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A Review of Motor Skill Development in State-Level Early Learning Standards for Preschoolers in the United States

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Title: A Review of Motor Skill Development in State-Level Early Learning Standards for Preschoolers in the United States
Language: English
Authors: Lindsay, Anne R., Coughenour, Courtney, Case, Layne (ORCID 0000-0002-1162-7672), Bevell, Jacob, Fryer, Victoria, Brian, Ali
Source: Journal of Motor Learning and Development. Dec 2022 10(3):355-370.
Availability: Human Kinetics, Inc. 1607 North Market Street, Champaign, IL 61820. Tel: 800-474-4457; Fax: 217-351-1549; e-mail: info@hkusa.com; Web site: https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jmld/jmld-overview.xml
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2022
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Descriptors: Psychomotor Skills, Skill Development, Academic Standards, Preschool Children, State Standards, Comparative Analysis, Motor Development, Early Childhood Education
Geographic Terms: United States
DOI: 10.1123/jmld.2021-0067
ISSN: 2325-3193
2325-3215
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine state-level early learning standards specific to physical development, including fundamental motor skills and gross motor development for preschool-aged children in the United States. All standards related to motor development and specific to children ages 3-5 years were extracted from publicly available online documents from all 50 states. Upon initial review, 961 standards were extracted from all documents. Through aggregation of similar skills and elimination of duplicates across states, 48 unique skills were identified. Frequencies and proportions of states that included each skill in their standards were calculated. Descriptive results indicate that none of the 48 skills were included as a standard across all 50 states. Only three skills, running, jumping, and throwing a ball overhand were a standard in over 75% of states. Most of the skills were standards in less than 50% of states. Trends from these data show that a wide range of motor skills are included within preschool physical development standards within the United States, with large variability among states. Considering this variability, and currently low levels of motor competence among young children, additional evaluation, and future creation of best practice preschool physical development standards are warranted.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1373374
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0161282228;[fqbl]01dec.22;2023Jan16.05:27;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0161282228-1">A Review of Motor Skill Development in State-Level Early Learning Standards for Preschoolers in the United States </title> <p>The purpose of this study was to examine state-level early learning standards specific to physical development, including fundamental motor skills and gross motor development for preschool-aged children in the United States. All standards related to motor development and specific to children ages 3–5 years were extracted from publicly available online documents from all 50 states. Upon initial review, 961 standards were extracted from all documents. Through aggregation of similar skills and elimination of duplicates across states, 48 unique skills were identified. Frequencies and proportions of states that included each skill in their standards were calculated. Descriptive results indicate that none of the 48 skills were included as a standard across all 50 states. Only three skills, running, jumping, and throwing a ball overhand were a standard in over 75% of states. Most of the skills were standards in less than 50% of states. Trends from these data show that a wide range of motor skills are included within preschool physical development standards within the United States, with large variability among states. Considering this variability, and currently low levels of motor competence among young children, additional evaluation, and future creation of best practice preschool physical development standards are warranted.</p> <p>Keywords: early childhood; gross motor; movement; guidelines; physical development</p> <p>The benefits of physical activity (PA) are well noted among children ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref1">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref2">22</reflink>]). However, a considerably low prevalence of preschoolers ages 3–5 years in the United States engage in adequate levels of PA ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref3">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref4">31</reflink>]). Low levels of PA among preschoolers are concerning considering the important influence that PA may have on positive health and developmental trajectories in early childhood and throughout the lifespan ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref5">2</reflink>]). Thus, a large body of research focuses on enhancing PA levels and factors associated with PA among preschoolers ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref6">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref7">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref8">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref9">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref10">38</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref11">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>A primary strategy for enhancing PA among preschoolers includes fundamental motor skill (FMS) development ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref12">18</reflink>]). FMS competence is often believed to be a key underlying mechanism for PA and other positive developmental cascades ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref13">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref14">35</reflink>]), with the relationship between FMS and PA strengthening overtime ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref15">37</reflink>]). Thus, preschool years are a critical and opportune time to develop FMS. FMS are defined as first steps in the development of more complex, specialized skills necessary to participate in sports and games and to maintain health-enhancing PA habits throughout life ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref16">21</reflink>]). FMS are commonly divided into three categories, including locomotor (e.g., running and hopping), object control or manipulation (e.g., catching and throwing), and nonlocomotor stability skills (e.g., balancing and twisting; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref17">23</reflink>]). While FMS development is often recommended as the key area of early motor skill intervention ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref18">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref19">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>]), other areas of motor development are also important for young children's overall health and PA engagement ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref21">2</reflink>]). For example, general areas of motor competence, including perceptual motor development skills, and specific types