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Examination of Ethnic Racial Identity Exploration and Commitment in Emerging Adults: Group Comparisons and Specific Features of Multiracial Identity

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Title: Examination of Ethnic Racial Identity Exploration and Commitment in Emerging Adults: Group Comparisons and Specific Features of Multiracial Identity
Language: English
Authors: Jensen, Cjersti (ORCID 0000-0002-6703-8746), Koerten, Hannah (ORCID 0000-0001-7008-2505), Mattei, Gina (ORCID 0000-0003-1872-4464), Grant Weinandy, Jennifer (ORCID 0000-0002-7549-7862), Froemming, Maren (ORCID 0000-0002-2397-7952), Dulek, Erin (ORCID 0000-0002-5903-4825), Dworsky, Dryw
Source: Journal of American College Health. 2023 71(2):616-625.
Availability: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 10
Publication Date: 2023
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Racial Identification, Ethnicity, Multiracial Persons, College Students, White Students, Minority Group Students, Racial Discrimination, Theories, Self Concept, Conflict, Racial Differences
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure
DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2021.1900197
ISSN: 0744-8481
1940-3208
Abstract: Objective: Building on existing literature on ethnic/racial identity in emerging adulthood, we compared between-group differences for Multiracial and Monoracial participants and relevant within-group relationships for Multiracial participants. Participants: Participants were college students (n = 888; 67% women; M[subscript age] = 21.7; SD = 5.58) categorized into three groups: Monoracial White (61%), Multiracial (17%), and Monoracial Minoritized (22%). Methods: Measures included ethnic racial identity (ERI) exploration and commitment, discrimination, and features of Multiracial identity. The survey was sent through campus email and completed electronically. Results: Monoracial Minoritized participants reported higher discrimination and ERI commitment and exploration than Multiracial and Monoracial White participants. Multiracial participants reported higher ERI exploration and discrimination than Monoracial White participants. Multiracial participants' ERI exploration and racial conflict explained ERI commitment in regression models. Conclusions: Multiracial individuals should be researched and intervened with differentially from other racial groups, with variables specific to their unique experiences.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1385359
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0162174237;acl01feb.23;2023Mar03.05:37;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0162174237-1">Examination of ethnic racial identity exploration and commitment in emerging adults: Group comparisons and specific features of multiracial identity </title> <p>Objective: Building on existing literature on ethnic/racial identity in emerging adulthood, we compared between-group differences for Multiracial and Monoracial participants and relevant within-group relationships for Multiracial participants. Participants: Participants were college students (n = 888; 67% women; Mage = 21.7; SD = 5.58) categorized into three groups: Monoracial White (61%), Multiracial (17%), and Monoracial Minoritized (22%). Methods: Measures included ethnic racial identity (ERI) exploration and commitment, discrimination, and features of Multiracial identity. The survey was sent through campus email and completed electronically. Results: Monoracial Minoritized participants reported higher discrimination and ERI commitment and exploration than Multiracial and Monoracial White participants. Multiracial participants reported higher ERI exploration and discrimination than Monoracial White participants. Multiracial participants' ERI exploration and racial conflict explained ERI commitment in regression models. Conclusions: Multiracial individuals should be researched and intervened with differentially from other racial groups, with variables specific to their unique experiences.</p> <p>Keywords: Ethnic racial identity; mental health; monoracial; multiracial</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Syed et al[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] decry the lack of ethnic/racial diversity in developmental science, stating that research on ethnic and racial identity is thirty years behind the literature on other forms of identity. Furthermore, while Multiracial births in America are increasing − 14% of births in 2015 were Multiracial children,[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>] and 6.9% of American adults are Multiracial[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] – the unique experiences of Multiracial individuals compared to Monoracial individuals has yet to be adequately explored. Research with Monoracial individuals suggests that development of a strong sense of "ethnic-racial identity" (identification with an ethnic/racial group that is fostered through a process of personal and cultural exploration) can lead to multiplicative positive outcomes throughout the lifespan.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>] There is a need to understand how Multiracial identity uniquely develops in comparison to Monoracial White and Monoracial Minoritized identity. Of particular importance for this study are how these group differ from each other in terms of ethnic identity exploration and commitment, experiences of discrimination, and how feelings of pride and identity integration uniquely affect Multiracial individuals' ethnic identity. The extant literature on these topics is summarized below.