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Critical Thinking Disposition and Academic Achievement among Chinese High School Students: A Moderated Mediation Model

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Title: Critical Thinking Disposition and Academic Achievement among Chinese High School Students: A Moderated Mediation Model
Language: English
Authors: Liu, Chengwei, Tang, Minyan, Wang, Maowen, Chen, Liang (ORCID 0000-0003-2394-8972), Sun, Xiaohua
Source: Psychology in the Schools. Aug 2023 60(8):3103-3113.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 11
Publication Date: 2023
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: High Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, High School Students, Critical Thinking, Personality, Academic Achievement, Models, Emotional Intelligence, Self Efficacy
Geographic Terms: China
DOI: 10.1002/pits.22906
ISSN: 0033-3085
1520-6807
Abstract: This study tested a moderated mediation model that included critical thinking disposition (independent variable), emotional intelligence (moderator), academic self-efficacy (mediator), and academic achievement (dependent variable) in a sample of 642 high school participants aged 14-16 years (M = 15.59, SD = 0.97, 48.44% males) in China, using data from an in-school questionnaire. Study findings showed that critical thinking disposition was positively associated with academic achievement. Academic self-efficacy played a mediating role between critical thinking disposition and academic achievement. Moreover, emotional intelligence played a moderating role in the second half of the mediation process, in which critical thinking disposition affected academic achievement through academic self-efficacy. The results revealed the mechanism of critical thinking disposition on academic achievement.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1383339
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0164723693;pis01aug.23;2023Jul07.05:40;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0164723693-1">Critical thinking disposition and academic achievement among Chinese high school students: A moderated mediation model </title> <p>This study tested a moderated mediation model that included critical thinking disposition (independent variable), emotional intelligence (moderator), academic self‐efficacy (mediator), and academic achievement (dependent variable) in a sample of 642 high school participants aged 14–16 years (M = 15.59, SD = 0.97, 48.44% males) in China, using data from an in‐school questionnaire. Study findings showed that critical thinking disposition was positively associated with academic achievement. Academic self‐efficacy played a mediating role between critical thinking disposition and academic achievement. Moreover, emotional intelligence played a moderating role in the second half of the mediation process, in which critical thinking disposition affected academic achievement through academic self‐efficacy. The results revealed the mechanism of critical thinking disposition on academic achievement.</p> <p>Practitioner points: Critical thinking disposition was positively associated with academic achievement.Academic self‐efficacy played a mediating role between critical thinking disposition and academic achievement.Emotional intelligence played a moderating role in the second half of the mediation process, in which critical thinking disposition affected academic achievement through academic self‐efficacy.</p> <p>Keywords: academic self‐efficacy; critical thinking disposition; moderated mediation model</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-2">INTRODUCTION</hd> <p>Critical thinking is dynamic and rigorous thinking that lasts for a period of time (Dewey, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref1">4</reflink>]). Critical thinking is reflected in two primary dimensions: skill and disposition. Critical thinking skills emphasize individual thinking strategies, mostly involving cognitive processes (Gotoh & Maruyama, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref2">14</reflink>]), while critical thinking disposition focuses on internal emotions and attitudes, emphasizing personal mental characteristics (Ess, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref3">7</reflink>]). A critical thinker should not only strive to improve their critical thinking skill but should also evaluate their critical thinking disposition (Billings & Halstead, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref4">2</reflink>]). The current study explored the influence of critical thinking disposition on high school students' academic achievement, extending the exploration to the mechanisms behind critical thinking disposition.</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-3">Critical thinking disposition and academic achievement</hd> <p>Critical thinking disposition, an important element of individual creative thinking, has an important internal connection to the academic achievement of high school students. Studies have shown that if students make full use of critical thinking, they can improve academic achievement by performing high‐quality learning tasks (Phan, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref5">24</reflink>]). Other studies have found that high school students' critical thinking disposition can significantly predict academic achievement (Wei, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref6">34</reflink>]), and that students' academic achievement is closely related to their critical thinking levels (Kealey et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref7">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>Critical thinking is the foundation of, and is closely related to, independent learning. The integration of critical thinking into teaching practices, and the overall education process, may improve students' academic achievement (Zhou et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref8">38</reflink>]). Thus, as its first hypothesis, this study assumed: <emph>Critical thinking disposition can positively predict high school students' academic achievement</emph> (H1). Although existent research has focused on the relationship between critical thinking disposition and academic achievement, most studies have only examined the direct relationship between the two; there has been little research on the internal mechanism impacting this relationship.