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Physical Activity and Self-Concept in Gifted Students: A Comparison with Non-Gifted Students

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Title: Physical Activity and Self-Concept in Gifted Students: A Comparison with Non-Gifted Students
Language: English
Authors: Infantes-Paniagua, Álvaro (ORCID 0000-0002-3552-300X), Palomares Ruiz, Ascensión (ORCID 0000-0003-3350-2341), Fernández-Bustos, Juan Gregorio (ORCID 0000-0001-5429-9077), Contreras Jordán, Onofre Ricardo (ORCID 0000-0002-8034-0245)
Source: High Ability Studies. 2022 33(2):211-226.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2022
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Secondary Education
Descriptors: Physical Activity Level, Self Concept, Academically Gifted, Preadolescents, Adolescents, Ability, Psychomotor Skills, Foreign Countries, Questionnaires, Self Concept Measures, Student Characteristics, Physical Activities, Athletics, Secondary School Students
Geographic Terms: Spain
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Self Description Questionnaire
DOI: 10.1080/13598139.2021.1978404
ISSN: 1359-8139
1469-834X
Abstract: Physical activity plays an important role in individuals' physical and psychological health. However, there is scarce evidence on how physical activity is associated with socioemotional aspects in gifted students. This is of special importance since previous research showed that gifted students scored significantly lower on physical self-concept when compared with their non-gifted peers. This study aimed to measure the associations between physical activity and different dimensions of academic, physical, and global self-concept in a sample of 10- to 18-year-old Spanish gifted students. It also investigated differences with non-gifted students on physical activity, self-concept, and their associations. The study involved measuring the physical activity levels of 219 gifted and 242 non-gifted students through PAQ-A, following a cross-sectional design. It relied on SDQ-II and CAF to measure academic, physical, and global self-concepts and included the importance accorded to self-concepts. Results showed that gifted students scored higher on academic self-concept and lower on self-perceived athletic ability. Physical activity was associated with better physical and global self-concepts, with no differences between gifted and non-gifted participants. No interactions between giftedness and physical activity appeared. Both samples' self-concept may benefit from physical activity equally. Strategies for promoting physical activity should be endorsed also in gifted students.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1370770
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0160327273;0v001dec.22;2022Nov23.03:55;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0160327273-1">Physical activity and self-concept in gifted students: A comparison with non-gifted students </title> <p>Physical activity plays an important role in individuals' physical and psychological health. However, there is scarce evidence on how physical activity is associated with socioemotional aspects in gifted students. This is of special importance since previous research showed that gifted students scored significantly lower on physical self-concept when compared with their non-gifted peers. This study aimed to measure the associations between physical activity and different dimensions of academic, physical, and global self-concept in a sample of 10- to 18-year-old Spanish gifted students. It also investigated differences with non-gifted students on physical activity, self-concept, and their associations. The study involved measuring the physical activity levels of 219 gifted and 242 non-gifted students through PAQ-A, following a cross-sectional design. It relied on SDQ-II and CAF to measure academic, physical, and global self-concepts and included the importance accorded to self-concepts. Results showed that gifted students scored higher on academic self-concept and lower on self-perceived athletic ability. Physical activity was associated with better physical and global self-concepts, with no differences between gifted and non-gifted participants. No interactions between giftedness and physical activity appeared. Both samples' self-concept may benefit from physical activity equally. Strategies for promoting physical activity should be endorsed also in gifted students.</p> <p>Keywords: Giftedness; health habits; self-esteem; psychological wellbeing; adolescence; cross-sectional</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Physical activity (PA) plays a key role in physical health (Bull et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref1">6</reflink>]) and has positive associations with socio-emotional well-being in children and adolescents (Dale, Vanderloo, Moore, & Faulkner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref2">9</reflink>]). Adolescence can be especially problematic for some individuals, PA can help students relieve stress and engage in new social relationships (Rinn & Wininger, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref3">39</reflink>]). However, less than 20% of adolescents meet the World Health Organization's (WHO) recommendations for daily PA (i.e., at least an average of 60 min/day of moderate-to-vigorous intensity PA), therefore, the current and future health of these youths may be compromised (Bull et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref4">6</reflink>]). Although these adolescents include gifted students who should benefit from the same effects of PA, there is scarce evidence on their levels of PA and its relationship with socioemotional factors (Rinn & Wininger, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref5">39</reflink>]; Valadez, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref6">43</reflink>]). This study aims to contribute to filling this gap in the literature.