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-3">Ethnic and racial identity</hd> <p>Ethnic Identity has long been defined as "a sense of peoplehood within a group, a culture, and a particular setting."[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>]<sups>(p271)</sups> Commitment to ethnic identity develops over time and through experience: a process of <emph>exploration.</emph>[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>] Additionally, there is a connection between racial identity and ethnic identity.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>] While the standard definitions of race (grouping of individuals by shared physical characteristics) and ethnicity (grouping of individuals by shared cultural experiences) demarcate different concepts, many researchers have found that there are few practical reasons to keep these terms separate in psychological research. Often, the identity labels are used synonymously (e.g., Multiracial and Multiethnic), the exploration process of each type of identity follows similar stages, and the psychological experience of both racial identity and ethnic identity are similar. As a result, several researchers have suggested that these terms be combined into one: "ethnic-racial identity" (ERI).[[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref8">7</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>]] Because this term most accurately describes what was measured in the current study, ERI will be used throughout this paper.</p> <p>Although we will be using a broad operationalization of ethnicity and race combined, it must be noted that some researchers do not recommend such a combination. For example, many researchers conceptualize racial identity as uniquely including group and societal level institutional oppression or privilege as well as shared experiences of historical and modern discrimination or social advantage.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>] These effects are not measured by traditional ethnic identity measures. Additionally, this grouping does not account for influences of external and internalized racism.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref12">10</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref13">12</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref14">13</reflink>] However, the current study takes a more individual and developmental approach to the tested constructs than studies who advocated for separation between ethnic and racial identities (typically more influenced by social psychology), which lends itself more to a broad conceptualization of such categories. Additionally, the developers and frequent users of the measures we have adapted for this study conceptualized ethnic/racial identity in this broad way, giving precedence for its usage.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref15">5</reflink>],[[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref16">7</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref17">9</reflink>]] Despite this, the current study is limited in its ability to account for the strong influences of socialization on ERI development, which is not the focus of this study but is something that cannot be overlooked. To somewhat account for potential societal effects which are absent from ethnic identity measures, the current study measured and compared reported levels of discrimination. Therefore, although the measure used is specifically for Ethnic Identity, and although we grouped participants into categories that would be considered racial groups, the overlap between such categories is justified in previous literature and theory and allowed for more statistical power in group comparisons.</p> <p>In 2016, there were over seven thousand victims of hate crimes in the United States, and 59.5% involved racism.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref18">14</reflink>] This data cumulatively suggests discrimination experiences continue to be a regular occurrence that are relevant to understanding ERI experiences for minoritized Monoracial and Multiracial individuals alike. Predominant in ERI literature is an exploration of how strength and development of identity interact with discrimination experiences. For instance, several studies have documented that strong ERI can benefit people in a minoritized ethnic-racial group,[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref19">15</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref20">16</reflink>] but stronger ERI can also increase distress when faced with discrimination.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref21">17</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref22">18</reflink>] Further, there is evidence that experienced discrimination is a necessary part of sparking strong ERI development, so the exact nature and direction of this relation is not fully understood.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref23">19</reflink>] Even less is known about the relation between discrimination and ERI for Multiracial individuals.</p> <p>Emerging adulthood is a key developmental stage for ethnic racial identity development, as emerging adults reengage in exploration to accommodate increasingly complex representations of their ERI, such as during attempts to integrate multiple identities.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref24">7</reflink>] Schwartz et al[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref25">20</reflink>] suggested that identity processes are revisited in emerging adulthood in part because of increased agency that comes with more independence, further supporting the use of this age group in studies on identity. This makes investigations of identity in college-age samples of particular relevance.