of activities</p> <p>such as adult-led structured play and movements that involve crossing the midline, are also emphasized and recommended for motor programming for preschoolers ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref22">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref23">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>Unfortunately, preschoolers are showing historically low levels of motor competence, and trends from a large and diverse sample of preschoolers in the United States support the potential for a secular decline in FMS competence from previous national norms ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref24">5</reflink>]). Thus, national organizations have individually established guidelines that aim to address FMS development and PA among preschoolers (e.g., Society of Health and Physical Educators [[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref25">36</reflink>]). For example, SHAPE America's Active Start Guidelines state that preschoolers should develop competence in fundamental movement and motor skills and should be provided with ample opportunities for structured and unstructured PA, among other recommendations for engaging in adequate levels of activity ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref26">36</reflink>]). In addition to recommendations from national organizations, state departments also each offer guidelines or standards for motor development and motor skills. These standards are often housed within the physical development domain, or section, of early learning standards and outline expectations for preschoolers in their state. For example, although specific state standards vary, standards may outline engagement in certain activity types (e.g., demonstrate a variety of locomotor and gross motor control skills), performance of specific FMS criteria (e.g., use arm swing to aid forward jump), and demonstration of degrees of body control and awareness (e.g., move quickly through environment and stop), among others. State standards are intended to provide preschool teachers and childcare personnel with clarity and examples of developmentally appropriate and measurable goals beyond the general guidelines for motor development.</p> <p>Such acknowledgement of FMS development within state guidelines and by national organizations is essential for recognizing the importance of and enhancing motor competence and PA among preschoolers. Despite this recognition, existing guidelines from national organizations are broad and provide little support for specific motor programming within preschools or early care and education (ECE) settings. Moreover, while state-level standards intend to provide additional guidance and specific examples for motor development expectations, there is minimal understanding of the current state-level FMS standards within ECE programming across the United States. This lack of understanding of the existing standards is problematic considering the low levels and trending decline in motor competence among children.</p> <p>A preliminary description of FMS and other motor development standards across the United States may provide an understanding of the extent to which state standards align with guidelines from national organizations. In addition, an exploration of current state-level standards will provide a descriptive view of what skills are prioritized and may lead to the development of specific and comprehensive guidelines for FMS. Comprehensive guidelines can directly influence the skills that are taught or not taught to preschoolers, which may affect their motor competence and PA engagement. Understanding and evaluating the existing standards for motor skill development is a first and important step toward providing a blueprint for ECE providers to build appropriate curricula as well as early identification of children who are not meeting such standards. Early identification allows for more time and opportunity for intervention. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine state preschool standards specific to FMS and motor development in preschool-aged children across all 50 states.</p> <hd id="AN0161282228-2">Method</hd> <p>The FMS and motor development state-level standards for preschoolers ages 3–5 years in the 50 states in the United States were examined in this study. A research team, consisting of three faculty, one postdoctoral research fellow, and two graduate students specializing in public health, exercise science, physical therapy, and motor development developed a joint plan to identify the standards of interest in this study. Through this plan, members of the research team identified publicly available, online state documents by exhaustively searching the corresponding, official state department of education webpages (e.g., https://doe.nv.gov; see Supplementary Table S1 for a complete list of URLs). While there are other state websites and codified laws, department of education documents were targeted in this study for ease of comparison across states. The state documents identified and used in this study were the most recent, publicly available versions of early childhood development standards as of the time that data collection completed (December 2020). Most documents were found directly (<emph>n</emph> = 45) or indirectly (<emph>n</emph> = 3) through the state department of education or early learning websites. Documents from two states were found within a separate state department page (e.g., Idaho Department of Health and Welfare). Each state document's physical or motor development section was identified, and a thorough review was completed to identify all standards that were (a) related to motor development and (b) recommended for preschoolers between the ages of 3–5 years. Standards relating to preschoolers with and without disabilities were both included. The terminology used to classify motor standards and the intended age group varied by state. For example, some states identified relevant standards within sections titled physical development, gross motor development, movement and dance, or physical well-being. In addition, while some standards were exclusive to children ages 3–5 years, some states designated standards for children beyond those age limits. Ultimately, using categorical and individual word searches, any standard that was relevant to physical/motor development and included preschool-aged children (3–5 years) was reviewed for inclusion, regardless of motor terminology or age classification. To maintain the focus of this review on FMS and motor development standards, fine motor skills and activities quantifying PA (e.g., duration, intensity) were excluded. Washington (DC) and U.S. territories were not included in this review.