</p> <p>Giftedness is a multidimensional phenomenon, not only circumscribed to intelligence but also involving other dimensions such as creativity, motivation, and personality (Almeida, Araújo, Sainz-Gómez, & Prieto, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref7">1</reflink>]). Broadly, gifted students are those who perform or can perform "at higher levels compared to others of the same age, experience, and environment in one or more domains" (National Association for Gifted Children, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref8">31</reflink>], p. 1). In the Spanish context, due to the current educational legislation (Organic Law 3/[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref9">32</reflink>]), each region owns the competences for identifying gifted students. This turns into the existence of difference criteria to identify gifted students according to the region (Sastre-Riba, Pérez-Sánchez, & Villaverde, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref10">40</reflink>]). After reviewing the educational legislation and guidelines, mainly two models can be emphasized for serving as the base for the criteria. On the one hand, the Renzulli's ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref11">37</reflink>]) Three Ring Model is followed in some autonomous communities; that is, the students are recognized as gifted if they show high intellectual ability, creativity, and engagement. On the other hand, other autonomous communities follow the model proposed by Castelló and Batlle ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref12">8</reflink>]), which includes within the conception of giftedness (i.e., high ability) those individuals that shows simple or complex talents (i.e., in one or certain areas), and gifted individuals who show higher global levels on intelligence, creativity, performance, or rhythm of learning. Additionally, some communities follow the Castelló and Batlle ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref13">8</reflink>]) proposal for talented students but also include the Renzulli's ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref14">37</reflink>]) model for gifted individuals. In the present study, as in previous studies on giftedness in Spain (Casino-García, García-Pérez, & Llinares-Insa, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref15">7</reflink>]; López & Sotillo, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref16">23</reflink>]), students were considered as gifted if they had been previously identified by a licensed psychologist or counselor, who operates under the aforementioned criteria (see table S1 in supplementary materials).</p> <p>Gifted individuals' development is asynchronous (i.e., they develop faster intellectually than emotionally, physically, or socially). This may invoke some special experiences and characteristics related to psychosocial factors that differ from their non-gifted peers (i.e., perfectionism, sensory sensitivity, etc.) (Rinn & Majority, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref17">38</reflink>]). Among psychosocial factors, self-concept, an individual's perceptions of him/herself (Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref18">41</reflink>]), has been researched widely and is usually employed as an indicator of psychological well-being (Babic et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref19">3</reflink>]; Dale et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref20">9</reflink>]). It is a multidimensional, hierarchically organized construct that includes a global self-concept dimension (GSC) and other more specific dimensions (e.g., academic self-concept [ASC], and physical self-concept [PSC]). These include the subdimensions of math (MSC) and verbal (VSC) self-concepts and appearance (AppSC) and athletic (AthSC) self-concepts, respectively. Furthermore, self-concept evolves with age. GSC remains constant in early adolescence and then increases, while PSC and ASC usually decrease during early adolescence and increase from late adolescence to adulthood (Orth, Dapp, Erol, Krauss, & Luciano, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref21">33</reflink>]). Self-concept also varies by sex. Male adolescents usually show higher self-concepts than females, especially during preadolescence (Van Zanden, Marsh, Seaton, & Parker, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref22">44</reflink>]). Moreover, previous meta-analyses (Hoge & Renzulli, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref23">18</reflink>]; Litster & Roberts, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref24">22</reflink>]) have shown that self-concept varies according to giftedness status (i.e., being gifted or being non-gifted), with gifted students showing higher ASC and GSC than non-gifted students. These studies also confirmed that gifted students usually show lower AppSC and AthSC. Although the difference between gifted and non-gifted students' PSC is small, a lower PSC may limit the activities in which gifted students choose to participate (Litster & Roberts, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref25">22</reflink>]), and this can be especially important for these students' health.</p> <p>PSC plays a key role in the formation of GSC during adolescence (Fernández-Bustos, Infantes-Paniagua, Cuevas, & Contreras, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref26">12</reflink>]). Among the factors affecting the development of an individual's PSC, PA plays an important role. Ample evidence shows that usual PA is positively related to PSC in general young populations (Babic et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref27">3</reflink>]; Dale et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref28">9</reflink>]). Higher levels of PA are associated with higher AthSC, physical fitness self-concept (FitSC), and PSC, although these associations are moderated by age and sex (Babic et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref29">3</reflink>]). There are few examples regarding these associations in gifted students. Ference ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref30">11</reflink>]) found some significant positive correlations with AthSC and social self-concept, especially among 13- to 14-year-old gifted females. In another sample of 10- to 16-year-old gifted students, sports participants showed higher PSC than nonparticipants, particularly for AthSC (Rinn & Wininger, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref31">39</reflink>]). Also, sports participation positively and longitudinally correlated with GSC in 12- to 14-year-old gifted students, acting as a protective factor against future life events (Park, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref32">35</reflink>]). Thus, PA seems positively associated with both PSC and GSC in gifted students.