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Addressing Middle Schoolers' Disruptive Behavior: The Importance of Fostering Student Executive Functioning

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Title: Addressing Middle Schoolers' Disruptive Behavior: The Importance of Fostering Student Executive Functioning
Language: English
Authors: Cumming, Michelle M. (ORCID 0000-0002-1803-1900), Criado, Cristina, Park, Jeehyun, Arango, Alexandra, Rodriguez, Maria L., Ali, Michael
Source: TEACHING Exceptional Children. Jan-Feb 2023 55(3):176-187.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2023
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Education Level: Junior High Schools
Middle Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Middle School Students, Student Behavior, Behavior Problems, Antisocial Behavior, Executive Function, Stress Management, Behavior Disorders, Emotional Disturbances, At Risk Persons, Self Management, Adolescent Development, Skill Development, Evaluation
DOI: 10.1177/00400599221093393
ISSN: 0040-0599
2163-5684
Abstract: For students with significant behavior problems, difficulties with executive function (EF) and associated self-regulation are not uncommon, and middle school is a crucial period when students are at greater risk for escalating behaviors that have long-term impacts (e.g., school dropout, incarceration; Kauffman & Landrum, 2018). Therefore, in addition to commonly used behavioral techniques, middle school professionals should work together to reduce sources of school-based stress and implement strategies to actively foster EF skills. This is especially critical during the high stress and active EF developmental period of middle school (Best & Miller, 2010). By developing effective EF, students with or at risk for an emotional and behavioral disorder (EBD) will be better able to control their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, which is critical for school and lifelong success.
Abstractor: ERIC
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1371886
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0162514272;tec01jan.23;2023Mar21.06:02;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0162514272-1">Addressing Middle Schoolers' Disruptive Behavior: The Importance of Fostering Student Executive Functioning </title> <p>Graph</p> <p> <emph>Brian is a seventh-grade student with an emotional and behavioral disorder (EBD). Typical of many students with EBD, Brian has several social, behavioral, and academic challenges, including difficulty with social interactions, controlling his behaviors, and completing assignments. His English language arts teacher, Ms. Camillo, notes Brian's behaviors are especially problematic when working on independent assignments that require him to remember and use step-by-step directions. She notices he also has difficulty shifting his way of thinking, such as when needing to imagine a book character's perspective for a class assignment. When given these tasks, Brian often has challenges ignoring classroom distractions and inhibiting his impulses, as evidenced by calling out or wandering around the classroom distracting peers.</emph> </p> <p> <emph>Over the past several months, Brian's behaviors have escalated despite school-based supports. For instance, Ms. Camillo previously worked with Mr. Jones, the special education teacher, to determine how best to improve Brian's on-task behavior and ability to interact appropriately. They concluded that Brian likely needed additional academic support through small peer group work and that his disruptive behaviors were likely work avoidant, which could be addressed by using break-centered activities that Brian enjoyed as rewards (i.e., a computer time break). Yet when Ms. Camillo assigned an in-class writing project, placed Brian in a small group, and explained if he completed part of the task he would be rewarded with a short break on the computer, Brian ended up arguing with his group. In spite of Ms. Camillo's best efforts to redirect him and provide a reward reminder, Brian's behavior escalated to the point of yelling, tearing up the assignment, and running out of the classroom, which resulted in an office discipline referral.</emph> </p> <p> <emph>Ms. Camillo reflects that Brian seems to lack specific skills that are required to do well academically and behaviorally. He has difficulty remembering and applying information, shifting his thinking and actions, and controlling his impulses, which are all necessary to complete academic assignments and have behavioral competence. She recognizes the plan she and Mr. Jones created does little to build these skills. In fact, instead of having goals (e.g., good grades, friends) and thinking about the consequences of his actions, Ms. Camillo realizes that Brian has become more reactive with heightened levels of anger and aggression. For instance, Brian had recently been suspended for fighting with a peer over being bumped in the hallway. Also, after speaking with other teachers, Ms. Camillo realizes that except for physical education, where Brian excels, he is not only close to failing multiple classes, but his behaviors are worsening to the point that he is at risk of expulsion. She is at a loss of what to do because previously effective strategies for other students with behavior problems seem to do little to improve his behavior.</emph> </p> <p>Although Brian's difficulty establishing positive relationships, challenges controlling behaviors, and low academic achievement are typical for students with or at risk for EBD ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref1">21</reflink>]), the escalating aggression coupled with possible school failure and expulsion are particularly concerning. As mandated by federal law ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref2">19</reflink>]), students with EBD must receive evidence-based programming in schools to address their needs. Yet despite commonly used approaches, as underscored in the scenario, students with EBD make limited progress, resulting in persistently adverse short- and long-term outcomes such as low academic achievement, school dropout, and incarceration ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref3">21</reflink>]). To improve these outcomes, in addition to typically used behavior management strategies, students with significant behavior problems need skill development in executive function (EF), a set of neurocognitive processes that are central to students' behavior and academic achievement ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref4">36</reflink>]).