</p> <p>A total of 961 standards that met the inclusion criteria were identified and extracted verbatim from state documents into an Excel spreadsheet designed for this study. Due to limited literature on existing preschool motor development standards, all standards were reviewed in alignment with conventional content analysis techniques. As such, coding categories were formed based on commonalities found among the data ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref27">16</reflink>]). Upon review, three general domains—(a) <emph>FMS</emph>, (b) <emph>perceptual motor development</emph>, and (c) <emph>other</emph>—were created. The research team then collectively reviewed each standard and sorted them into one of the three domains based on the primary skill as defined in the following paragraphs. All research team members, including one team member with experience with conducting, writing, and publishing content analyses and systematic reviews, were involved in this decision process. All sorting was completed together, and all disagreements were discussed until 100% consensus was met.</p> <hd id="AN0161282228-3">Fundamental Motor Skill</hd> <p>All standards in which the primary skill or goal of movement involved FMSs that act as precursors to more complex, sport-specific skills were classified as <emph>FMS</emph> standards. All standards initially classified as FMS were then exclusively sorted into one of three subdomains: (a) <emph>locomotor</emph>, (b) <emph>object control/manipulation</emph>, or (c) <emph>balance/nonlocomotor</emph>. This categorization aligns with the definition of FMS and was implemented to recognize the specific aspects of FMS that were of interest in this study ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref28">21</reflink>]). Examples of standards sorted into each subdomain include walking up and down stairs (locomotor), using two hands to catch a ball (object control/manipulation), and balancing on one foot for 1–2 s (balance/nonlocomotor). Standards related to using a wheelchair were classified as locomotor, as wheeling is one of the ways in which children who use wheelchairs locomote.</p> <hd id="AN0161282228-4">Perceptual Motor Development</hd> <p>All standards in which the primary skill or goal involved the use of perceptual or sensory information to move and interact with the environment were classified as <emph>perceptual motor development</emph> standards ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref29">15</reflink>]). These included standards related to spatial awareness, proprioception, directional awareness, time and speed, and other perceptual movements. Examples of standards sorted into this domain include moving the body to a rhythm, navigating personal space among peers, and changing direction while running.</p> <hd id="AN0161282228-5">Other</hd> <p>Standards related to physical and gross motor development not directly defined as FMS or perceptual motor development skills were classified as <emph>other</emph>. Upon initial review, all <emph>other</emph> standards involved items related to structured or unstructured activities, strength and stamina, or pedaling a tricycle, which is considered a foundational movement ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref30">26</reflink>]). Due to the variation among these standards, and the unique importance of both structured (adult-led) and unstructured (child-led) motor opportunities for learning and PA ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref31">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref32">31</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref33">36</reflink>]), standards sorted into this category were coded as: (a) <emph>structured activity</emph> (<emph>only</emph>), (b) <emph>unstructured activity</emph> (<emph>only</emph>), (c) <emph>both structured and unstructured activity</emph>, (d) <emph>strength and stamina</emph>, or (e) pedaling a tricycle. Standards were classified as either structured or unstructured activity if they only included one of those respective terms or classified as both structured and unstructured activities if they named both types of activity (e.g., initiates structure/unstructured play throughout day). Standards were classified as strength and stamina if they involved building strength or sustaining a particular physical or motor activity (e.g., participates in activities designed to strengthen major muscle groups).</p> <p>After each standard was appropriately categorized, similar standards within each domain were aggregated by the research team to represent one broadly defined, primary skill and to minimize duplicates found across and within states. For example, the separate standards <emph>jump for height</emph>, <emph>jump off a bottom step with two feet</emph>, <emph>jump forward at least six inches,</emph> and <emph>jump for height and distance</emph> were all compiled to represent jumping (locomotor). Standards were aggregated into one primary skill (e.g., run) unless several states identified the primary skill and an additional variation of that skill as two distinct standards. In those instances, multiple aggregated groups were created to represent separate standards. For example, <emph>leaping while running</emph> and <emph>leaping over an object</emph> were aggregated into one primary skill (leaping) unless both skill variations were identified by most states as two separate standards. Variations in a primary skill were aggregated using at least two separate groups in three different instances: (a) hopping versus hopping on one foot, (b) walking versus walking up and downstairs, and (c) balancing versus balancing on one foot versus balancing on uneven surfaces. At the end of the process, 48 unique skills were identified for data analysis. All aggregations were completed together by the research team and any disagreements were discussed until 100% consensus was met across the team.</p> <hd id="AN0161282228-6">Data Analysis</hd> <p>To provide a summary of all standards of interest extracted from the state documents, frequencies (<emph>n</emph>) of total standards by state were calculated prior to data reduction. Additional descriptive statistics, including mean (<emph>m</emph>) and range of standards within each skill domain, were also calculated.</p> <p>After all state-level data were aggregated, each of the 48 skills were dichotomously coded as (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref34">1</reflink>) <emph>included</emph> or (0) <emph>not included</emph> as a motor development standard across each of the 50 states. Descriptive statistics were then calculated and compiled by skill domain to represent the frequency and proportion (in percentage) of the 50 states that included each of the 48 skills in their standards. All calculations were conducted using Excel (Microsoft Corporation).</p> <hd id="AN0161282228-7">Results</hd> <p>Publication dates of the most recent or currently enacted state standard documents ranged from January 2007 to December 2020. Prior to data reduction, the total number of motor development standards across states ranged from 5 to 38, with a median of 19 standards among all states. Table 1 presents the number of standards within each domain by state. Considering all 50 states, standards were most frequently categorized as locomotor (<emph>n</emph> = 376, <emph>m</emph> = 7.52, range = 1–13), followed by object control (<emph>n</emph> = 258, <emph>m</emph> = 5.16, range = 1–11) and perceptual motor development (<emph>n</emph> = 156, <emph>m</emph> = 3.12, range = 0–12).