</p> <p>Considering the above, perhaps gifted students may not spend as much time on PA as their non-gifted peers; they may devote more time to academic-related activities, as some authors suggested (see, Ference, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref33">11</reflink>]). There is evidence that a higher proportion of gifted students spends extracurricular time on academic-related activities and a slightly lower proportion spends time on athletics (Makel, Li, Putallaz, & Wai, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref34">25</reflink>]). Gifted students may place more importance on academic-related aspects than on physical aspects compared with non-gifted students. However, extant empirical evidence based on accorded importance does not show consistent support for this hypothesis (Marsh & Scalas, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref35">27</reflink>]). Despite the above, some studies suggest that sports are the most common extracurricular activity among gifted students and that gifted adolescents are more likely to participate in sports and PA than non-gifted adolescents (Hormázabal-Peralta, Espinoza, Cáceres, & Lizana, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref36">19</reflink>]; Wininger & Rinn, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref37">46</reflink>]). Even during the lockdowns caused by the SARS-Cov-2 pandemic, neither population differed in weekly PA in a study of various countries (Valadez, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref38">43</reflink>]).</p> <p>Therefore, since the literature is lacking and there is a need for more research in this regard (Valadez, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref39">43</reflink>]), an interesting question to address is how does PA associate to self-concept and its different dimensions, especially PSC (including, AthSC, AppSC, FitSC, and strength self-concept [StrSC])? Thus, this study aimed to measure the associations between PA and different dimensions of ASC, PSC, and GSC among a sample of 10- to 18-year-old Spanish gifted students and to determine whether these associations mirrored those of their non-gifted peers. Secondary aims were to compare the levels of PA and self-concept between gifted and non-gifted samples and to determine whether giftedness status and usual PA played a key role in the different self-concept dimensions. Additionally, there appears to be a complete lack of research on gifted individuals' accorded importance to the different domains of self-concept; therefore, this study explored the differences between both samples in this regard. We hypothesized that a) gifted students would show higher levels of ASC and GSC, but lower levels of PSC and similar levels of PA than non-gifted students; b) in both gifted and non-gifted students, PA would be positively associated with ASC, PSC, GSC; and c) gifted students would show weaker associations between PA and self-concept's dimensions than the nongifted students. Since the accorded importance to the different self-concept's dimension is an exploratory proposal, no hypothesis was formulated.</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-3">Materials and methods</hd> <p>This study followed a cross-sectional design. The procedures were implemented per the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki (Brazil revision, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref40">47</reflink>]), assessed by the Ethics Committee on Human Research of Albacete [University of Castilla-La Mancha, reference: 2018/04/049], and authorized by the Research Committee of the Educational Board of Albacete.</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-4">Participants</hd> <p>A convenience sample of 265 gifted students (100 females) was recruited across different provinces in Spain. As previously explained, gifted participants had been identified as gifted by following different criteria according to the regional legislation (summarized in table S1 in supplementary materials). Another convenience sample of 312 non-gifted (162 females) students was recruited. However, participants were excluded when they reported issues that compromised their usual PA (n = 79), because they reported lower levels than usual, or had other educational special needs or learning problems (n = 37), since these students significantly differ from those with no especial needs in terms of self-perceptions (Barber & Mueller, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref41">4</reflink>]). Also, those who attended educational levels out of the scope of this study or were missing data on PA (n = 15). Therefore, the final sample comprised 219 gifted (86 females) and 242 non-gifted (124 females) students.</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-5">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0160327273-6">Physical activity</hd> <p>PA was measured through the Spanish version of the <emph>Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents</emph> (PAQ-A) (Martínez-Gómez et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref42">28</reflink>]). This is a 7-day recall questionnaire based on the work of Kowalski, Crocker, and Kowalski ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref43">21</reflink>]), which has been validated and used extensively (Benítez-Porres, Alvero-Cruz, Sardinha, López-Fernández, & Carnero, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref44">5</reflink>]). The questionnaire contains nine 5-point Likert scale items (i.e., "Physical activity in your spare time: Have you done any of the following activities in the past 7 days (last week)? If yes, how many times?" or "Mark how often you did physical activity (like playing sports, games, doing dance, or any other physical activity) for each day last week"). It provides a 1–5 score of usual PA and controls for possible problems. Additionally, the questionnaire shows a good reliability for gifted (α =.76) and non-gifted (α =.80) samples, and across the whole sample (α =.78).