</p> <p>"When students engage in goal-directed behaviors, such as completing an assignment, interacting with peers, or managing their behavior, they rely on EF to serve as their brain's "air traffic controller.</p> <p>When students engage in goal-directed behaviors, such as completing an assignment, interacting with peers, or managing their behavior, they rely on EF to serve as their brain's "air traffic controller" ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>], p. 1) to manage their actions. EF is made up of three distinct yet interconnected processes of working memory (i.e., remembering and using information), cognitive flexibility (i.e., thinking about something in multiple ways, shifting between mental sets), and inhibitory control (i.e., suppressing attention or responding; [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref6">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref7">35</reflink>]). For example, students use working memory to remember and use steps to solve academic and social problems. They rely on cognitive flexibility to smoothly transition from one task to another or imagine a peer's perspective when in conflict. Students use inhibitory control to help them focus in class and manage their impulses (e.g., listening quietly without interrupting). See Table 1 for EF definitions and additional signs of EF strengths in the classroom.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 1 Executive Function (EF) Process Definitions and Possible EF Strength or Dysfunction Characteristics</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><tbody><tr><td rowspan="2">EF process</td><td rowspan="2">Definition</td><td colspan="2">EF strength</td><td colspan="2">EF dysfunction</td></tr><tr><td>Academic</td><td>Behavioral</td><td>Academic</td><td>Behavioral</td></tr><tr><td><graphic href="10.1177_00400599221093393-img3.tif" content-type="Graph" />Inhibitory control</td><td>Deliberate suppressing of attention or withholding an impulse</td><td>Able to ignore a humming peer in class and pay attention to the teacher's presentation</td><td>Able to wait their turn to speak during a class discussion</td><td>Has difficulty ignoring class distractions when completing an in-class writing assignment</td><td>Has difficulty controlling impulses, such as shoving a peer during game</td></tr><tr><td><graphic href="10.1177_00400599221093393-img4.tif" content-type="Graph" />Working memory</td><td>Actively storing, maintaining, and manipulating information</td><td>Able to remember and use formulas to solve a math problem</td><td>Able to remember and use strategies to solve a social problem</td><td>Has trouble recalling sentences in a paragraph to comprehend content</td><td>Has challenges with remembering and following classroom rules (e.g., raising hand to speak)</td></tr><tr><td><graphic href="10.1177_00400599221093393-img5.tif" content-type="Graph" />Cognitive flexibility</td><td>Adapting to changing demands or contexts</td><td>Able to easily switch from completing an independent writing assignment to participating in small group work</td><td>Able to think about a friend's perspective when in a conflict</td><td>Has difficulty identifying mistakes and fixing them in an assignment</td><td>Has trouble thinking of and using other options (e.g., fighting) when in conflict</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph>. Icons from I Control curriculum. Copyright 2014 by Cognitive-Behavioral Research Group in Education University of Florida. Reprinted with permission.</p> <p>EF lays the foundation for students' academic, social, and behavioral competence. EF is well known to predict school readiness, academic achievement, prosocial behaviors, and both physical and mental well-being ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref8">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref9">35</reflink>]). Furthermore, EF underlies higher-order skills critical for school and life, such as self-regulation, which is the ability to effortfully manage, modulate, and cyclically adapt thoughts, emotions, and actions ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref10">25</reflink>]). For example, students may use self-regulation to track their writing performance and decide to practice more to reach their goal of a better grade. A student who is often warned about aggressive outbursts during physical education class may use self-regulation to control expressions of their anger. Conversely, poor EF has been found to be associated with various emotional, behavioral, and mental health problems (e.g., depression, conduct disorders; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref11">35</reflink>]), with growing evidence that students with EBD may be particularly vulnerable to EF deficits (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref12">11</reflink>]). Thus, given the central role EF plays in students' behavioral and academic functioning, fostering EF may be key to helping students with or at risk for EBD excel.</p> <p>EF develops throughout early childhood and adolescence ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref13">3</reflink>]) and is shaped by both negative and positive experiences that can serve to either hinder or help development. For instance, although genetics plays a role, adverse childhood experiences such as neglect, abuse, violence exposure, and living in poverty can have lasting and negative impacts on EF development ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref14">35</reflink>]). Even mild stressors within the home, such as low emotional support and/or harsh parenting, are associated with poor EF skills ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref15">32</reflink>]). In schools, unsafe or punitive school environments, classrooms with low emotional support, and teacher and peer conflict have been found to be related to reduced student EF growth ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref16">10</reflink>]). These stress-inducing experiences not only affect brain development (including EF supporting brain regions; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref17">35</reflink>]) but also place students at risk for developing behavior and mental health disorders, drug addiction, and even early death ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref18">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>In contrast, positive experiences and EF-focused prevention and intervention efforts play an active role in fostering student EF. For instance, students