring
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Justice
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: African American Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: High School Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Art Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational History
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Civil Rights
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: School Segregation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Equal Education
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      – SubjectFull: Art Education
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      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
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      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: South Carolina
        Type: general
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      – TitleFull: Pedagogies of Care and Justice: African American High School Art Teachers during the Civil Rights Era in the Segregated South
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