</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-7">Academic, physical, and global self-concept</hd> <p>Two instruments measured self-concept. First, the Spanish <emph>Physical Self-Concept Questionnaire</emph> (CAF) (Goñi, Ruiz, & Liberal, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref45">15</reflink>]) measured PSC, its subdimensions (i.e., AppSC, AthSC, FitSC, and StrSC), and GSC. The CAF is based on Fox and Corbin's ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref46">14</reflink>]) <emph>Physical Self-Perception Profile</emph> and consists of 36 items answered on a 5-point Likert scale. The mean reliability of the scale was good (whole sample α =.88; gifted α =.87; non-gifted α =.87). Additionally, three scales of the Spanish version of Marsh's ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref47">26</reflink>]) <emph>Self-Description Questionnaire-II</emph> (SDQ-II) (Ingles et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref48">20</reflink>]) were measured ASC, MSC, and VSC. This includes 30 items following a 6-point Likert scale. The SDQ-II showed internal validity and test-retest reliability (Ingles et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref49">20</reflink>]). The mean reliability of scales is good (whole sample α =.88; gifted α =.89; non-gifted α =.86).</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-8">Importance accorded to ASC and PSC</hd> <p>The study also used the <emph>Questionnaire on the Importance of Different Physical Aspects</emph> (CIDAF) (Goñi, Ruiz, & Rodríguez, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref50">16</reflink>]), which included four items on a 4-point Likert scale addressing the importance accorded to each dimension of the PSC. The mean reliability was good (whole sample α =.79; gifted α =.78; non-gifted α =.79). Additionally, three items created <emph>ad hoc</emph> with a similar response type were added to obtain an approximation of the importance accorded to academic dimensions (e.g., "In most school subjects, how important is it for me be good at them or get good grades?"). The content validity of these three items was assessed by following a Delphi method with seven experts (PhD with experience in self-concept research). They reported an excellent validity on relevance and adjustment to the construct (Aiken's V = 1.00). Then, items were corrected by following their considerations of a convenience sample of 37 students of 11- to 17 years-old. The reliability was good (whole sample α =.82; gifted α =.84; non-gifted α =.79). Since the importance given to the self-concept dimensions represents a secondary construct for the aims of the present work and was included with exploratory purposes, only the concrete items for each dimension were analyzed.</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-9">Sociodemographic factors</hd> <p>Legal guardians reported the participants' sex, age, educational level, monthly household income, and household size, as well as and giftedness status (i.e., being gifted or being non-gifted), and the responsible for giftedness identification. The monthly household income was divided by household size to compute an index of socioeconomic status (SES).</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-10">Procedures</hd> <p>Between March 2019 and July 2020, researchers contacted 77 associations of gifted students' parents and other educational institutions throughout Spain and sent information on this study. Forty-six responded and sent the information to the gifted students' legal guardians. The non-gifted sample was recruited from three secondary schools whose educational boards accepted participation after being informed about the study. Only those students whose legal guardians gave their informed consent participated in the study.</p> <p>Group data collections took place in the students' usual classrooms or the associations' centers. Both gifted and non-gifted participants received the same instructions from the researcher. Before starting, the participants received oral and written cues. They were encouraged to answer sincerely and were assured that they were not taking an exam. Any questions were addressed individually to avoid distractions. Due to the lock-down throughout the Spanish national territory caused by the SARS-Cov-2 pandemic from March 2020, in-person data collection was not possible, therefore data collection was adapted to be non-face-to-face through an online questionnaire format (Google Forms, Google Inc., USA) and videoconference (Microsoft Teams, Microsoft Corporation, USA). A 77.2% of all cases was obtained through in-person sessions and the 22.8% of cases was obtained through online monitored sessions.</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-11">Statistical analyses</hd> <p>All statistical analyses were run through SPSS v.24 (IBM Corporation, USA). Missing data (0.38% to 2.17%) were imputed following Mofield and Parker ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref51">29</reflink>]). Four outliers (Field, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref52">13</reflink>]) were excluded from their respective analyses. Due to the special characteristics of data gathering during the lockdown, <emph>t</emph>-tests were run to compare the data gathered before and during the lockdown. No statistical differences were found (<emph>p</emph> >.08). Due to the sample size, normality was assumed by following the Central Limit Theorem (Field, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref53">13</reflink>]). According to Levene's test, all variables met the homoscedasticity assumption, except for MSC and ASC (<emph>p</emph> <.05).</p> <p>Student's <emph>t</emph>-tests and Mann-Whitney's <emph>U</emph> tests were run to compare the gifted and non-gifted samples. Also, to measure the effect size (ES) of differences, Hedges' <emph>g</emph> was calculated. Pearson's correlations were run between the included variables and compared according to giftedness status following the procedure stated by Dominguez Moscoso, Merino, and Navarro ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref54">10</reflink>]), with Cohen's <emph>q</emph> statistic and <emph>z</emph>-tests to compute the <emph>p</emph>-values. Finally, both samples were divided as "active" (i.e., meeting the WHO recommendations) or "non-active" (i.e., not meeting the WHO recommendations) according to the cutoff (Benítez-Porres et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref55">5</reflink>]). A 2 × 2 ANCOVA test was run for each self-concept dimension with giftedness status and PA status (i.e., "active" or "non-active") as predictors. Age and sex were included as covariates due to their moderator role in previous research (see Ference, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref56">11</reflink>]; López & Sotillo, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref57">23</reflink>]). Partial eta squared was reported (<emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph>). Since the samples had significant differences in SES, this variable was added as a covariate in a second model, but it did not significantly account for the variances (see, tables S5a-S5i in supplemental material), so only the first model is presented.