whose parents are sensitive to their needs, display emotional warmth, and ensure access to learning resources within the home tend to have better EF skills ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref19">32</reflink>]). Students who are educated in classroom environments characterized by emotional support (e.g., empathy, sensitivity) and positive teacher and student relationships have greater EF gains over time ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref20">10</reflink>]). Additionally, due to the malleability of EF, targeted programming has been found to be effective at improving these skills ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref21">31</reflink>]). Those who benefit the most from these efforts are students with the greatest initial EF needs ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref22">10</reflink>]), underscoring the potential benefit to students with or at risk for EBD. Overall, experiences serve as important sources of stress or support during EF developmental periods ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref23">3</reflink>]).</p> <p>Middle school is not only an active EF maturation ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref24">3</reflink>]) and high-stress (e.g., academic expectations, peer pressure, and puberty; [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref25">2</reflink>]) period, but it is also a critical time to implement school-based prevention and intervention efforts ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref26">21</reflink>]). Specifically, during middle school, students need to develop more advanced skills in interrelated working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control to help them to meet the increasingly complex academic and social demands of school, which, in turn, lay the foundation for later success (e.g., employment, relationships). Yet, stressors during middle school may have an adverse effect on EF maturation and place middle schoolers at greater risk for behavior problem onset and escalation due to limited ability to handle stressful situations (i.e., self-regulation when stressed), which is dependent on EF ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref27">34</reflink>]). Fortunately, because EF is malleable to experiences and can be improved through training and practice ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref28">36</reflink>]), middle school is a key leverage point when schools can target these skills, especially for students who display behavior problems. Thus, for middle schoolers with or at risk for EBD, like Brian, fostering EF is vital.</p> <hd id="AN0162514272-2">Building a Plan to Foster Student Executive Function Development</hd> <p>School professionals should develop a simple but comprehensive EF plan to build middle schoolers' EF skills, with a particular focus on students with or at risk for EBD. First, because school-based stressors (e.g., unsafe schools, teacher-student discord, peer conflict; [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref29">10</reflink>]) may compromise EF development and escalate related behavior problems, especially during middle school, the plan should include proactive approaches to reduce or prevent sources of school-based stress. Second, because EF is malleable and trainable ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref30">31</reflink>]), the plan should include strategies to foster EF skills ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref31">36</reflink>]). Third, just as data are collected to determine if students make progress toward individualized education program (IEP) goals, the plan should include procedures to assess plan effectiveness. See Figure 1 for possible guidance on designing an EF plan.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1 Building students' executive function plan worksheet Note. * = evidence-supported program. Icons from canva.com. In the public domain.</p> <p> <emph>After recognizing that Brian's behaviors are not improving despite the implementation of commonly used practices, Ms. Camillo decides to collaborate with the IEP team to determine how best to support Brian. During the meeting, the school psychologist, Ms. Shernoff, outlines how EF is critical for Brian's academic and behavioral success and a plan should be made to actively foster his EF abilities. After some brainstorming and research, the team decides to do a preassessment of Brian's EF skills to determine areas of need. They then decide the EF plan should focus on proactive approaches to reduce school-based stressors, strategies to foster student EF skills, and procedures to assess plan effectiveness.</emph> </p> <p>"School professionals should develop a simple but comprehensive EF plan to build middle schoolers' EF skills, with a particular focus on students with or at risk for EBD.</p> <hd id="AN0162514272-3">Proactive Approaches to Reduce School-Based Stressors</hd> <p>As the first part of building student EF, school professionals should proactively reduce potential sources of stress and enhance positive experiences ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref32">11</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref33">9</reflink>]). Specifically, teachers and other school professionals should focus on the following four steps:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Build an emotionally supportive classroom.</item> <p></p> <item> Foster social emotional learning (SEL) to encourage positive relationships.</item> <p></p> <item> Teach mindfulness and related coping skills to minimize school-related stress.</item> <p></p> <item> Connect with families to generalize skills.</item> </ulist> <p>These efforts can be used across multitiered systems of support (i.e., Tier 1 = universal; Tier 2 = targeted; Tier 3 = intensive).