</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-4">The mediating role of academic self‐efficacy</hd> <p>Bandura first proposed the concept of self‐efficacy, asserting that self‐efficacy is the belief or confidence that an individual feels about completing a certain task (Bandura & Cliffs, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref9">1</reflink>]). Self‐efficacy is not limited to a specific environment or behavior. If it occurs in a student's learning process, it can be called "academic self‐efficacy." Bian defined academic self‐efficacy as an individual's belief in their own ability to complete a learning task, or an individual's degree of confidence in the possibility of achieving good results (Bian, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref10">3</reflink>]). The establishment of academic self‐efficacy requires students to cognitively process a spectrum of varied information related to their own abilities. Critical thinking can promote individual cognitive processing, thus promoting the formation of students' academic self‐efficacy. Individuals with strong critical thinking skills are better at both logical reasoning and critical thinking; they can use a series of cognitive skills to make correct judgments in various environments, thus developing or boosting their belief in their own ability to complete tasks (Facione, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref11">8</reflink>]). Critical thinking is a type of reflective thinking that also contributes to the formation of individual self‐efficacy in the cognitive process (Ennis, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref12">6</reflink>]). A study by Uzuntiryaki‐Kondakçi and Çapa‐Aydin ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref13">28</reflink>]) has confirmed a significant positive correlation between critical thinking and individual self‐efficacy. Jiang and Yang ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref14">19</reflink>]) also found that critical thinking promotes innovative self‐efficacy. These studies have demonstrated that critical thinking can impact students' academic self‐efficacy.</p> <p>Moreover, social cognition theory (Bandura & Cliffs, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref15">1</reflink>]) states that the higher an individual's sense of self‐efficacy, the more the individual will try to activate various resources related to a task to complete the task efficiently. Even faced with difficulties, these individuals tend to be self‐motivated and do not give up easily. Thus, self‐efficacy is closely related to job performance. Previous studies have demonstrated a significant correlation between students' academic self‐efficacy and academic achievement, demonstrating that academic self‐efficacy has a direct impact on students' academic achievement (Y. X. Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref16">31</reflink>]). Du et al. ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref17">5</reflink>]) also found noteworthy differences in self‐efficacy among students with various levels of academic achievement; students in the "excellent" group had significantly higher academic self‐efficacy (Du et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref18">5</reflink>]). Based on findings from previous studies, it is reasonable to believe that critical thinking may indirectly affect students' academic achievement through academic self‐efficacy. Therefore, the second hypothesis is proposed: <emph>Academic self‐efficacy mediates the relationship between critical thinking and academic achievement</emph> (H2).</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-5">The moderating role of emotional intelligence</hd> <p>According to social cognitive theory, the root of human behavior may come from an individual's beliefs, and the level of an individual's emotional control and their recognition ability directly affect the intensity and validity of transformation of belief into behavior. Emotional intelligence has a shaping effect on individual self‐efficacy (Gundlach et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref19">15</reflink>]). Individuals with higher emotional intelligence judge their abilities more rationally, and thus, have higher confidence in their ability to complete tasks (Lv et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref20">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>In recent years, researchers have also explored, and confirmed, the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic self‐efficacy. Results indicated that students with higher emotional intelligence had higher academic self‐efficacy (X. Z. Zhang et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref21">37</reflink>]). The stronger the ability of middle school students to solve emotional problems, the higher their level of confidence in completing academic tasks (C. K. Wang & He, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref22">30</reflink>]). Students with high emotional intelligence also tend to better focus their attention, guide their thinking, and seek ideal ways to solve problems in the process of completing tasks, which in turn affects learning based on cognitive processes. Therefore, this study has suggested that emotional intelligence may enhance or weaken this effect in the critical thinking process, thereby affecting academic achievement. Emotional intelligence has been shown to impact the strength of the relationship between individual psychological variables and individual behavior (Feng et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref23">12</reflink>]). This study suggested that students' critical thinking disposition can be moderated by emotional intelligence in the process of improving academic achievement. Therefore, we hypothesized: <emph>Emotional intelligence positively mediates the relationship between academic self‐efficacy and academic achievement</emph> (H3).