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Insight and Perspective from the Past

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Title: Insight and Perspective from the Past
Language: English
Authors: Foley, John T. (ORCID 0000-0002-3718-8276), MacDonald, Lynn C., Pratt, Erica
Source: Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. 2023 94(2):44-48.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 5
Publication Date: 2023
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Physical Education, Textbooks, Textbook Content, Course Content, Student Evaluation, Social Emotional Learning, Holistic Approach, Relevance (Education), Mastery Learning, Skill Development, Role of Education
DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2022.2146817
ISSN: 0730-3084
2168-3816
Abstract: In exploring older physical education textbooks there is a renewed appreciation for past leaders and their foresight in critical areas of our profession. While a number of ideas have been floating around in the physical education world that are thought of as new or improved concepts: Terms such as social emotional learning, physical literacy, mastery, the whole child, and along with the notion of the importance of quality teaching and assessment, appear in numerous publications and/or popular websites. However, looking back at old textbooks these ideas are not new but recycled and reused good ideas from long ago. It reminds us that much of what we believe about quality physical education is often rooted in other eras - that the past is still the present.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1384597
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0161831941;erd01feb.23;2023Feb14.05:57;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0161831941-1">Insight and Perspective From the Past </title> <p>In exploring older physical education textbooks there is a renewed appreciation for past leaders and their foresight in critical areas of our profession. While a number of ideas have been floating around in the physical education world that are thought of as new or improved concepts: Terms such as social emotional learning, physical literacy, mastery, the whole child, and along with the notion of the importance of quality teaching and assessment, appear in numerous publications and/or popular websites. However, looking back at old textbooks these ideas are not new but recycled and reused good ideas from long ago. It reminds us that much of what we believe about quality physical education is often rooted in other eras - that the past is still the present.</p> <p>There are a number of books on the history and evolution of physical education in the United States. And though the field has seen changes over the years, there has been a fundamental foundation of developing the mind, body and soul of youth that finds it roots from ancient Greece and Native Americans. When distilling down an end goal of physical education, it is to have people move for their health and well-being.</p> <p>A number of recent buzz words have been floating around in the physical education stratosphere that are thought of as new or improved concepts for our subject area. Terms such as <emph>social-emotional learning</emph> (SEL), <emph>physical literacy</emph>, <emph>mastery</emph> and <emph>the whole child</emph> appear in numerous publications and popular websites, along with the notion of the importance of quality teaching and assessment. Though physical education has seen a great deal of change over the past century, it turns out that some things never change. As collectors of old books and teachers of future educators, we found that we are often teaching content/concepts that appeared in textbooks long ago. We thought it would be interesting to point out some examples of what is viewed as new/improved physical education but is actually physical education from yesteryear.</p> <p>To begin our project, we looked for quotes from our individual "antiquarian" book collections. We narrowed our search to books that were more than 50 years old and still had relevance to physical education today. Then, as a group, we reviewed the quotes we had individually selected and we highlighted common themes that appeared among all of them. A theme was identified if two or more quotes from our selections addressed the same concept. We narrowed the total number of themes down to six, based on the number of quotes in the theme and the perceived relevance to current topics in the field. The themes include assessment, SEL, whole child, relevant curriculum, teaching for mastery, and purpose. Finally, we each rank-ordered the quotes within each theme to identify our top "recycled" ideas to discuss in this article.</p> <hd id="AN0161831941-2">Assessment</hd> <p>Refrains of "show evidence of student learning" have been common in educational circles in the past 2 decades. In teacher preparation programs, there are classes wholly devoted to measurement and the assessment of student learning. However, regardless of how important assessment of student learning is in physical education, it is still not being done systematically and with regularity in some school districts. By looking back at the critique of assessment in physical education by McCloy in [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref1">8</reflink>], we realize that this effort has been an ongoing struggle:</p> <p>Most of the programs are ungraded; there is far too much duplication of teaching material from year to year; classes are badly sectioned or not sectioned at all; there are few widely used standards of achievement; and most existing standards are not correlated with the individual differences in the innate capacities of the pupils; there is poor motivation of the program; there is almost no diagnosis of the causes of individual deficiencies; the grading and promotion systems are largely subjective and inadequate; and most of our progress is by trial and error. (p. 3)</p> <p>The criticisms pointed out by McCloy still ring true today. Effective assessment leads to quality evaluation of the student as well as fair and transparent grading — This is a hallmark of an academic subject. Many physical educators have not embraced systematic assessment in their classes, making it difficult for physical education to be considered a site of learning, thus reinforcing its marginalization in the schools. If physical education is to be taken seriously within the educational community (SHAPE America – Society of Health & Physical Educators, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref2">12</reflink>]), we need to have evidence of student leaning.