</p> <hd id="AN0162514272-4">Step 1: Build an Emotionally Supportive Classroom</hd> <p>Middle school teachers should build emotionally supportive classrooms, characterized by (a) positive climate, reflecting warmth and classroom connectedness; (b) teacher sensitivity, referring to responsiveness to student needs; and (c) regard for adolescent perspectives, indicating teacher's ability to recognize and support student autonomy and peer interactions ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref34">18</reflink>]). Emotionally supportive classrooms have been found to be positively associated with student EF development and learning overall ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref35">10</reflink>]). To create a positive class climate, teachers should display positive affect (e.g., smiling, enthusiasm) and communication ("I see that you have put a lot of effort into your work"); model respectful interactions, such as using "please" or "thank you"; and engage in active listening. Teachers can also focus on building class relationships, such as through the use of social conversations and group activities ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref36">26</reflink>]). Furthermore, especially during adolescence when stress increases ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref37">2</reflink>]) and can disrupt EF development, school professionals should consider the social, emotional, and academic needs of students and act responsively and effectively to address those needs ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref38">26</reflink>]). For instance, problems students face outside the classroom (e.g., parents' divorce) may adversely affect their school performance, and adjustments may need to be made accordingly, such as considering pacing and due dates. Lastly, teachers should have regard for their students' perspectives, such as connecting learned content to their lived experiences, providing opportunities for autonomy and leadership (e.g., choices, shared responsibilities), and fostering meaningful input (e.g., structured peer sharing).</p> <p>One specific activity that middle school teachers can use to foster an emotionally supportive classroom is Morning Meeting ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref39">22</reflink>]). Although the format of the meeting can vary, it tends to take place prior to academic instruction and includes a student greeting, a topic-focused class discussion, and collaborative building activities (e.g., pantomime to guess a hobby; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref40">22</reflink>]). Morning Meeting not only builds class rapport but also provides teachers an opportunity to (a) gain insight into a specific student/class need, such as a peer conflict; (b) incorporate activities to promote social skills; or (c) address an issue affecting the class as a whole, such as a natural disaster. Overall, building an emotionally supportive classroom helps to actively reduce sources of stress while fostering student EF skills during the high stress and critical EF developmental period of middle school.</p> <p> <emph>As part of building an emotionally supportive classroom and to give students a chance to practice social skills, Ms. Camillo decides to implement Morning Meeting. To do so, she first creates a topic suggestion box and encourages students to place topics in the box they find interesting or important. During one Morning Meeting when the discussion topic is about an upcoming football game, Mark, a student Brian regularly has conflict with, mentions that he is planning to go to the game to support the local football team. Brian excitedly raises his hand but waits for his turn to speak, following the "no cross-talk" rule that was established at the beginning of the semester. When it is Brian's turn to speak, he says he is also planning to go to the game and supports the same team as Mark. During a group writing activity the next week, Ms. Camillo is surprised when Brian asks to work with Mark.</emph> </p> <hd id="AN0162514272-5">Step 2: Foster Social Emotional Learning</hd> <p>Educational professionals should also focus on reducing potential stressors linked with teacher-student and peer conflict, which have been found to be negatively associated with student EF ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref41">10</reflink>]), by building student SEL skills throughout the day. Because SEL teaches students how to recognize and regulate emotions, establish positive relationships, manage conflict, and make decisions in a responsible manner ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref42">12</reflink>]), it has the potential to reduce sources of stress associated with social interactions. As outlined by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref43">8</reflink>]), SEL includes self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationships skills, and responsible decision-making. Many of these skills align explicitly with self-regulation (i.e., self-management), which is dependent on EF ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref44">25</reflink>]). Specifically, according to [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref45">8</reflink>], self-awareness is the ability to recognize emotions and thoughts and understand how these relate to behavior (e.g., identifying sadness when excluded from a game). Self-management is the capacity to manage emotions, thoughts, and behaviors (e.g., staying calm before a test). Social awareness is the ability to empathize with others and understand others' perspectives, such as understanding a point of view ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref46">8</reflink>]). Relationship skills are related to establishing and maintaining healthy relationships, such as thanking a peer for a kindness or working through a conflict. Finally, responsible decision-making is the capacity to make conscious choices about behaviors and actions across situations, such as weighing consequences of studying versus playing a video game the day before a test.</p> <p>Middle school teachers and other school professionals can choose to embed SEL components into their classroom or sessions. For example, teachers can embed self-awareness by teaching students how to recognize their thoughts and emotions and use role-plays and activities to reinforce taught skills. Specifically, they can post an emotion chart to help students identify an emotion and model this process through think-aloud (e.g., "I am feeling anger because I am having a hard time solving this math problem"; [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref47">9</reflink>]). Another SEL component educators can embed is responsible decision-making. Teachers can verbally model this skill when making a decision, such as identifying a social problem and problem-solve which decision would be best based on a specific goal ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref48">29</reflink>]). They could also use a scenario as a discussion topic to highlight responsible decision-making ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref49">8</reflink>]). For example, a class discussion could be conducted related to the main character's decision-making in an assigned class reading ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref50">9</reflink>]).