</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-12">Results</hd> <p>Gifted students were younger and had a higher SES than non-gifted students (Table 1). There were no differences in PA levels, even when divided by sex (<emph>p</emph> >.05; see tables S2a-S2b in supplemental material). Regarding self-concept, gifted students showed significantly higher ASC, MSC, and VSC. Medium-to-large ESs were found, especially in males' MSC (<emph>g</emph> = 0.92) and females' ASC (<emph>g</emph> = 1.10). A significant difference in AthSC was found with gifted students showing lower scores. After dividing by sex, this difference was only found in males (<emph>g</emph> = 0.30). No other significant differences were found. Regarding the exploratory differences on importance, non-gifted students significantly scored higher on importance accorded to AppSC, AthSC, and VSC; however, these differences were only significant between gifted and non-gifted males (Import. AppSC: <emph>g</emph> = −0.29; Import. AthSC: <emph>g</emph> = −0.35; and Import. VSC: <emph>g</emph> = −0.32) and for importance accorded to FitSC (<emph>g</emph> = −0.32). No other differences were found for these variables.</p> <p>Table 1. Descriptive characteristics of the samples and differences.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variables</td><td>Non-gifted</td><td>Gifted</td><td /></tr><tr><td>N</td><td>M</td><td>SD</td><td>N</td><td>M</td><td>SD</td><td><italic>g</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Age</td><td>242</td><td>14.50</td><td>1.53</td><td>219</td><td>14.04</td><td>1.69</td><td>−0.29***</td></tr><tr><td>SES</td><td>225</td><td>1.26</td><td>0.57</td><td>210</td><td>1.63</td><td>0.63</td><td>0.62***</td></tr><tr><td>PA</td><td>242</td><td>2.53</td><td>0.66</td><td>219</td><td>2.55</td><td>0.62</td><td>0.04</td></tr><tr><td>ASC</td><td>239</td><td>46.33</td><td>8.53</td><td>218</td><td>53.42</td><td>6.14</td><td>0.95<sup>a***</sup></td></tr><tr><td>MSC</td><td>242</td><td>36.63</td><td>13.41</td><td>219</td><td>47.17</td><td>11.10</td><td>0.85<sup>a***</sup></td></tr><tr><td>VSC</td><td>241</td><td>41.64</td><td>9.51</td><td>219</td><td>46.51</td><td>8.84</td><td>0.53***</td></tr><tr><td>AppSC</td><td>236</td><td>21.07</td><td>5.94</td><td>219</td><td>22.08</td><td>5.67</td><td>0.17</td></tr><tr><td>AthSC</td><td>238</td><td>21.83</td><td>5.78</td><td>219</td><td>20.66</td><td>5.99</td><td>−0.20*</td></tr><tr><td>FitSC</td><td>238</td><td>20.85</td><td>6.12</td><td>219</td><td>20.15</td><td>6.53</td><td>−0.11</td></tr><tr><td>StrSC</td><td>238</td><td>19.33</td><td>5.64</td><td>219</td><td>19.13</td><td>6.29</td><td>−0.03</td></tr><tr><td>PSC</td><td>239</td><td>22.45</td><td>6.16</td><td>219</td><td>23.23</td><td>5.91</td><td>0.13</td></tr><tr><td>GSC</td><td>237</td><td>23.56</td><td>4.80</td><td>219</td><td>24.43</td><td>4.78</td><td>0.18</td></tr><tr><td>Import.ASC</td><td>238</td><td>3.33</td><td>0.68</td><td>217</td><td>3.28</td><td>0.76</td><td>−0.08</td></tr><tr><td>Import.MSC</td><td>236</td><td>3.25</td><td>0.75</td><td>217</td><td>3.24</td><td>0.75</td><td>0.00</td></tr><tr><td>Import.VSC</td><td>237</td><td>3.14</td><td>0.74</td><td>217</td><td>2.96</td><td>0.86</td><td>−0.22*</td></tr><tr><td>Import.AppSC</td><td>234</td><td>2.15</td><td>0.75</td><td>218</td><td>2.00</td><td>0.79</td><td>−0.20*</td></tr><tr><td>Import.AthSC</td><td>238</td><td>2.42</td><td>0.87</td><td>217</td><td>2.19</td><td>0.85</td><td>−0.26*</td></tr><tr><td>Import.FitSC</td><td>238</td><td>2.63</td><td>0.83</td><td>217</td><td>2.52</td><td>0.76</td><td>−0.15</td></tr><tr><td>Import.StrSC</td><td>235</td><td>2.16</td><td>0.86</td><td>218</td><td>2.10</td><td>0.75</td><td>−0.08</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph>: Scores are from the SDQ-II (ASC: academic self-concept; MSC: math self-concept; VSC: verbal self-concept) and CAF (AppSC: physical appearance self-concept; AthSC: athletic ability self-concept; FitSC: fitness self-concept; GSC: global self-concept; PSC: physical self-concept; StrSC: strength self-concept). PA: physical activity; SES: socioeconomic status.</p> <ulist> <item>2 <sups>a</sups>Variances are not equal.</item> <item>3 *p <.05, **p <.01, ***p <.001 from <emph>t</emph>-tests.</item> </ulist> <p>Regarding correlations (Table 2), both gifted and non-gifted students' PA levels positively correlated with all dimensions of PSC and GSC. PA was also positively associated with MSC in gifted students and VSC in non-gifted students, but after the Bonferroni correction, both correlations were no longer significant. Finally, small differences were found between the correlations of PA with AthSC (<emph>q</emph> = 0.13), StrSC (<emph>q</emph> = 0.14), and PSC (<emph>q</emph> = 0.12); they showed stronger correlations among gifted students, but these were not significant (<emph>p</emph> >.08). Therefore, there were no differences between the correlations in both gifted and non-gifted students (table S3 in supplemental material).</p> <p>Table 2. Correlation by group.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variables</td><td>GSC</td><td>PSC</td><td>FitSC</td><td>StrSC</td><td>AppSC</td><td>AthSC</td><td>ASC</td><td>MSC</td><td>VSC</td><td>PA</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>GSC</td><td /><td>.751<sup>d***</sup></td><td>.490<sup>d***</sup></td><td>.282<sup>d***</sup></td><td>.730<sup>b***</sup></td><td>.389<sup>d***</sup></td><td>.349<sup>b***</sup></td><td>.117<sup>d</sup></td><td>.210<sup>c**</sup></td><td>.230<sup>d***</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PSC</td><td>.734***</td><td /><td>.548***</td><td>.420***</td><td>.862<sup>c***</sup></td><td>.414***</td><td>.200<sup>c**</sup></td><td>.096<sup>e</sup></td><td>.108</td><td>.209<sup>e**</sup></td></tr><tr><td>FitSC</td><td>.439***</td><td>.540***</td><td /><td>.562***</td><td>.503<sup>c***</sup></td><td>.687***</td><td>.154<sup>c*</sup></td><td>.067</td><td>.131<sup>d*</sup></td><td>.518***</td></tr><tr><td>StrSC</td><td>.228**</td><td>.303***</td><td>.481***</td><td /><td>.328<sup>c***</sup></td><td>.622***</td><td>−.033<sup>c</sup></td><td>.019</td><td>.025<sup>d</sup></td><td>.352***</td></tr><tr><td>AppSC</td><td>.719***</td><td>.885***</td><td>.434***</td><td>.187**</td><td /><td>.363<sup>c***</sup></td><td>.226<sup>a***</sup></td><td>.080<sup>c</sup></td><td>.139<sup>b*</sup></td><td>.188<sup>c**</sup></td></tr><tr><td>AthSC</td><td>.400***</td><td>.515***</td><td>.794***</td><td>.527***</td><td>.397***</td><td /><td>.128<sup>c*</sup></td><td>.031</td><td>.165<sup>d*</sup></td><td>.499***</td></tr><tr><td>ASC</td><td>.365<sup>a***</sup></td><td>.195<sup>a**</sup></td><td>.112<sup>a</sup></td><td>.049<sup>a</sup></td><td>.233<sup>a**</sup></td><td>.085<sup>a</sup></td><td /><td>.392<sup>e***</sup></td><td>.420***</td><td>.059<sup>e</sup></td></tr><tr><td>MSC</td><td>.258***</td><td>.117</td><td>.177**</td><td>.156*</td><td>.109</td><td>.150*</td><td>.463<sup>a***</sup></td><td /><td>.096<sup>f</sup></td><td>.097<sup>g</sup></td></tr><tr><td>VSC</td><td>.223***</td><td>.070</td><td>.021</td><td>−.028</td><td>.102</td><td>−.057</td><td>.551<sup>a***</sup></td><td>.173*</td><td /><td>.146<sup>f*</sup></td></tr><tr><td>PA</td><td>.231**</td><td>.324***</td><td>.537***</td><td>.470***</td><td>.218**</td><td>.591***</td><td>.042</td><td>.141*</td><td>.032</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>4 <emph>Note</emph>: Non-gifted participants above; gifted participants below.</item> <item>5 Non-gifted n = 238 except <sups>a</sups>n = 234, <sups>b</sups>n = 235, <sups>c</sups>n = 236, <sups>d</sups>n = 237, <sups>e</sups>n = 239, <sups>f</sups>n = 341, <sups>g</sups>n = 342; gifted n = 219 except: <sups>a</sups>n = 218.</item> <item>6 *p <.05, **p <.01, ***p <.001</item> </ulist> <p>Finally, several 2 × 2 ANCOVAs were run on the different self-concepts' dimensions (see, tables S4a-S4i in supplemental material). Both sex and age were significant covariates (<emph>p</emph> <.05) for MSC (sex: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.01; age: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.01), VSC (sex: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.03; age: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.02), PSC (sex: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.03; age: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.02), and GSC (sex: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.02; age: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.03). Sex was the only significant covariate (<emph>p</emph> <.001) for StrSC (<emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.05) and FitSC (<emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.03), and age was the only one for AppSC (<emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.02; <emph>p</emph> =.002). Giftedness status was the only predictor of academic dimensions (ASC: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.16; MSC: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.12; VSC: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.05). However, PA status was the only predictor of PSC (AppSC: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.02; FitSC: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.15; StrSC: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.09; PSC: <emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph>= 0.04) and GSC (<emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph>= 0.02). Both giftedness (<emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph>=.02) and PA (<emph>η<subs>p</subs><sups>2</sups></emph>= 0.16) status separately accounted for differences in AthSC. No interactions were found for any dimension. Figure 1 shows the model for each self-concept dimension by giftedness and PA status. Regardless of their giftedness status, those active participants reported higher scores in self-concept, especially in AthSC and FitSC.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. ANCOVA results with sex and age as covariates.</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-13">Discussion</hd> <p>This study aimed to measure the associations between PA and ASC and PSC and GSC among a Spanish sample of gifted adolescents and to compare them with the associations reported by a similar sample of non-gifted students. The differences in PA levels and self-concept between both samples were previously investigated, but this novel study has investigated the associations between PA levels and PSC in gifted students by addressing more PSC dimensions than AppSC and AthSC and exploring the importance accorded to self-concepts.</p> <p>The first hypothesis was partially fulfilled. As in previous meta-analyses (Hoge & Renzulli, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref58">18</reflink>]; Litster & Roberts, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref59">22</reflink>]), gifted students showed larger ASC dimensions and a lower AthSC with a small-to-medium ES. They did not show lower AppSC and PSC but, although this seems contrary to the meta-analyses' suggestions, there is previous evidence that Spanish gifted students show no differences in PSC (López & Sotillo, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref60">23</reflink>]). Also, there were no differences in GSC, although the small ES with higher levels among the gifted followed results reported in the previous meta-analyses; these differences were only significant among males. Previous research also showed slightly higher differences between gifted and non-gifted males in PSC compared to the differences between females (Shi, Li, & Zhang, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref61">42</reflink>]). Moreover, differences in AthSC were greater in active male participants, which might reflect the existence of other variables to explain this difference. The importance accorded to AthSC was explored, resulting in higher levels among non-gifted males and no differences in females. Perhaps lower AthSC in gifted males could be explained by the lesser importance these individuals accorded to this dimension, but these students also accorded less importance to AppSC than non-gifted males while showing a slightly nonsignificant higher actual AppSC. Therefore, the results seem inconsistent and more research is needed on this regard. Other possible moderators for these differences could be asynchronous development, which may lead gifted students to feel less "physically competent" because of internal dimensional comparisons with other domains like ASC (Möller, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref62">30</reflink>]), and higher perfectionism, since gifted students may feel pressure from their parents or teachers to perform perfectly in academics (Rinn & Majority, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref63">38</reflink>]), they might feel this also in athletics. However, these hypotheses could only be confirmed had actual athletic competence been measured; our results can only shed light on PA participation.