</p> <p>Quality physical education is dependent on measuring student progress on age/grade-level educational objectives and checking whether those objectives have been achieved over the course of instruction (Foley et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref3">5</reflink>]). Brace ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref4">1</reflink>]) pointed this out nearly 100 years ago:</p> <p>Achievement in physical education, as in other subjects, is the attainment of objectives. Evaluation of the type of activities taught, of the method of teaching them, and of the success of the teacher demands a determination of the extent to which specific objectives have been achieved. In other words, the measurement of achievement is essential to efficient instruction in physical education. (p. 411)</p> <p>Our profession continues to emphasize the need to assess the achievement of objectives/outcomes in its publications and professional development opportunities. The culture still needs to shift so that assessment is an integral part of what we do.</p> <hd id="AN0161831941-3">Social Emotional Learning</hd> <p>During the pandemic of the past year, there has been a resurgence of interest in SEL. Though some think this is a new concept, evidence suggests otherwise. Weston ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref5">16</reflink>]) described the importance of SEL through physical education, pointing out that its value had been recognized decades before:</p> <p>Play and recreation, viewed at the turn of the century primarily as an outlet for surplus energy, became in the 1920s, to leaders in physical education, a means of self-expression, an opportunity for growth and personal satisfaction, and a training ground for citizenship in group behavior. (p. 88)</p> <p>Glennon et al. ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>]) pointed out the importance of moving beyond a student's participation as representing success in the affective domain. Valid assessments are necessary to determine what students have learned in this domain. But this concept of assessing in the affective domain, and in this case social development, is not new, as we see in Clarke's work in 1945:</p> <p>the field of physical education is particularly rich in opportunities for social experiences, since pupils participate activity and wholeheartedly in activities requiring many and varied social responses. ... Without adequate tests, a really strong program of social development is impossible, regardless if the number and nature of the general procedures employed to realize this objective. In fact, without measurement, the physical director cannot tell whether he is actually developing desirable social traits in any or all of his pupils. (p. 203)</p> <p>The ideas contained in the quotes about social development and self-expression are the same as those that form the basis for today's SHAPE America national Standards 4 and 5 (SHAPE America, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref7">14</reflink>]). These standards also happen to be more difficult to evaluate than the other standards. The effective evaluation of SEL is an area that still needs attention today.</p> <hd id="AN0161831941-4">Whole Child</hd> <p>There is a great deal of discussion today about educating the whole child. In fact, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref8">3</reflink>]) has developed the whole school, whole community, whole child model, which has the goals of "keeping youth healthy, safe, engaged, supported and challenged." The model has 10 components, with physical education and physical activity being one of them. In physical education, educating the whole child generally means planning lessons that address outcomes in the psychomotor, affective and cognitive domains. We often think of our subject as unique because of this whole child emphasis, unlike many other subjects in schools that emphasize just the cognitive domain.</p> <p>However, the idea of educating the whole child in physical education is hardly a recent development. Jesse Feiring Williams, known for his philosophy of "education through the physical," stated:</p> <p>... we need to aim higher than health, victorious teams, than strong muscles, than profuse perspiration. It sees physical education primarily as a way of living, and seeks to conduct its activities so as to set a standard that will surpass the average and the commonplace. There is in such a view something of the loftier virtues of courage, endurance, and strength, the natural attributes of play imagination, joyousness, and pride, and through it all, the spirit of splendid living — honest, worthy, and competent — so much desired by each individual. (Weston, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref9">16</reflink>], p. 219)</p> <p>Similarly, Nash et al. ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>]) highlighted the importance of whole child development in physical education:</p> <p>Physical education has special responsibilities in developing a sound, vigorous body, but it can never overlook the special relationship between the physical and the mental. Emphasis below is placed upon the procedures most closely related to physical education, but total child development is kept constantly in the foreground. (p. 182)</p> <p>Reading this sampling of quotes makes us realize that our goal of developing the whole child is a continuation of long-held aspirations. When we are able to fulfill this goal, it provides enormous benefits for our students while elevating our value within the school and community.</p> <hd id="AN0161831941-5">Relevant Curriculum</hd> <p>In the last 2 decades, much emphasis has been placed on increasing children's physical activity levels to meet the guidelines set out by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref11">15</reflink>]). The guidelines recommend a minimum of 60 min of physical activity per day, with the activity coming from physical education, before- and after-school programs, recess and in-school physical activity breaks. This guidance forms the basis of the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program, which encourages physical education teachers to provide quality instruction in physical education classes as well as increase physical activity offerings outside of class (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref12">2</reflink>]). Physical educators can accomplish this by offering before- and after-school programs, mentoring classroom teachers in providing physical activity breaks, and connecting with activities that are popular in the community and can be done outside of school.