</p> <p>Middle school teachers and other school professionals can also use an evidence-supported program that includes SEL components. These programs generally include a predesigned curriculum, outlined activities, and workbooks that are geared for specific age groups. For instance, Positive Action (endorsed by What Works Clearinghouse as having positive effects on behavior) is a K–12 program that teaches students social-emotional skills through 15- to 20-minute scripted lessons, classroom discussions, role-plays, and activity workbooks ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref51">15</reflink>]). Another program, Coping Power, fosters self-regulation skills, including problem-solving, emotion awareness, goal setting, and coping through 24 sessions. It also incorporates a parent component. Both programs have been found effective at improving students' SEL-related skills and reducing problematic behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref52">23</reflink>]). See Table 2 for other evidence-supported programs.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p>Table 2 Selected Research-Supported Middle School Programs</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" colspan="3"><bold>SEL building programs</bold></th></tr><tr><th align="center"><bold>Program</bold></th><th align="center"><bold>Description</bold></th><th align="center"><bold>Website</bold></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Caring School Community++</td><td>Comprehensive SEL skill development</td><td><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.collaborativeclassroom.org/programs/caring-school-community/" /></td></tr><tr><td>Connect with Kids+</td><td>Prosocial attitudes and positive behavior through core character values building</td><td><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://connectwithkids.com" /></td></tr><tr><td>Coping Power++</td><td>Social and emotional skill development with parent component</td><td><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.copingpower.com" /></td></tr><tr><td>Positive Action++</td><td>Character, academic achievement, and social-emotional skills building</td><td><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.positiveaction.net" /></td></tr><tr><td>Too Good for Violence+</td><td>Character values, social-emotional skills, and healthy beliefs development</td><td><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://toogoodprograms.org/collections/too-good-for-violence" /></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3"><bold>EF fostering programs</bold></td></tr><tr><td>Cogmed</td><td>Working memory computer-based training</td><td><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.cogmed.com" /></td></tr><tr><td>I Control</td><td>EF and self-regulation development targeted for middle schoolers with EBD</td><td><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://education.ufl.edu/cognitive-behavioral-research-group/i-control/" /></td></tr><tr><td>Mindful Schools</td><td>Mindfulness skill building</td><td><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.mindfulschools.org" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 <emph>Note</emph>. SEL = social emotional learning; EBD = emotional behavioral disorder; EF = executive function. Indicators of effectiveness rating based on What Works Clearinghouse guidelines (https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/): + = potentially positive effects; ++ = positive effects.</p> <p> <emph>As part of Brian's plan, Ms. Camillo embeds SEL whenever possible into her class lessons. For example, as part of her lesson on a fictional book, Ms. Camillo decides to focus on responsible decision-making. She chooses to focus on the character in the book who is conflicted about whether he should betray his brother and sisters to become king. Ms. Camillo creates a class discussion on what the character should do by first having the students come up with different options, brainstorm the consequences of those options, and then conclude with the choice the character should make in the scenario. The class concludes that a responsible decision would be to not to betray his siblings. Ms. Camillo then expands the discussion to how this type of skill relates to friends and families and encourages Brian to participate. Brian shares that he has a tough time making responsible decisions, just like the book's character. The class then thinks of ways they can help each other make better decisions.</emph> </p> <hd id="AN0162514272-6">Step 3: Teach Mindfulness and Related Coping Strategies</hd> <p>As part of building a positive classroom environment and reducing stressors, school professionals should help students manage stress through mindfulness, which teaches students to have an open state of attention in the moment ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref53">20</reflink>]). Mindfulness has been found to be effective at improving overall well-being, stress management, stress levels, and attention ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref54">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref55">24</reflink>]). Three primary components make up mindfulness: attitude, attention, and intention ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref56">28</reflink>]). Students learn to develop an accepting attitude characterized by nonjudgment, trust, and patience. They build skills in focused attention such that they can focus, sustain, and switch their attention. They develop abilities in conscious intention, where they learn how to self-regulate their attention. Students can be guided through the mindfulness process while they are sitting or walking and are directed to focus their attention to their body sensations (e.g., stomach moving while breathing), thoughts, and emotions (e.g., sadness, anger) without judgment and in the present moment ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref57">4</reflink>]). Other techniques that have shown promise in reducing stress include body relaxation techniques, such as breathing in and out slowly, focusing on body sensations (e.g., tightness in shoulders), and yoga ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref58">7</reflink>]). Professionals should consider embedding mindfulness and related approaches into daily routines with the whole class (Tier 1) or with groups of students (Tier 2 or 3) at prescheduled times. They can also implement these practices before or following a potentially stress-inducing activity, such as prior to a test or after a conflict.