</p> <p>Second, the results showed that usual PA levels are positively associated with PSC and GSC, especially for AthSC and FitSC. These results are in line with previous studies that found positive associations between involvement in PA and AthSC, AppSC, and GSC (Ference, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref64">11</reflink>]), and between sports participation and GSC (Park, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref65">35</reflink>]) in gifted students. Moreover, results showed that none of the correlations between PA levels and all the measured dimensions of self-concept differed between both samples. This follows the results of the scarce literature addressing these associations in both populations (Ference, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref66">11</reflink>]). Therefore, the relevant role of PA in PSC and GSC is highlighted for both gifted and non-gifted students along with that of PA in MSC and ASC for the non-gifted students. Accordingly, we accept the second hypothesis almost completely, but reject the third hypothesis.</p> <p>Third, like previous works, this study showed that gifted students' PA levels are similar to non-gifted students' levels (Ference, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref67">11</reflink>]; Hormázabal-Peralta et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref68">19</reflink>]; Park, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref69">35</reflink>]; Valadez, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref70">43</reflink>]). This result provides more evidence against stereotypes about gifted individuals being not athletic (Wininger & Rinn, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref71">46</reflink>]), but also raises another issue: only 33.8% of the gifted and 33.5% of the non-gifted participants met the WHO's recommended daily PA guidelines. Although the proportions are slightly higher than global trends, adolescents' usual PA is still far from ideal (Bull et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref72">6</reflink>]). As new longitudinal evidence has confirmed decreases in PA levels during adolescence (Parker et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref73">36</reflink>]), there is a clear need for interventions that promote higher PA levels during this period of development. Results suggest that both gifted and non-gifted individuals could benefit from PA-based interventions. PA may not only benefit their physical health but may also provide stress relief (Rinn & Wininger, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref74">39</reflink>]). The academically gifted students who spend much of their time on schoolwork increase their wellbeing through sports or dance participation (Park, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref75">35</reflink>]). Actually, fostering PA in gifted students could help develop their talents (Hormázabal-Peralta et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref76">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>This work has several limitations. The cross-sectional design does not allow inference of causality among the associated variables. The comparison group of non-gifted students could not be completely appropriate since it was not extracted from the same geographical area. In this regard, as previously stated, identification criteria for gifted students varies throughout the Spanish territory, and therefore, this sample is especially heterogeneous, although this is a usual limitation in giftedness research. Also, it is important to consider that the instrument for measuring the importance given to ASC was designed <emph>ad hoc</emph> and, due to the exploratory purposes for this construct, items were analyzed separately for both ASC's and PSC's dimensions; therefore, content but not construct validity can only be ensured. Last, the methodological changes caused by the pandemic could have compromised the reliability of the data, although the data proved homogeneous before analyses.</p> <p>To conclude, on the one hand, since an increasement in PA would apparently benefit both gifted and nongifted students' self-concept equally, PA interventions could be of greater relevance for gifted students if the lower levels of PSC among them are considered. On the other hand, exploratory results on the importance accorded to dimensions of self-concept seemed inconsistent to explain these lower levels among the gifted, and asynchronous development and perfectionism are suggested as possible explanations. Therefore, some practical implications for the education of the gifted students can be raised. Maybe a special emphasis could be put on PSC in Physical Education lessons so that PA practice could be fostered accordingly. In this line, some PA promotion strategies for gifted students have recently been proposed (e.g., Lutostanski, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref77">24</reflink>]; Vidal, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref78">45</reflink>]); one of them even showed improvements in self-concept (Graham & Robinson, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref79">17</reflink>]). PA proposals in combination with affective interventions, as suggested elsewhere (Mofield & Parker, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref80">29</reflink>]), might especially benefit those gifted students who suffer from anxiety, maladaptive perfectionism, or even underachievement, as school-based PA is also positively associated with school engagement (Owen et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref81">34</reflink>]) and academic achievement (Álvarez-Bueno et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref82">2</reflink>]). Unfortunately, the evidence is scarce, and this line needs more research. Since PA can benefit both gifted and non-gifted students, future research should focus on its role in gifted students' physical and psychological wellbeing to develop appropriate PA promotion programs that also consider gifted students.