</p> <p>Table 1 Number of State Standards by Category Listed in Alphabetical Order by State</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /><col align="left" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">State</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">LCMR</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">OC</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">BAL</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">PMD</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">Other</th><th align="left" rowspan="1" colspan="1">State</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">LCMR</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">OC</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">BAL</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">PMD</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">Other</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alabama</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Montana</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Alaska</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nebraska</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Arizona</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Nevada</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Arkansas</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">New Hampshire</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">California</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">New Jersey</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Colorado</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">New Mexico</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Connecticut</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">New York</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Delaware</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">North Carolina</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Florida</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">North Dakota</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Georgia</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Ohio</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Hawaii</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oklahoma</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Idaho</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oregon</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Illinois</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pennsylvania</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Indiana</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Rhode Island</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Iowa</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">South Carolina</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kansas</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">South Dakota</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Kentucky</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Tennessee</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Louisiana</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Texas</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Maine</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Utah</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Maryland</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vermont</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Massachusetts</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">13</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Virginia</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Michigan</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">9</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Washington</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Minnesota</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">West Virginia</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Mississippi</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wisconsin</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Missouri</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">12</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Wyoming</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">0</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note.</emph> The counts above are intended to provide awareness and a descriptive starting point for future research in this area. Counts indicate the number of relevant skills found in each category across states and do not suggest quality of standards. States listed in alphabetical order. LCMR = locomotor; OC = object control; BAL = balance/nonlocomotor; PMD = perceptual motor development.</p> <p>Following data reduction, the 48 unique skills across all states included 30 FMS (Table 2), including 14 locomotor, seven object control/manipulation, and nine balance/nonlocomotor, 13 perceptual motor development skills (Table 3), and five classified as other (Table 4). Tables 2–4 present the frequency and proportion of states that included each of the 48 skills. Results for each of the 48 skills individually included by each state are available upon request.</p> <p>Table 2 Frequencies and Percentages of FMSs, Including Locomotor, Object Control, and Balance, in State Standards</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">FMS subcategory/skill</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>n</italic> (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Locomotor</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">50 (100)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Running</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">44 (88)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Jumping</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">43 (86)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Walking</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">36 (72)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Climbing</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">36 (72)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Hopping (nonspecified)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">33 (66)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Galloping</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">28 (56)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Walking up and downstairs (alternating feet)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">24 (48)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Skipping</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">21 (42)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Dancing</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">15 (30)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Hopping on one foot</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">14 (28)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Marching</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11 (22)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Leaping</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8 (16)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Sliding</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7 (14)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Wheelchair movements</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 (10)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Object control/manipulation</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">50 (100)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Throw