</p> <p>In summary, this study explored the relationship between critical thinking disposition and academic achievement, as well as the mechanisms of academic self‐efficacy and emotional intelligence (Figure 1).</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01aug23/pits22906-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits22906-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 The proposed theoretical model." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0164723693-7">METHODS</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0164723693-8">Participants</hd> <p>Sixteen classes were selected randomly from three high schools in Xiangtan City, Hunan Province, China to participate in the study. In China, the standard class size in high school is about 40 students per class. Regular classes in Chinese high schools adopt a centralized teaching system, that is, a classroom system in which about 40 students are taught in one classroom. All the testing (via questionnaires) was completed by the participants themselves and within a limited time period. Informed consent was obtained from each individual's parents before the students completed the questionnaires. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Science and Technology Liaoning, China.</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-9">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0164723693-10">Academic self‐efficacy questionnaire</hd> <p>Academic self‐efficacy was assessed using the Chinese version of Academic Self‐efficacy Questionnaire (Z. H. Wang, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref24">32</reflink>]; Z. H. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref25">33</reflink>]), which is adapted from the original English version (Pintrich & De Groot, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref26">25</reflink>]). The questionnaire is a 24‐item scale, which were rated from 1 (complete inconformity) to 6 (complete inconformity). Higher scores indicate a higher level of academic self‐efficacy, and the internal consistency in the present study was good (<emph>α</emph> = .808).</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-11">Critical thinking disposition scale</hd> <p>Critical thinking disposition was assessed using the Chinese version of Critical Thinking Disposition Scale (Peng et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref27">22</reflink>]), which is adapted from the original English version CCTDI (Facione et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref28">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref29">10</reflink>]). There are 70 items, including 30 positive questions and 40 negative questions. There are 10 dimensions, including truth seeking (e.g., "I would be afraid to find out the truth of many problems."), open‐mindedness (e.g., "It is important for me to understand others' thoughts on things."), analyticity (e.g., "I am good at dealing with problems orderly."), systematicity (e.g., "I am good at planning a systematic plan to solve complex problems."), critical thinking self‐confidence (e.g., "I appreciate my precise thinking ability."), inquisitiveness (e.g., "No matter what topic, I am eager to know more related content."), cognitive maturity (e.g., "I believe in what I believe."). The scale was rated on a six‐point scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." In this study, internal consistency for critical thinking disposition scale was good (<emph>α</emph> = .870).</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-12">Emotional intelligence scale (EIS)</hd> <p>Emotional intelligence was assessed using the Chinese version of EIS for Middle School Students (C. K. Wang, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref30">29</reflink>]), which is adapted from the original English version (Schutte et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref31">27</reflink>]). Emotional intelligence scale is a 33‐item scale that comprises four dimensions, including the ability to feel emotions (e.g., "I can clearly realize the emotions I experience."), the ability to understand and reason about other people's emotions (e.g., "By observing facial expressions, I can identify others' emotions."), the ability to understand and reason about one's own emotions (e.g., "When I am in a good mood, it is easy for me to solve problems."), and the ability to express emotions (e.g., "I am well aware of the non‐verbal information I transmit to others."). Each item was rated on a 5‐point scale (from 1 = total inconformity to 5 = total conformity), with higher total scores indicating higher levels of emotional intelligence. The internal consistency in this study was good (<emph>α</emph> = .830).</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-13">Academic achievement</hd> <p>Academic achievement was measured using the final grades provided by the school. In the second year of senior high school, multiple subjects are studied; only three academic subjects (Chinese, Mathematics, and English) were measured for academic achievement in this study. The academic achievement of the questionnaire is based on the final examination results of the first semester, and the questionnaire is distributed and collected in the start of second semester. The examinations conducted at the three schools were all city‐wide, uniform examinations. The average score of the three subjects was calculated and then the average scores by grade were standardized.