</p> <p>The idea of providing a physical education curriculum that connects with activities that can be done outside of the school day is not as new as it may seem. For example, Williams ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref13">17</reflink>]) noted:</p> <p>In spite of the rapid extension of physical education into the school curriculum, it seems clear that the school can never provide in its schedule of regular session for all that children require for developmental purposes. The meaning of this then is that children must secure this development outside of school. Such being the case, then, the school program of physical education must be essentially a teaching program in activities that will be used in after-school play. (pp. 59–60)</p> <p>In discussing the physical education curriculum, Clarke ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref14">4</reflink>]) extended the idea of teaching activities that can be done outside of the school day to those that can be done throughout the life span. He suggested that:</p> <p>Physical educators desire to insure real and lasting interest in physical education activities, not only that their program may be more attractive, but that their pupils may carry on desirable physical activities during their leisure time and engage in them after graduation. (p. 196)</p> <p>This statement shows us that the idea of teaching lifelong activities has quite a long history. It makes us wonder why it has taken so long for it to get traction because there are so many programs that emphasize sports over activities that can be done throughout the life span.</p> <hd id="AN0161831941-6">Teaching for Mastery</hd> <p>Sound pedagogical practices in educational contexts emphasize the relationship between teacher instruction and pupil learning (Rink, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref15">11</reflink>]). Although many approaches to teaching and learning exist, several concepts have remained as "tried and true" methods throughout the past century. As Sharman ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref16">13</reflink>]) noted regarding student centered approaches:</p> <p>Physical education teachers should not rely on an authoritative type of control. They should encourage and facilitate self- and group-control by the pupils in as many situations as possible. The maximum number of opportunities should be provided for boys and girls to have freedom in making choices, to develop self-mastery, and to participate cooperatively in social activities. The minimum use should be made of direct control by the teacher. (p. 76)</p> <p>The idea that the generic levels of skill proficiency have a direct influence on student participation in movement has been a commonly accepted concept in recent decades (Graham et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref17">7</reflink>]). Therefore, aligning activities with appropriate developmental levels of students promotes success. This thought is not new: Nash et al. ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref18">10</reflink>]) shared similar sentiments over half a century ago:</p> <p>Activities must be adjusted according to individual abilities. There must always be the thrill of new adventure, but the activities must never be so beyond the ability of the child as to cause discouragement. The thrill of achievement must be balanced by the hope of success which establishes a sense of security. Only with a feeling of confidence can the individual push out into new fields of exploration with enthusiasm. (p. 10)</p> <p>These sentiments are closely aligned with the content mastery chapter of the <emph>National Standards and Grade-Level Outcomes for K–12 Physical Education</emph> (SHAPE America, 2014). Teacher preparation programs emphasize the importance of individualizing instruction, challenge by choice and developing progressions that lead to mastery. The instructional strategies quoted here are as timely as ever.</p> <hd id="AN0161831941-7">Purpose</hd> <p>The purpose of physical education has evolved over the past century as social agendas and world events have taken place. Historically, the purposes of health and physical education have always had linkages. In particular, the symbiotic relationship between these two fields has been reinforced for many decades, as explained by Nash ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref19">9</reflink>]):</p> <p>In contrast to physical education as an activity we must view health as an objective or outcome. Health and physical education have very definite relationships. Physical education must always be thought of, however, as a group of activities which under leadership may be utilized to gain desirable outcomes. One of these desirable outcomes is health. (p. 31)</p> <p>Another perspective on the purpose of physical education is provided by the current SHAPE America (2014) standards, which define the purpose as helping students to become physically literate individuals. These standards formulate a structure for supporting students in their quest as competent movers as well as understand how physical activity influences health and well-being. Though a formal structure such as the standards and grade-level outcomes did not exist in over 75 years ago, the broad concepts did. Try replacing <emph>physically educated</emph> with <emph>physically literate</emph> in the quote below:</p> <p>To be physically educated includes more than a proficiency in a variety of skills. The medium is physical activity, but the whole person is involved. Hence, it will include, also, interests and attitudes, appreciations, understandings, and knowledges. To be able to play a game well is important, but to have such an attitude toward life that sport has a place is equally so. To have some sportsmanlike attitudes about play, to know significant items in conditioning oneself for activity, and to recognize good play in others - these are imperative in a physically educated person. And rhythm belongs, and the out-of-doors; fishing and hunting - the vital touch with nature in her creative powers captures for modern man old responses that light new fires and give new strengths. (Williams, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref20">17</reflink>], p. 240)</p> <hd id="AN0161831941-8">Conclusion</hd> <p>Reviewing these older books was an enjoyable experience for us, giving us a renewed appreciation for past leaders and their foresight in critical areas of our profession. It reminds us that much of what we believe about quality physical education is often rooted in other eras — that the past is still the present. We hope others continue to use the good ideas from long ago to move the profession forward.