</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-14">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>The authors would like to thank all the schools, associations and other organizations that made this study possible, especially persons in charge of them and all the families who participated and were interested in our work.</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-15">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>Authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this study.</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-16">Supplemental online material</hd> <p>Tables S1a to S4i are provided as supplemental material.</p> <hd id="AN0160327273-17">Supplementary material</hd> <p>Supplemental data for this article can be accessed https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2021.1978404.</p> <ref id="AN0160327273-18"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref7" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Almeida, L. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Physical Activity and Self-Concept in Gifted Students: A Comparison with Non-Gifted Students
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Infantes-Paniagua%2C+Álvaro%22">Infantes-Paniagua, Álvaro</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3552-300X">0000-0002-3552-300X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Palomares+Ruiz%2C+Ascensión%22">Palomares Ruiz, Ascensión</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3350-2341">0000-0003-3350-2341</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Fernández-Bustos%2C+Juan+Gregorio%22">Fernández-Bustos, Juan Gregorio</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5429-9077">0000-0001-5429-9077</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Contreras+Jordán%2C+Onofre+Ricardo%22">Contreras Jordán, Onofre Ricardo</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8034-0245">0000-0002-8034-0245</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22High+Ability+Studies%22"><i>High Ability Studies</i></searchLink>. 2022 33(2):211-226.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 16
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2022
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Activity+Level%22">Physical Activity Level</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept%22">Self Concept</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academically+Gifted%22">Academically Gifted</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preadolescents%22">Preadolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ability%22">Ability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychomotor+Skills%22">Psychomotor Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Questionnaires%22">Questionnaires</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept+Measures%22">Self Concept Measures</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Characteristics%22">Student Characteristics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Activities%22">Physical Activities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Athletics%22">Athletics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+School+Students%22">Secondary School Students</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Spain%22">Spain</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectThesaurus
  Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Self+Description+Questionnaire%22">Self Description Questionnaire</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/13598139.2021.1978404
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1359-8139<br />1469-834X
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Physical activity plays an important role in individuals' physical and psychological health. However, there is scarce evidence on how physical activity is associated with socioemotional aspects in gifted students. This is of special importance since previous research showed that gifted students scored significantly lower on physical self-concept when compared with their non-gifted peers. This study aimed to measure the associations between physical activity and different dimensions of academic, physical, and global self-concept in a sample of 10- to 18-year-old Spanish gifted students. It also investigated differences with non-gifted students on physical activity, self-concept, and their associations. The study involved measuring the physical activity levels of 219 gifted and 242 non-gifted students through PAQ-A, following a cross-sectional design. It relied on SDQ-II and CAF to measure academic, physical, and global self-concepts and included the importance accorded to self-concepts. Results showed that gifted students scored higher on academic self-concept and lower on self-perceived athletic ability. Physical activity was associated with better physical and global self-concepts, with no differences between gifted and non-gifted participants. No interactions between giftedness and physical activity appeared. Both samples' self-concept may benefit from physical activity equally. Strategies for promoting physical activity should be endorsed also in gifted students.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1370770
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        Value: 10.1080/13598139.2021.1978404
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 16
        StartPage: 211
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Physical Activity Level
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Concept
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academically Gifted
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preadolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
        Type: general
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      – SubjectFull: Physical Activities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Athletics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Secondary School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Spain
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Description Questionnaire
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      – TitleFull: Physical Activity and Self-Concept in Gifted Students: A Comparison with Non-Gifted Students
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