</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-14">Procedures</hd> <p>The ethical procedures of human research are followed. This study was carried out with the approval of the ethics committee of the author's university. Trained researchers introduce the survey items to students in the front of the classroom. Students in the same class complete a paper questionnaire in the same room after agreeing to participate in the study. All students are required to complete the survey independently in their seats for 20 min, and no discussion is allowed. If students have questions in filling out the questionnaire, they can raise their hands to communicate with the trained researcher. In this survey, a total of 680 questionnaires were distributed, 680 questionnaires were collected.</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-15">Statistical analyses</hd> <p>First, the means and standard deviations for the primary study variables and bivariate correlations between all variables were calculated using SPSS software 22.0. Missing data were replaced with the sample's mean for the item. Second, Model 4 of the PROCESS macro (Hayes, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref32">17</reflink>]) was used to examine the mediating role of academic self‐efficacy in the relationship between critical thinking disposition and academic achievement. Third, Model 14 of the PROCESS macro (Hayes, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref33">17</reflink>]) was used to examine whether emotional intelligence moderated the first half (i.e., the relationship between critical thinking disposition and academic self‐efficacy) or the second half (i.e., the relationship between academic self‐efficacy and academic achievement) of the mediating path in terms of academic self‐efficacy, or both halves of the mediating path. All study variables were standardized before data analysis.</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-16">RESULTS</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0164723693-17">Common method deviation test</hd> <p>The Harman single‐factor test was used to test for common method deviation. Test results showed that there were 21 factors with characteristic roots greater than 1, which explained 70% of the total variance. The variation within the first factor was 33% (below 40%). These results demonstrated that there were no serious common method deviations in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-18">Descriptive statistics and correlations</hd> <p>In this study, 680 questionnaire surveys were distributed, 680 were collected, 38 invalid questionnaires were eliminated, and 642 valid questionnaires were retained for analysis. The questionnaire's effective rate was 94.44%. Male students comprised 48.44% (<emph>N</emph> = 311) of the sample; female students comprised 51.56% (<emph>N</emph> = 331) of the sample. 642 participants (<emph>M</emph> = 15.59, SD = 0.97, range = 14 to 17 years) included 268 high school freshmen (accounting for 41.7%), 175 high school sophomores (accounting for 27.3%), and 199 high school juniors (accounting for 31%).</p> <p>The mean, standard deviation, and correlation matrix for each variable were presented in Table 1. As can be seen from Table 1, gender was not significantly related to any variable; age was significantly related to academic self‐efficacy. There was a positive correlation between critical thinking disposition, emotional intelligence, academic self‐efficacy, and academic achievement.</p> <p>1 Table Means, standard deviations, and correlations of the variables (N = 642).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Variables</th><th align="left"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="left">SD</th><th align="left">1</th><th align="left">2</th><th align="left">3</th><th align="left">4</th><th align="left">5</th><th align="left">6</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1. Gender0002</td><td align="char" char=".">0.48</td><td align="char" char=".">0.50</td><td>‐</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2. Age</td><td align="char" char=".">15.59</td><td align="char" char=".">0.97</td><td>−0.03</td><td>‐</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>3. Critical thinking disposition</td><td align="char" char=".">3.41</td><td align="char" char=".">0.68</td><td>−0.04</td><td align="char" char=".">0.001</td><td>‐</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>4. Emotional intelligence</td><td align="char" char=".">2.98</td><td align="char" char=".">0.77</td><td>−0.06</td><td align="char" char=".">0.01</td><td>0.880004</td><td>‐</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>5. Academic self‐efficacy</td><td align="char" char=".">3.48</td><td align="char" char=".">0.67</td><td>−0.06</td><td align="char" char=".">0.100004</td><td>0.880004</td><td>0.820004</td><td>‐</td><td /></tr><tr><td>6. Academic achievement</td><td align="char" char=".">108. 14</td><td align="char" char=".">14. 46</td><td>−0.04</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.02</td><td>0.750004</td><td>0.760004</td><td>0.700004</td><td>‐</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph> : Correlations were computed by using the Bootstrap.</p> <ulist> <item>2 a Gender was the dummy variable (Female = 0, Male = 1) and the mean was the proportion of male.</item> <item>3 ** <emph>p</emph> < .01.