</p> <ref id="AN0161831941-9"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref4" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Brace, D. (1927). The measurement of achievement in physical education. American Physical Education Review, 32 (8), 563-568. In A. Lockhart & B. Spears (Eds.), Chronicle of American physical education 1855 - 1930 (pp. 410 – 419). Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref12" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Comprehensive school physical activity programs: A guide for schools. https://<ulink href="http://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/pdf/13%5f242620-A%5fCSPAP%5fSchoolPhysActivityPrograms%5fFinal%5f508%5f12192013.pdf">www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/pdf/13%5f242620-A%5fCSPAP%5fSchoolPhysActivityPrograms%5fFinal%5f508%5f12192013.pdf</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref8" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). The whole school, whole community, whole child model. https://<ulink href="http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/wscc/model.htm">www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/wscc/model.htm</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref14" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Clarke, H. H. (1945). Application of measurement to health and physical education. Prentice-Hall.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref3" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Foley, J. T., MacDonald, L. C., & Breiman, D. J. (2018). Shake up PE's status quo. Principal, 98 (2), 24 – 26.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref6" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Glennon, W., Hart, A., & Foley, J. T. (2015). Developing effective affective assessment practices. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 86 (6), 40 – 44. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2015.1053635</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref17" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Graham, G., Holt/Hale, S., Parker, M., Hall, T., & Patton, K. (2019). Children moving: A reflective approach to teaching physical education (10th ed.). McGraw Hill.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref1" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> McCloy, C. H. (1942). Tests and measurements: Health and physical education. F.S. Crofts & Co.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref19" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Nash, J. B. (1931). The administration of physical education: With special reference to public schools. A.S. Barnes and Company.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Nash, J. B., Moench, F. J., & Saurborn, J. B. (1951). Physical education: Organization and administration. A.S. Barnes and Company.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rink, J. (2020). Teaching physical education for learning (8th ed.). McGraw Hill.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> SHAPE America – Society of Health and Physical Educators. (2014). National standards and grade-level outcomes for K – 12 physical education. Human Kinetics.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> SHAPE America – Society of Health and Physical Educators. (2015). Physical education is an academic subject [Position statement]. https://<ulink href="http://www.shapeamerica.org/advocacy/upload/Physical-Education-Is-an-Academic-Subject-2.pdf">www.shapeamerica.org/advocacy/upload/Physical-Education-Is-an-Academic-Subject-2.pdf</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sharman, J. R. (1936). The teaching of physical education. A.S. Barnes and Company.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2018). Physical activity guidelines for Americans (2nd ed.).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Weston, A. (1962). The making of American physical education. Meredith Publishing Company.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Williams, J. F. (1942). The principles of physical education. W.B. Saunders Company.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By John T. Foley; Lynn C. MacDonald and Erica Pratt</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>John T. Foley is a professor in the Physical Education Department at State University of New York in Cortland, NY.</p> <p>Lynn C. MacDonald is a professor in the Physical Education Department at State University of New York in Cortland, NY.</p> <p>Erica Pratt is a director in PE/health/consumer science at Shrewsbury Public Schools in Shrewsbury, MA.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref16"></nolink>
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  Data: In exploring older physical education textbooks there is a renewed appreciation for past leaders and their foresight in critical areas of our profession. While a number of ideas have been floating around in the physical education world that are thought of as new or improved concepts: Terms such as social emotional learning, physical literacy, mastery, the whole child, and along with the notion of the importance of quality teaching and assessment, appear in numerous publications and/or popular websites. However, looking back at old textbooks these ideas are not new but recycled and reused good ideas from long ago. It reminds us that much of what we believe about quality physical education is often rooted in other eras - that the past is still the present.
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      – TitleFull: Insight and Perspective from the Past
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Foley, John T.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: MacDonald, Lynn C.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Pratt, Erica
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2023
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0730-3084
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 2168-3816
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 94
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance
              Type: main
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