</p> <p>After working with Ms. Shernoff and Mr. Jones to find mindfulness programs, Ms. Camillo decides to use the four-step STOP technique ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref59">17</reflink>]). The first step, S (Stop), guides students first to stop and pause. The second step, T (Take a breath), reminds students to take deep breaths and concentrate on their breathing. The third step, O (Observe), encourages students to notice their thoughts and emotions without judgment. Finally, P (Proceed), has students engage with the stressful situation (e.g., before a test, friends fighting) with an understanding of their emotions and reactions. Ms. Camillo, who sees that Brian seems especially agitated before writing assignments, does the STOP technique with the whole class prior to the task. She immediately finds that all her students, including Brian, seem more centered and focused. Upon reflection, Ms. Camillo realizes that although Brian still has difficulty staying on task, he is overall more centered and less argumentative with peers and teachers since she began implementing proactive approaches to reduce school-based stressors.</p> <hd id="AN0162514272-7">Step 4: Connect With Families</hd> <p>Because practicing EF and related skills (e.g., SEL) are critical for development ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref60">36</reflink>]), it will be important for school professionals to encourage parents/guardians to have their middle schooler use these skills at home. Thus, it will be important to actively communicate (e.g., e-mail blast, newsletter) with families about tips for practicing learned skills at home and guidance on creating a stress-free home environment that fosters student EF ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref61">13</reflink>]). School professionals can also solicit feedback from families about which specific strategies have worked best at home to ensure ongoing communication and collaboration.</p> <p> <emph>To increase family involvement and help Brian practice learned skills at home, Ms. Camillo set up a parent conference. She created a handout with the four-step STOP technique and provided clear instructions to Brian's parents on how they could have him use this technique before stress inducing situations at home, such as prior to doing homework. Brian's parents appreciated the meeting and began implementing this technique at home.</emph> </p> <p>"As part of building a positive classroom environment and reducing stressors, school professionals should help students manage stress through mindfulness, which teaches students to have an open state of attention in the moment.</p> <hd id="AN0162514272-8">Strategies to Foster Student EF Skills</hd> <p>As the second part of building student EF, school professionals should actively enhance EF skills by incorporating games and activities that engage the EF of all their students and targeted evidence-supported programs that directly foster individual EF for students needing more focused supports, such as students with EBD. Although all students benefit from strategies that foster EF, it will be important for school professionals to identify which students in their class display characteristics of EF dysfunction (see Table 1) and would likely benefit from more intensive, targeted supports.</p> <hd id="AN0162514272-9">Step 5: Incorporate Games and Activities to Foster Student EF Skills</hd> <p>Because EF improves with practice, school professionals should embed activities that encourage practice and repetition of EF skills ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref62">31</reflink>]). For instance, in games like Pictionary or charades, students must use inhibitory control to stop their impulse to speak prematurely. Board games, such as chess or bridge, require students to use inhibitory control to stop from using the first move that comes to mind. Such games also employ working memory to remember and apply game rules and cognitive flexibility to come up with multiple strategies. Plays and skits tap student working memory by requiring them to memorize and deliver lines. Class debates encourage students to use cognitive flexibility to create and defend specific arguments ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref63">5</reflink>]). Physically engaging games, even simple aerobic exercise, not only are an outlet for releasing stress but are also associated with heightened student EF ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref64">31</reflink>]). Overall, embedding games and activities within schools can be a promising way to foster EF.</p> <p> <emph>As part of the plan, the team decides it would benefit not only Brian but the entire class if Ms. Camillo rewards her students with the option of engaging in EF building games (e.g., board games, team sports, or structured games [e.g., charades]), which are games that may help to build inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility skills. Ms. Camillo structures the reward by dividing the class into teams before starting an assignment or test review. The team with the most correct answers decides what games the class will play. Ms. Camillo notices that Brian has begun to put more effort into completing work to ensure his team wins after implementing this strategy. She also realizes that as he has engaged in these games more often, Brian has begun to develop more control over his impulsive behavior.</emph> </p> <hd id="AN0162514272-10">Step 6: Select Evidence-Supported Programs That Build Individual Student EF</hd> <p>School professionals should also work closely with their colleagues and administrators to select and implement evidence-supported, EF-focused prevention/intervention programs, especially with their students with EBD. Although some programs have shown promising follow-up effects (e.g., Cogmed), the evidence supporting transfer and maintenance of skills through direct computerized training are less conclusive ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref65">31</reflink>]). Yet research suggests that transfer is improved when students receive accompanying reflection training so they comprehend how it applies to contexts (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref66">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>Interventions that focus on teaching students how to strengthen and use self-regulation and EF skills for academic and behavioral tasks appear to be especially effective