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0164723693-19">Critical thinking disposition and academic achievement: A moderated mediation model</hd> <p>In this study, the bias‐corrected percentile bootstrap method was used to test the mediating effect within the data (Fang, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref34">11</reflink>]) and the SPSS macro program PROCESS was used to complete that test (Hayes, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref35">17</reflink>]). Model 4 was used to process the data to test the mediating effect and control for age and gender. The results are shown in Table 2.</p> <p>2 Table The mediating model of academic self‐efficacy (N = 642).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Predictor</th><th align="left">Model 1 (academic achievement)</th><th align="left">Model 2 (academic self‐efficacy)</th><th align="left">Model 3 (academic achievement)</th></tr><tr valign="bottom"><th align="left"><italic>β</italic></th><th align="left">SE</th><th align="left"><italic>t</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>β</italic></th><th align="left">SE</th><th align="left"><italic>t</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>β</italic></th><th align="left">SE</th><th align="left"><italic>t</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Critical thinking disposition</td><td align="char" char=".">0.75</td><td align="left">0.03</td><td align="char" char=".">28.600004</td><td align="char" char=".">0.88</td><td align="left">0.02</td><td align="char" char=".">47.980004</td><td align="char" char=".">0.60</td><td align="left">0.06</td><td align="char" char=".">10.700004</td></tr><tr><td>Academic self‐efficacy</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td align="char" char=".">0.17</td><td align="left">0.06</td><td align="char" char=".">3.060004</td></tr><tr><td>Gender0002</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.04</td><td align="left">0.05</td><td align="char" char=".">0.76</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.05</td><td align="left">0.05</td><td align="char" char=".">1.25</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.03</td><td align="left">0.05</td><td align="char" char=".">0.61</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.01</td><td align="left">0.02</td><td align="char" char=".">0.50</td><td align="char" char=".">0.10</td><td align="left">0.02</td><td align="char" char=".">5.540004</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.004</td><td align="left">0.03</td><td align="char" char=".">1.61</td></tr><tr><td>R<sup>2</sup></td><td /><td align="left">0.56</td><td /><td /><td align="left">0.78</td><td /><td /><td align="left">0.57</td><td /></tr><tr><td>F</td><td /><td align="left">274.100004</td><td /><td /><td align="left">781.670004</td><td /><td /><td align="left">210.610004</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>4 <emph>Note</emph> : Each variable was standardized and brought into the regression model.</item> <item>5 a Gender was the dummy variable (Female = 0, Male = 1). The Beta were standardized coefficients.</item> <item>6 ** <emph>p</emph> < .01.</item> </ulist> <p>Table 2 shows that critical thinking disposition significantly predicted both academic achievement (<emph>β</emph> = .75, <emph>t</emph> = 28.60, <emph>p</emph> < .001) and academic self‐efficacy (<emph>β</emph> = .88, <emph>t</emph> = 47.98, <emph>p</emph> < .001), and that academic self‐efficacy significantly predicted academic achievement (<emph>β</emph> = .17, <emph>t</emph> = 3.06, <emph>p</emph> < .01). The bootstrap test of deviation correction showed that the mediating effect of self‐efficacy was significant; the indirect effect was 0.15 and the 95% confidence interval was [0.04, 0.26]. These results demonstrated that critical thinking disposition affected academic achievement through academic self‐efficacy (Table 3).</p> <p>3 Table The mediating effect of academic self‐efficacy.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Mediation variable</th><th>Mediation effect</th><th>Boot standard error</th><th>Boot LLCI</th><th>Boot ULCI</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Academic self‐efficacy</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.26</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>7 <emph>Note</emph>: Boot Standard Error referred to the standard error of indirect effect estimated by the deviation corrected percentile Bootstrap method. Boot LLCI and Boot ULCI referred to the lower and upper limits of the 95% confidence interval.</p> <p>To test the moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the second half of the path of critical thinking disposition affecting academic achievement through academic self‐efficacy, PROCESS Model 14 was used to process the data, again after controlling for age and gender. The results are shown in Table 4. The product term of academic self‐efficacy and emotional intelligence had a significant predictive effect on academic achievement (<emph>β</emph> = .11, <emph>t</emph> = 5.73, <emph>p</emph> < .01), indicating that emotional intelligence played a moderating role in the predicted impact of academic self‐efficacy on academic achievement. The model determination index was 0.09 and the confidence interval was [0.06, 0.13], excluding 0, which further indicated that the moderated mediation effect was significant. Compared with students with low emotional intelligence, students with high emotional intelligence demonstrated greater impact on academic self‐efficacy.</p> <p>4 Table Moderated mediation model testing.