a ball (overhand)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">42 (84)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Kick a ball</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">35 (70)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Catch a ball (arms cradled)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">33 (66)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Catch and bounce a ball (stationary dribble)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">13 (26)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Strike a (stationary) ball</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">13 (26)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Use outdoor play equipment</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11 (22)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Roll ball (underhand)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 (10)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Balance/nonlocomotor</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">46 (92)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Balancing (general)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">36 (72)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Balancing on one foot</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">21 (42)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Swinging</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">15 (30)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Pulling</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11 (22)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Carrying an object while walking</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8 (16)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Pushing</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">7 (14)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Standing and walking on tip toes</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5 (10)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Balancing on uneven surfaces</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4 (8)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1"> Spinning</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (4)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note</emph>. <emph>n</emph> (%) reflect number and percentages of all 50 states that included each skill as a standard. FMS = fundamental motor skill.</p> <p>Table 3 Frequencies and Percentages of Perceptual Motor Development Skills in State Standards</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">Perceptual motor development skill</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>n</italic> (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Navigate personal space w/peers</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">25 (50)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Move in, under, or over objects w/ease</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">21 (42)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Move w/control, direction (accelerate/decelerate)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">21 (42)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Move backward</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">15 (30)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Change direction while running</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">15 (30)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Move forward</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">14 (28)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Run without bumping into things</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">12 (24)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Move up</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10 (20)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Move down</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10 (20)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Move sideways</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">9 (18)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Adjust to tempo (fast, slow, etc.)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">4 (8)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Move body in space; cross the midline</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">3 (6)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Control movement of upper/lower body</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">2 (4)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note</emph>. <emph>n</emph> (%) reflect number and percentages of all 50 states that included each skill as a standard.</p> <p>Table 4 Frequencies and Percentages of Other Skills in State Standards</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">Other skills</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1"><italic>n</italic> (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Pedal a tricycle</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">33 (66)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Strength and stamina</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">24 (48)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Structured and unstructured activities</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">8 (16)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Structured activities (only)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (2)</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Unstructured activities (only)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">1 (2)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note</emph>. <emph>n</emph> (%) reflect number and percentages of all 50 states that included each skill as a standard.</p> <p>None of the 48 skills were included as a standard by all 50 (100%) states. Considering descriptive quartiles, only three skills were identified as a standard by over 75% of the 50 states. Running was the most frequent skill found across states (<emph>n</emph> = 44, 88%), followed by jumping (<emph>n</emph> = 43, 86%) and throwing a ball overhand (<emph>n</emph> = 42, 84%). Eight skills—walking, climbing, kicking a ball, balancing, hopping, catching a ball, pedaling a tricycle, and galloping—were identified in 51%–75% of states. Fifteen skills were identified by 26%–50% of states, whereas 22 skills were identified by 25% of states or less.</p> <p>Regarding the skill domains, all 50 states included at least one locomotor or object control skill. Moreover, nine of the 11 skills included as standards by more than half of the states were locomotor (<emph>n</emph> = 6) or object control/manipulation skills (<emph>n</emph> = 3). In contrast, 46 states and 39 states included at least one balance/nonlocomotor or perceptual motor development standard, respectively. Eight of the nine nonlocomotor skills and all the perceptual motor development skills were reported by 50% or less of the states. Among the <emph>other</emph> category, 33 states included a standard related to pedaling a tricycle, 24 states included a standard related to strength/stamina, and only eight states included a standard related to engagement in both structured and unstructured activity.