at improving student EF ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref67">31</reflink>]). The repeated use of EF needed for self-regulation at increasing levels of complexity is theorized to improve these skills and underlying neurocognitive processes ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref68">35</reflink>]). Mindfulness is also theorized to build EF while simultaneously reducing the effects of stress/emotions that can hijack EF skills ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref69">35</reflink>]) such that students must focus attention (e.g., on their breathing) over longer periods of time and not dwell on distracting thoughts and emotions (e.g., emotion regulation). Although there are research-supported interventions that effectively foster EF for younger students (e.g., Promoting Alternative Thinking Skills; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref70">31</reflink>]), there are fewer available for middle school (see Table 2 for selected programs) and only one for middle schoolers with EBD. The only existing program designed for middle schoolers with EBD is I Control ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref71">30</reflink>]), a teacher-delivered EF skill intervention designed to foster student EF and self-regulation. Students receive explicit instruction in EF, goal setting, emotion regulation, and social problem-solving. One unique feature of I Control is the computerized Brain Training Lab, which is designed to train and improve student EF through computerized games. In a pilot study of I Control, students receiving the intervention improved not only in self-regulation abilities (e.g., emotional control, social problem-solving) but also teacher-reported EF skills. Teachers also noted a reduction in student maladaptive behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref72">30</reflink>]). Overall, although selecting an evidence-supported program is helpful for improving the EF and associated self-regulation of all students, it is especially critical for students with EBD who tend to have EF difficulties.</p> <p> <emph>Ms. Camillo and other IEP team members work with the principal to obtain and schedule a time to implement I Control with students with EBD. Mr. Jones agrees to teach I Control to Brian and other students with EBD in his grade level. After several months of teaching Units 1 through 3, Mr. Jones is now focused on Unit 4, the social problem-solving unit. Mr. Jones finds the unit is especially beneficial for Brian because it combines learned content from the previous three units to work through a five-step social problem-solving sequence using the acronym CNTRL (C = Check for a problem; N = Name the problem and the goal; T = Think of solutions; R = Respond with a plan; and L = Look at how you did). Brian seems especially engaged in the role-plays, which focus on common everyday social problems (e.g., conflicts with peers, rumors, group assignments). Mr. Jones is pleased to find that as the lessons progress, Brian is more easily able to identify the scenario problem, think of solutions, identify pros and cons of each, and come up with a plan.</emph> </p> <p> <emph>Mr. Jones also works with Brian to think of ways he can complete his work independently in Ms. Camillo's class using the CNTRL steps. Brian shares that the problem begins when he does not understand the assignment directions because there were too many to remember (sign of working memory difficulties). He realizes that he gets frustrated when this happens, and it will quickly turn into anger. Brian thinks about the CNTRL steps and decides that he should take deeps breaths to calm down and ask the teacher for help instead of tearing up the paper. Brian says he will use this plan when in Ms. Camillo's class next. Mr. Jones is pleasantly surprised by Brian's response.</emph> </p> <hd id="AN0162514272-11">Procedures to Assess Plan Effectiveness</hd> <p>As with any school-based program or intervention, school professionals should include procedures to ensure that the plan to build student EF is effective. Specifically, school professionals will need to collect student data that (a) gauges areas of need, (b) measures progress, and (c) determines skill development. These data should be collected prior, during, and after plan implementation to inform decisions during regular held meetings.</p> <hd id="AN0162514272-12">Step 7: Make Data-Informed Decisions</hd> <p>The school psychologist should first gauge initial EF skill level through EF rating scales (e.g., BRIEF-2; [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref73">16</reflink>]) and performance-based measures (e.g., NIH Toolbox; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref74">33</reflink>]) prior to plan implementation. These will provide a baseline of student EF ability prior to plan implementation, inform plan development, and provide evidence of effectiveness. Additionally, school professionals should consider using informal assessment procedures, such as classroom observations, to monitor progress. They can also gauge whether a student has made improvements in related social, behavioral, and academic areas, such as with the use of frequency counts to measure on-task behaviors and task completion. Depending on outcomes, decisions should be made to continue, revise, or discontinue the plan. For instance, if follow-up data show that a student is not making progress on their EF skills, then adjustments may need to be made to the frequency of activity engagement (e.g., more mindfulness) or highlight the need for more targeted EF programming (e.g., individualized practice of I Control skills).</p> <p> <emph>During a follow-up meeting to determine how Brian is responding to the plan, Ms. Camillo shares that although he still has some difficulty controlling his emotions and behaviors, Brian tends to more often think before acting, has more positive interactions with peers, and is no longer at risk of failing her class. Ms. Shernoff also notes Brian has made some improvement in his EF skills as measured by both the NIH Toolbox and BRIEF-2. Therefore, the team determines the plan is effective and should be continued as implemented while continuing to monitor its effectiveness.