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Predictors</th><th align="left">Academic self‐efficacy</th><th align="left">Academic achievement</th></tr><tr valign="bottom"><th align="left"><italic>β</italic></th><th align="left">SE</th><th align="left"><italic>t</italic></th><th align="left"><italic>β</italic></th><th align="left">SE</th><th align="left"><italic>t</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Critical thinking disposition</td><td align="char" char=".">0.88</td><td align="char" char=".">0.02</td><td align="char" char=".">47.980002</td><td align="char" char=".">0.34</td><td align="char" char=".">0.06</td><td align="char" char=".">5.400002</td></tr><tr><td>Academic self‐efficacy</td><td /><td /><td /><td align="char" char=".">0.11</td><td align="char" char=".">0.05</td><td align="char" char=".">2.010001</td></tr><tr><td>Emotional intelligence</td><td /><td /><td /><td align="char" char=".">0.39</td><td align="char" char=".">0.05</td><td align="char" char=".">7.520002</td></tr><tr><td>Academic self‐efficacy × emotional intelligence</td><td /><td /><td /><td align="char" char=".">0.11</td><td align="char" char=".">0.02</td><td align="char" char=".">5.730002</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td align="char" char=".">0.10</td><td align="char" char=".">0.02</td><td align="char" char=".">5.530002</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.01</td><td align="char" char=".">0.03</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.48</td></tr><tr><td>Gender</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.05</td><td align="char" char=".">0.04</td><td align="char" char=".">−1.25</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.04</td><td align="char" char=".">0.05</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.74</td></tr><tr><td>R<sup>2</sup></td><td align="char" char=".">0.79</td><td align="char" char=".">0.63</td></tr><tr><td>F</td><td align="char" char=".">781.670002</td><td align="char" char=".">180.260002</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>8 * <emph>p</emph> < .05;</item> <item>9 ** <emph>p</emph> < .01.</item> </ulist> <p>To reveal the interaction between academic self‐efficacy and emotional intelligence more clearly, students' emotional intelligence was divided into high and low emotional intelligence groups according to the average addition and subtraction of a standard deviation. The mediating effect of academic self‐efficacy between critical thinking disposition and academic achievement and the 95% bootstrap confidence intervals of the two groups are shown in Table 5. To display the interaction more clearly, a simple slope test was performed (see Figure 2). In the low emotional intelligence group, academic self‐efficacy had no significant predictive effect on academic achievement (<emph>simple slope</emph> = 0.001, <emph>t</emph> = 0.02, <emph>p</emph> > .05). In the high emotional intelligence group, academic self‐efficacy had a significant positive predictive effect on academic achievement (<emph>simple slope</emph> = 0.21, <emph>t</emph> = 3.67, <emph>p</emph> < .01).</p> <p>5 Table The mediating effect of academic self‐efficacy among students with different emotional intelligence.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Emotional intelligence</th><th align="left">Effect value</th><th align="left">Boot standard error</th><th align="left">Boot LLCI</th><th align="left">Boot ULCI</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>M‐1SD</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.06</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.11</td><td>0.11</td></tr><tr><td>M</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.05</td><td align="char" char=".">0.002</td><td>0.22</td></tr><tr><td>M+1SD</td><td>0.21</td><td>0.06</td><td align="char" char=".">0.10</td><td>0.33</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01aug23/pits22906-fig-0002.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits22906-fig-0002.jpg" title="2 The moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between academic self‐efficacy and academic achievement." /> </p> <p></p> <p>The model proposed in this study was supported by empirical data. Academic self‐efficacy played a mediating role between critical thinking disposition and academic achievement. The latter half of the mediating role pathway was mediated by emotional intelligence.</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-21">DISCUSSION</hd> <p>This study investigated the influence of critical thinking disposition on academic achievement. It analyzed the mediating effect of academic self‐efficacy and the moderating effect of emotional intelligence in that process.</p> <p>First, the study found a significant correlation between critical thinking disposition and academic achievement. Critical thinking disposition positively predicted academic achievement, consistent with previous research results (e.g., Phan, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref36">23</reflink>]; Yüksel & Alci, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref37">35</reflink>]). Critical thinking disposition may predict academic achievement, as students with critical thinking disposition analyze and solve problems more rationally, possessing and employing abilities that have significant impact on academic achievement. Additionally, individuals with strong critical thinking ability can quickly find the valuable information needed for integration and absorption in this information age, again positively and more efficiently impacting academic achievement.</p> <p>Second, the study's mediating analysis found that academic self‐efficacy had a partial mediating effect on the process of critical thinking disposition, positively affecting academic achievement. Critical thinking disposition may not only directly affect academic achievement but may also indirectly affect academic achievement through academic self‐efficacy. (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref38">1</reflink>) Critical thinking promotes the formation of academic self‐efficacy. Critical thinking, a type of high‐order thinking, includes a series of cognitive skills such as analysis, reasoning, and evaluation that may make individuals more confident about their own analysis and judgment as they endeavor to achieve self‐control within their study (Facione, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref39">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref40">10</reflink>]).