</p> <p>Of note, wheelchair movements (locomotor)—the only standard directly related to children with disabilities—was included as a standard by five (10%) states. Specific wheelchair movements found among the state standards included items such as moving a wheelchair through an obstacle course; starting and stopping the wheelchair while holding the body upright; and steering the wheelchair into small spaces.</p> <hd id="AN0161282228-8">Discussion</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to explore current state-level preschool standards specific to motor skill development across all 50 states. To our knowledge, this work reflects the first study to review and aggregate preschool standards in this area. The verbiage within the current state standards strongly emphasizes locomotor skill development compared with other physical and motor skill domains. In contrast, standards related to nonlocomotor skills and perceptual motor development received minimal attention. None of the observed skills were included as a standard in each of the 50 states. Collectively, the potential variation among these data across state-level physical and motor development standards draws attention to the need for further evaluation and creation of unified, comprehensive standards for preschoolers at the national level.</p> <p>According to descriptive results, current state-level preschool standards most frequently include locomotor skills, with running and jumping documented most frequently across states overall and within the locomotor domain. Object control skills were included the second most, with overhand throw and kick identified as standards in at least 70% of states. The relatively large inclusion of locomotor and object control skill domains reveal that some alignment exists between state-level standards and guidelines reported by national organizations for preschoolers to develop competence in FMS ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref35">36</reflink>]). Interestingly, the emphasis on locomotor skill compared with object control skill is consistent with reports that inadequate levels of instruction are dedicated to object control and manipulation ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref36">27</reflink>]). The imbalance across locomotor versus object control emphasis lacks logic as motor skill instruction warrants priority for object control skills due to greater skill complexity ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref37">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref38">27</reflink>]) and positive associations between childhood object control competence and adolescent PA ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref39">1</reflink>]). Considering that standards are intended to inform teaching and curricula, the existing set of standards may not reflect the motor skill instruction needed to target the discrepancy between locomotor and object control skill competence among preschoolers. Thus, it is no surprise that young children often exhibit greater competence in locomotor compared with object control skills ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref40">3</reflink>]).</p> <p>Beyond the general alignment between FMS in state standards and guidelines from national organizations, there are several concerning gaps, or missing skills, in the data that are important to note. First, it was surprising that eight of the nine balance/nonlocomotor skills and all 13 perceptual motor development skills were missing from standards in more than half of the 50 states. Balance and perceptual-motor coordination are important for learning FMS and should be included in ECE curricula ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref41">19</reflink>]). The large absence of balance and perceptual-motor skills as standards is concerning as it may reflect that many U.S. preschoolers are not afforded opportunities to learn or practice those skills. Many states were also missing other skills and movements that are known to be critical for development and learning within preschool-aged children. For example, only two states included "spinning" and only three states named "cross the midline." A lack of consistency with including crossing the midline is particularly concerning as this skill tends to relate with school readiness, executive functioning, and academic achievement ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref42">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref43">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref44">24</reflink>]). In addition, the variability of standards across states provokes questions regarding the extent to which subsequent curricula, learning, and performance may differ among preschoolers in the United States.</p> <p>In addition to the absence of several important skills, less than 20% of states included "structured" activities within their physical and motor development standards, whether alone or in combination with unstructured activities. It is possible that the term <emph>structured</emph> was simply left out and that the absence of this term does not necessarily indicate that all other skills defined in the standards should be unstructured. Nevertheless, the exclusion of this term is problematic for several reasons. While both structured (adult-led) and unstructured (child-led) motor opportunities are beneficial and included in national guidelines ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref45">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref46">31</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref47">36</reflink>]), structured motor activities are uniquely essential for improvements and mastery in FMS ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref48">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref49">20</reflink>]). FMS do not emerge naturally through maturation or unstructured free play and must be taught through structured learning opportunities ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref50">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref51">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref52">34</reflink>]). In addition, without specifically promoting <emph>structured</emph> motor opportunities at the state level, teachers and early childhood administrators may not see the distinction or value of this type of learning and resultantly exclude it from their instruction. Thus, state standards should prioritize the inclusion of structured and adult-led activities and clearly indicate when activities are intended to be structured versus unstructured.