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-4">Theories on ERI development</hd> <p>A vast amount of literature in social and developmental psychology has investigated social group identity and interactions, and three prominent theories have emerged: Realistic-Group Conflict Theory, Social Identity Theory, and Identity Status Theory. Each is reviewed below to establish the theoretical foundation for a relationship between ERI and discrimination experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-5">Realistic-group conflict theory</hd> <p>Social identity can be shaped by positive and negative intergroup interactions. Realistic-Group Conflict Theory (RCT) posits that out-group rejection occurs because of competition for resources and power.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref26">21</reflink>] These resources can include life-dependent materials such as food and shelter, but in modern US society tend to take the form of capital, including jobs, political positions, ideal housing, and schooling. Because social groups must compete for these resources, it is cost effective to reject other groups and create systems that favor the in-group. RCT can be used to explain phenomena such as intergroup attitudes and institutionalized discrimination.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-6">Social identity theory</hd> <p>Social Identity Theory (SIT) describes social group membership as a key part of a person's sense of self.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref27">22</reflink>] While social group membership can sometimes be assigned rather than chosen (e.g. gender assigned at birth, race demarcation based on physical characteristics), internalization of group traits and features into one's personal identity occurs at the individual level rather than the group level. According to SIT, this internalization process remains strongly influenced by external factors, for instance: an individual's identification with the group, the group's social standing, and amount of experienced discrimination. Identity is typically strengthened when categorization is made more salient, when the in-group is threatened, or when the self is threatened. A threat to the individual or the group is theorized as a threat to self-esteem, and thus discrimination affects identity development.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref28">22</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref29">23</reflink>]</p> <p>Group membership additionally affects how individuals and groups interact with each other and define themselves. SIT theory posits that individuals with group affiliation tend to assume that in-group members will be very similar to themselves and out-group members will be at best dissimilar, and at worst hostile or antagonistic, which helps explain why stereotyping, discrimination, and intergroup violence occurs.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref30">23</reflink>] Stronger identification with a social group relates to more negative responses toward and heightened awareness of discrimination, which suggests threats to the in-group are more damaging and noticeable when in-group identification is stronger.[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref31">18</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-7">Identity status theory</hd> <p>Inspired by Erikson's[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref32">24</reflink>] stages of psychosocial development, Marcia[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref33">25</reflink>] suggested that an individual's identity status is affected by their experiences of both identity exploration (e.g., seeking out information about culture, engaging in relevant practices) and identity commitment (e.g., sense of belonging, adopting a label). Phinney[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref34">6</reflink>] successfully applied Marica's dimensions to ERI and developed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM). The MEIM has since become one of the most utilized ERI measures and has been validated with many ethnic groups.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref35">26</reflink>] The longevity and cross-group reliability of the measure emphasize the importance of the two dimensions when examining development of ERI.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-8">Monoracial vs. multiracial experiences</hd> <p>Strong development of ERI is generally associated with positive psychological outcomes for individuals of both Monoracial White and Monoracial Minoritized groups. A meta-analysis of 184 studies (total <emph>N</emph> = 41,626)[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref36">4</reflink>] suggested stronger ERI was correlated with a greater sense of subjective wellbeing and self-esteem, with stronger effects for people under 40 years old. In this same meta-analysis, stronger ERI was also negatively correlated with mental health symptoms, including anxiety and depression, but the authors noted that these effect sizes were only half the size of those for well-being.</p> <p>Rivas-Drake et al[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref37">8</reflink>] completed a review exploring psychological outcomes related to ethnic-racial identity for individuals in different Monoracial Minoritized groups. For African American, Latino/a, Asian/Pacific Islander, and Native American youth, they found that ERI was associated with higher self-esteem, lower depression symptoms, better coping, and higher academic achievement in a variety of metrics (e.g., GPA, school involvement). Rivas-Drake et al[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref38">8</reflink>] noted that several studies for these Monoracial groups found null results between ERI and outcomes, suggesting that ERI may not always be a protective factor. Further, Arbona and Jimenez[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref39">27</reflink>] explored experiences of Latino/a college students and found that stronger ERI was associated with higher levels of Minoritized group stress, specifically for discrimination and intra-ethnic pressure.