</p> <p>According to social cognitive theory, students with critical thinking dispositions tend to have a stronger ability to use various cognitive resources, which enables them to strengthen their perception of learning ability and sense of learning autonomy more effectively, thus enhancing their sense of academic self‐efficacy. Specifically, students with strong critical thinking disposition can help strengthen their ability to identify and grasp various learning problems, enhance their psychological energy to resist setbacks, and thus enhance their belief in completing their learning tasks. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref41">2</reflink>) Academic self‐efficacy promotes the improvement of academic achievement. The development of today's society puts forward higher requirements for students' learning. Students not only need to have the knowledge and ability to deal with heavy learning, but also need to have the confidence to complete heavy learning tasks. According to social cognitive theory, students with higher academic self‐efficacy tend to set higher learning goals and try to activate all kinds of resources related to learning so as to accomplish learning tasks more effectively. Therefore, academic self‐efficacy can affect students' academic achievement. Previous studies have also proved that individuals with higher self‐efficacy will be more confident in completing various tasks and have better performance in work (Gist & Mitchell, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref42">13</reflink>]). In addition, the evaluation of students' learning ability formed after critical thinking process is more consistent with objective facts, which can provide stable psychological energy for the improvement of students' academic achievement, so as to effectively promote the improvement of academic achievement. Through empirical research this study confirmed the mediating effect of academic self‐efficacy, deepened the understanding of the influence mechanism of critical thinking disposition on academic achievement, and provided further data support for positioning critical thinking as the most important part of Chinese students' core literacy.</p> <p>Finally, the moderated mediation model found that the effect of academic self‐efficacy on academic achievement was moderated by emotional intelligence. Specifically, for high school students with high emotional intelligence, academic self‐efficacy was more closely related to academic achievement; high emotional intelligence heightened the achievements of students with high academic self‐efficacy. Students with different levels of emotional intelligence vary in their ability to regulate emotions (Hafer & Gosse, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref43">16</reflink>]). Students with high academic self‐efficacy, based on self‐confidence in their own ability, often set high learning goals and set difficult learning tasks (Hu & Xu, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref44">18</reflink>]; L. Zhang & Zhang, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref45">36</reflink>]), which can bring about increased learning pressure and more negative emotions about academics. According to social cognitive theory, an individual's ability to control and recognize emotions directly affects that individual's intensity and validity in transforming beliefs into behaviors. Students with high emotional intelligence are usually more able to control emotions; they are better able to regulate their emotions, reduce adverse reactions under academic stress, quickly eliminate the interference of negative emotions, and transform stress into motivation, resulting in higher academic achievement. From the perspective of resource science, if emotional intelligence is considered an individual resource (Abraham & Rebecca, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref46">26</reflink>]), students with high emotional intelligence not only bring more individual resources to learning but can more easily obtain additional learning resources, for example, support from teachers and other students. In this way, emotional intelligence has a positive impact on these students, helping them complete higher‐level, more difficult learning tasks. The two factors work together; students with high emotional intelligence can raise academic achievement rapidly when self‐efficacy is high.</p> <p>In addition, because of the relative stability of the variables (critical thinking disposition, emotional intelligence, academic self‐efficacy, and academic achievement), the timing of the questionnaire in relation to the exam does not influence the relationship between variables. However, future studies should address several limitations inherent in the study. First, this was a cross‐sectional study. Cross‐sectional studies that explore the relationship between variables can result in a significant amount of useful information; however, they cannot determine exact causal inference between variables. Therefore, in future studies, a cross‐lag design should be used to test the causal relationships between variables more deeply. Second, the subjects in this study were limited to high school students. Whether the findings and conclusions from this study can be extended to other student age groups (e.g., college students) still requires systematic verification through future research. Third, there are many factors that affect academic achievement, such as the influence of the teaching ability of teachers and the effect of classroom teaching, which need to be as covariates in future research. Fourth, the mixed‐effect model would be used to examine variables at different levels including schools, classrooms and the teaching ability of teachers in future study. Finally, the study's data collection relied on self‐reporting, which may have led to measurement bias due to concerns about social acceptability. Future studies should consider utilizing other reporting methods (e.g., parent reports) for data collection to improve the reliability of the measurement.