</p> <p>Notably, only five states included adapted or "wheelchair" skills that are inclusive of preschoolers with disabilities. This unfortunately may reflect a lack of inclusion of children with disabilities in the state standards and subsequent instruction. We acknowledge that wheelchair activities are only one example of adapted movements; within this study, the term wheelchair is not intended to act as an all-inclusive term of disability or diversity among preschoolers in the United States. However, the low frequency of wheelchair activities across states provokes subsequent concerns that existing physical and motor standards may not account for movements beyond norm-referenced development or children without disabilities. Similar to children without disabilities, many children with disabilities demonstrate low levels of motor competence ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref53">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref54">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref55">32</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref56">33</reflink>]) and engage in low levels of PA compared with national recommendations ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref57">10</reflink>]). In addition, the percentage of children with disabilities, including preschoolers, who use federal education services within regular schools has consistently increased in recent years ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref58">14</reflink>]). Thus, it is critical for preschool teachers to have the resources necessary to provide instruction that is inclusive of, or universally designed, for different learners. To support inclusive motor instruction, state-level standards need to be inclusive of a variety of different movement patterns. Inclusive state standards may provide preschool teachers and early childhood professionals with additional awareness of PA modifications and more tools to offer PA and motor opportunities to all their students.</p> <p>While the main goal of this study was to examine state-level preschool motor development standards, there were common concerns regarding the utility and structure of state documents that are worthy of discussion. First, age classifications varied among states, and many were not well-defined or age-appropriate for preschoolers. For example, while some standards were written specifically for children ages 3–5 years, other age classifications included "2–5 years," "3–4 years," or simply "PreK." Moreover, some skills identified within the various age categories were not developmentally appropriate and may be too complex for preschoolers to perform (e.g., juggling). In addition, variation in motor terminology was observed across state standards, which aligns with previous reviews of motor literature and ultimately challenges the way in which motor skills can be synthesized ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref59">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref60">21</reflink>]). Finally, this search was delimited to the physical or motor development sections of the state documents. However, follow-up searches of the full state documents that were conducted to ensure accurate results revealed that several relevant motor skills were found in sections beyond physical and motor development domains such as creative development and creative arts. For example, a follow-up search for key terms related to movements that "cross the midline" elicited results outside the physical development sections in three additional states. As a result, teachers or providers who are looking directly to the physical development sections for guidance might miss important elements if they are only listed in other domains. Physical or motor benchmarks located outside of the physical development sections can cause confusion and omission. The above-mentioned inconsistencies only substantiate the need for reorganization and realignment of physical domain standards. This issue may also speak to inconsistencies in relevant terminology across developmental fields and warrants cross-disciplinary collaboration.</p> <p>Based on these findings and concerns, we offer two important recommendations for future research and refinement of state-level physical and motor development standards. First, given the variability across states and apparent gaps in skills important to motor development, we recommend that scholars use the results from this review as a starting point to develop evidence-based or expert-consensus comprehensive guidelines for preschool motor development standards that state departments can use to inform their curricula. This includes, but is not limited to, (a) identifying targeted, age-appropriate skills to be consistent learning standards across all 50 states, (b) promoting the use of activities that are inclusive of a range of physical and motor abilities within standards, and (c) prioritizing structured motor opportunities as well as recommending and defining the use of the term <emph>structured</emph> when appropriate. In addition to these recommendations, scholars must consider how any newly created or revised standards inform or align with expected outcomes for young children, including within kindergarten readiness assessments (e.g., <emph>Testing Strategies GOLD</emph>) or SHAPE America's grade-level outcomes for kindergarteners.</p> <p>Second, to increase compliance and curricular alignment with standards, state committees responsible for writing preschool learning standards should consider how their respective standards may be accessible to, and understood by, early childhood professionals, including traditional preschool teachers and those within less traditional learning settings such as home-based or family programs. Access to these standards it is especially important for teachers who may not have training in motor skill instruction and PA. In particular, standardized definitions and clear terminology should be provided and consistently used, preferably across all states, and relevant skills should be easy to find within physical or motor development standard sections. These changes may streamline the way in which gross motor instruction is delivered to preschool children across the United States and ultimately promote early identification of children who will benefit from further intervention.</p> <p>Despite strengths of this study, certain limitations must be addressed. The specific way in which we delimited this research to state-level standards and the presence of several physical and motor skills provides an overall descriptive summary but does not highlight the intricate variability in standards that may exist among or within each state. For example, the dichotomous coding of standards per state tells us how many states include, at minimum, one specific standard related to that skill. However, some states may have one related standard, whereas some may have ten. Results, therefore, do not specifically highlight any individual states that may have a well-defined, comprehensive set of effective guidelines. Future projects may compliment this work by examining within-state standards as well as distinguishing between low- and high-quality sets of standards. Similarly, our review specifically targeted standards put forth by each state's official department of education website. Therefore, our results do not include supplemental standards or guidelines that may be offered through other state-level organizations or policies. Future researchers in this area should consider this possibility and explore other sources of physical or motor guidelines for preschoolers. In addition, this study was descriptive in nature and involved the analysis of existing data, which limits follow-up questions and discussions beyond the scope of this project. Researchers should consider opening lines of inquiry that build upon and extend this preliminary data, including examining the extent to which schools evaluate and comply with state standards as well as the relationship between school compliance and preschoolers' motor competence.