</emph> </p> <hd id="AN0162514272-13">Conclusion</hd> <p>For students with significant behavior problems, difficulties with EF and associated self-regulation are not uncommon, and middle school is a crucial period when students are at greater risk for escalating behaviors that have long-term impacts (e.g., school dropout, incarceration; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref75">21</reflink>]). Therefore, in addition to commonly used behavioral techniques, middle school professionals should work together to reduce sources of school-based stress and implement strategies to actively foster EF skills. This is especially critical during the high stress and active EF developmental period of middle school ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref76">3</reflink>]). 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Executive function and psychopathology: A neurodevelopmental perspective. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 16, 431–454. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072319-024242</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zelazo P. D., Blair C. B., Willoughby M. T. (2016). Executive function: Implications for education (NCER Publication No. 2017-2000). U.S. Department of Education.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0162514272-15"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> ORCID iD Michelle M. Cumming</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1803-1900</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Michelle M. Cumming; Cristina Criado; Jeehyun Park; Alexandra Arango; Maria L. Rodriguez and Michael Ali</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref74"></nolink>
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  Data: Addressing Middle Schoolers' Disruptive Behavior: The Importance of Fostering Student Executive Functioning
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cumming%2C+Michelle+M%2E%22">Cumming, Michelle M.</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1803-1900">0000-0002-1803-1900</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Criado%2C+Cristina%22">Criado, Cristina</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Park%2C+Jeehyun%22">Park, Jeehyun</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Arango%2C+Alexandra%22">Arango, Alexandra</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rodriguez%2C+Maria+L%2E%22">Rodriguez, Maria L.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ali%2C+Michael%22">Ali, Michael</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Middle+School+Students%22">Middle School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Behavior%22">Student Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Behavior+Problems%22">Behavior Problems</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Antisocial+Behavior%22">Antisocial Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Executive+Function%22">Executive Function</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Management%22">Stress Management</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Behavior+Disorders%22">Behavior Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Emotional+Disturbances%22">Emotional Disturbances</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22At+Risk+Persons%22">At Risk Persons</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Management%22">Self Management</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescent+Development%22">Adolescent Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Skill+Development%22">Skill Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Evaluation%22">Evaluation</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1177/00400599221093393
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0040-0599<br />2163-5684
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: For students with significant behavior problems, difficulties with executive function (EF) and associated self-regulation are not uncommon, and middle school is a crucial period when students are at greater risk for escalating behaviors that have long-term impacts (e.g., school dropout, incarceration; Kauffman & Landrum, 2018). Therefore, in addition to commonly used behavioral techniques, middle school professionals should work together to reduce sources of school-based stress and implement strategies to actively foster EF skills. This is especially critical during the high stress and active EF developmental period of middle school (Best & Miller, 2010). By developing effective EF, students with or at risk for an emotional and behavioral disorder (EBD) will be better able to control their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, which is critical for school and lifelong success.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: ERIC
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1371886
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1371886
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/00400599221093393
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 176
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Middle School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Behavior Problems
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Antisocial Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Executive Function
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Stress Management
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Behavior Disorders
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Emotional Disturbances
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: At Risk Persons
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Management
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescent Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Skill Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Evaluation
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Addressing Middle Schoolers' Disruptive Behavior: The Importance of Fostering Student Executive Functioning
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Cumming, Michelle M.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Criado, Cristina
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Park, Jeehyun
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Arango, Alexandra
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Rodriguez, Maria L.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Ali, Michael
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      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2023
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0040-0599
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 2163-5684
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 55
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: TEACHING Exceptional Children
              Type: main
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