</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-22">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</hd> <p>This research was supported by National Education Scientific Planning Projects of China (DBA180316); Postgraduate Scientific Research Innovation of Hunan Province (Project No. CX20211015) awarded to Chengwei Liu.</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-23">CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0164723693-24">DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT</hd> <p>The data sets generated during the current study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.</p> <ref id="AN0164723693-25"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref9" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Bandura, A., & Cliffs, N. (1987). Social foundations of thought and action: Cognitive theory. 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  Data: Critical Thinking Disposition and Academic Achievement among Chinese High School Students: A Moderated Mediation Model
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  Data: English
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Liu%2C+Chengwei%22">Liu, Chengwei</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Tang%2C+Minyan%22">Tang, Minyan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Wang%2C+Maowen%22">Wang, Maowen</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Chen%2C+Liang%22">Chen, Liang</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2394-8972">0000-0003-2394-8972</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sun%2C+Xiaohua%22">Sun, Xiaohua</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Psychology+in+the+Schools%22"><i>Psychology in the Schools</i></searchLink>. Aug 2023 60(8):3103-3113.
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Data: 11
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+School+Students%22">High School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Critical+Thinking%22">Critical Thinking</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personality%22">Personality</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Models%22">Models</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Emotional+Intelligence%22">Emotional Intelligence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22China%22">China</searchLink>
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  Label: DOI
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  Data: 10.1002/pits.22906
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  Data: 0033-3085<br />1520-6807
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  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study tested a moderated mediation model that included critical thinking disposition (independent variable), emotional intelligence (moderator), academic self-efficacy (mediator), and academic achievement (dependent variable) in a sample of 642 high school participants aged 14-16 years (M = 15.59, SD = 0.97, 48.44% males) in China, using data from an in-school questionnaire. Study findings showed that critical thinking disposition was positively associated with academic achievement. Academic self-efficacy played a mediating role between critical thinking disposition and academic achievement. Moreover, emotional intelligence played a moderating role in the second half of the mediation process, in which critical thinking disposition affected academic achievement through academic self-efficacy. The results revealed the mechanism of critical thinking disposition on academic achievement.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1383339
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1383339
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/pits.22906
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 11
        StartPage: 3103
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: High School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Critical Thinking
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Personality
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Models
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Emotional Intelligence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Efficacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: China
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Critical Thinking Disposition and Academic Achievement among Chinese High School Students: A Moderated Mediation Model
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Liu, Chengwei
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Tang, Minyan
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Wang, Maowen
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Chen, Liang
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Sun, Xiaohua
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 08
              Type: published
              Y: 2023
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0033-3085
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1520-6807
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 60
            – Type: issue
              Value: 8
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Psychology in the Schools
              Type: main
ResultId 1