</p> <p>Results from this study directly address the gaps in knowledge regarding state-level motor development standards for preschoolers and how those standards align with national recommendations. Descriptive data demonstrate the variability across existing motor development state standards, and potentially in motor instruction, for preschoolers. Results from this study support the need for comprehensive and evidence-based state recommendations that support FMS competence and PA in early years. In addition, it is important to acknowledge that the systematic evaluation of learning standards is intended to influence instruction and stimulate the potential for subsequent improvement. While this study focused on preschool physical and motor development standards, the evaluation and aggregation of state standards for other age groups of children including birth to 3 years and various levels of K–12 students may also be of value.</p> <p>Case (lcase@csuchico.edu) is corresponding author, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1162-7672</p> <ref id="AN0161282228-9"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref34" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Barnett, L.M., van Beurden, E., Morgan, P.J., Brooks, L.O., & Beard, J.R. (2009). Childhood motor skill proficiency as a predictor of adolescent physical activity. 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  Data: A Review of Motor Skill Development in State-Level Early Learning Standards for Preschoolers in the United States
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lindsay%2C+Anne+R%2E%22">Lindsay, Anne R.</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Coughenour%2C+Courtney%22">Coughenour, Courtney</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Case%2C+Layne%22">Case, Layne</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1162-7672">0000-0002-1162-7672</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Bevell%2C+Jacob%22">Bevell, Jacob</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Fryer%2C+Victoria%22">Fryer, Victoria</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Brian%2C+Ali%22">Brian, Ali</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Motor+Learning+and+Development%22"><i>Journal of Motor Learning and Development</i></searchLink>. Dec 2022 10(3):355-370.
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  Data: Human Kinetics, Inc. 1607 North Market Street, Champaign, IL 61820. Tel: 800-474-4457; Fax: 217-351-1549; e-mail: info@hkusa.com; Web site: https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jmld/jmld-overview.xml
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  Data: 16
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  Data: 2022
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Label: Education Level
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink>
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  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychomotor+Skills%22">Psychomotor Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Skill+Development%22">Skill Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Standards%22">Academic Standards</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preschool+Children%22">Preschool Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22State+Standards%22">State Standards</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Comparative+Analysis%22">Comparative Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Motor+Development%22">Motor Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink>
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  Label: Geographic Terms
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22United+States%22">United States</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1123/jmld.2021-0067
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  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 2325-3193<br />2325-3215
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The purpose of this study was to examine state-level early learning standards specific to physical development, including fundamental motor skills and gross motor development for preschool-aged children in the United States. All standards related to motor development and specific to children ages 3-5 years were extracted from publicly available online documents from all 50 states. Upon initial review, 961 standards were extracted from all documents. Through aggregation of similar skills and elimination of duplicates across states, 48 unique skills were identified. Frequencies and proportions of states that included each skill in their standards were calculated. Descriptive results indicate that none of the 48 skills were included as a standard across all 50 states. Only three skills, running, jumping, and throwing a ball overhand were a standard in over 75% of states. Most of the skills were standards in less than 50% of states. Trends from these data show that a wide range of motor skills are included within preschool physical development standards within the United States, with large variability among states. Considering this variability, and currently low levels of motor competence among young children, additional evaluation, and future creation of best practice preschool physical development standards are warranted.
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  Data: 2023
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  Data: EJ1373374
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        Value: 10.1123/jmld.2021-0067
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 16
        StartPage: 355
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Psychomotor Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Skill Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Standards
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: State Standards
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Comparative Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Motor Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Early Childhood Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: United States
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: A Review of Motor Skill Development in State-Level Early Learning Standards for Preschoolers in the United States
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            NameFull: Lindsay, Anne R.
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            NameFull: Coughenour, Courtney
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            NameFull: Case, Layne
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Bevell, Jacob
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Fryer, Victoria
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Brian, Ali
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 12
              Type: published
              Y: 2022
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 2325-3193
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 2325-3215
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 10
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Motor Learning and Development
              Type: main
ResultId 1