</p> <p>It is important to note that the Rivas-Drake et al[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref40">8</reflink>] review largely included samples younger than emerging adulthood. However, Syed and Mitchell[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref41">28</reflink>] conducted a review that emphasized the dearth of research investigating ERI in emerging adulthood. They further highlighted the glaring absence of participants in emerging adulthood from Minoritized groups, and the absence of focus on Minoritized participants as opposed to studies comparing White and Minoritized experiences. The authors state that there has been a recent shift from focusing on adolescence as the sole time for identity formation to accepting that identity reformation can occur in emerging adulthood. They add that this stage is prime for potential challenges to ERI, for example: "Although aspirations for the future are high, an increased awareness of structural barriers to achievement and advancement leads some youth to become doubtful they will realize their dreams."[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref42">28</reflink>]<sups>(p87)</sups> Therefore, it is likely that emerging adulthood does not reap the benefits of adolescent identity development, but instead builds on and/or challenges that identity as the individual learns more about what their identity means in the context of a racially charged society.</p> <p>Compared to the number of studies about ERI experiences with individuals in Monoracial groups, there are relatively few studies that include people from Multiracial backgrounds.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref43">8</reflink>] However, one such study concluded that ERI commitment scores for Multiracial adolescents were typically higher when compared to their Monoracial White cohorts, but lower than their Monoracial Black cohorts.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref44">16</reflink>] Furthermore, Multiracial individuals tended to report less strong exploration levels than Monoracial Black individuals, but higher levels than Monoracial White individuals.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref45">16</reflink>] Multiracial teens reported higher levels of anxiety and depression than their Monoracial cohorts, which the authors suggested could be related to these observed differences in their ERI commitment.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref46">16</reflink>] Additionally, Bracey et al[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref47">15</reflink>] found that Biracial teenagers had higher levels of ERI than Monoracial White teenagers but lower levels of ERI than Monoracial Minoritized teenagers. For all groups, ERI was positively correlated with self-esteem. Additionally, they found that there were no significant differences based on the specific Biracial background combinations.</p> <p>Furthermore, the ERI exploration of Multiracial individuals involves processes that are not relevant for Monoracial individuals which supports the need for research specific to the Multiracial experience. For instance, Cheng and Lee[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref48">29</reflink>] discuss Multiracial identity integration (MII) as a crucial part of developing ERI in Multiracial individuals. MII is composed of two components: distance (separating multiple identities or distancing the self from one part of identity) and conflict (identities do not blend well, or tension exists between identities). Additionally, Cheng and Lee[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref49">29</reflink>] demonstrated that Multiracial pride (feeling positive about having two or more identities) was a strong negative correlate with Multiracial identity distance. They also found that Multiracial pride had a negative relation with racial conflict; however, this effect was not significant. A recent study found a relation between discrimination and MII, suggesting that perhaps discrimination affects the integration of identities.[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref50">30</reflink>] Although MII and Multiracial pride have not been widely studied, they appear to uniquely impact Multiracial individuals.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-9">Experienced discrimination</hd> <p>It was previously noted that both theory and research suggest a relation exists between identity formation and experienced discrimination for Minoritized Monoracial groups. Quintana[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref51">19</reflink>] summarizes this literature that indicates experiencing discrimination is related to initial exploration of ERI. However, mixed longitudinal findings make it difficult to identify directionality, suggesting the relation may even be bidirectional. Another review suggests that ERI is a protective factor against negative consequences of discrimination.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref52">8</reflink>] It may be the case that a cycle exists where discrimination experiences can spark ERI exploration leading to increased awareness of, or sensitivity to, discrimination, but decreased negative responses.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref53">7</reflink>] Nonetheless, because discrimination and ethnic categories are constantly changing at both a group and individual level, particularly with the emergence of a larger Multiracial population, researchers need to consistently update and reevaluate the relations between ERI content, ERI processes, and experienced discrimination.</p> <p>Studies directly comparing Multiracial and Monoracial experiences of discrimination are sparse, but there is evidence that the effects are felt differently by each group. For example, one study found that Multiracial youth had stronger positive correlations between ethnic identity, discrimination, and problem behaviors compared to Monoracial youth.[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref54">31</reflink>] However, another study found that high MII was a protective factor for Multiracial youth related to fewer negative outcomes in the face of discrimination.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref55">32</reflink>] Additionally, there is some evidence that Multiracial people experience discrimination at higher rates than other groups, perhaps because they are targets of both Monoracial White and Monoracial Minoritized groups.[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref56">33</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref57">34</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-10">Current study</hd> <p>The current study compared the experiences of Multiracial emerging adults to Monoracial Majoritized (White) and Minoritized emerging adults. First, we investigated group-level differences in identity variables (exploration and commitment) and discrimination. Based on the studies summarized above, we hypothesized that Multiracial individuals would be significantly lower in identity commitment and exploration than Monoracial Minoritized individuals, but significantly higher than Monoracial White individuals.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref58">15</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref59">16</reflink>] Previous research suggests that Multiracial people will show the highest levels of experienced discrimination, with White people experiencing the lowest levels.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref60">34</reflink>]</p> <p>Second, to understand the complexity of ERI in Multiracial individuals, we analyzed the relationships among major study variables for Multiracial participants only, with a focus on predicting variables that showed commitment to ERI and places of possible intervention: Multiracial pride and ERI commitment. We hypothesized that discrimination, MII (as measured by level of conflicted between racial identities), and ERI exploration would predict these outcomes. Multiracial pride has not received much attention in the literature, but because discrimination is related to stronger ERI, we hypothesized that there would be a positive relationship between discrimination and the two outcomes. Further, we hypothesized that better identity integration would be related to lower Multiracial pride and ethnic identity commitment because it indicates lower conflict among identities. Previous research found a significant relationship only for the racial distance subscale of MII and Multiracial pride.[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref61">29</reflink>] However, our Multiracial sample size is almost thrice the size of that study (i.e., 153 vs 57), allowing for more power and investigation into how racial conflict influences Multiracial pride. Finally, we expected that ethnic identity exploration would have a positive relationship with pride and commitment, as exploration should lead to commitment and, therefore, also pride in one's identity.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref62">35</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-11">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0162174237-12">Participants and procedure</hd> <p>Data were collected in Fall 2015 after obtaining approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB). Participants (<emph>N</emph> = 1,331) were recruited from a Midwestern University in the United States to complete an online survey. Participants were entered into a raffle to win one of eight Amazon $50 gift cards upon completion of the study. Funding for the project was provided by the Psychology Department's Diversity Committee fund. Eligibility included being at least 18 years old and being enrolled as a student at the university. Participants were invited to the survey via email and minoritized ethnic group affiliated student organizations were asked to encourage their members to participate. The survey was arranged in the following order to decrease response bias: discrimination, intergroup attitudes, demographics, identity strength, and Multiracial scales (if identified as Multiracial). Many participants started the survey but did not complete it (<emph>n</emph> = 438), leaving a total sample of 893 participants (inclusion rate = 67%). The cause is unknown, but it is possible that there was a software error (227 of the unfinished cases occurred on the same day). Students possibly opened the survey only briefly (median number of seconds for unfinished surveys was 128; for finished surveys was 609). There may have also been selection bias, but this is minimized by the remaining sample size.</p> <p>Participants were asked to select all the racial backgrounds (Caucasian/White, African American/Black, Middle Eastern/Arab-American, Hispanic/Latino, Asian, Native American, Multiracial, Other) they identify with and, based on their responses, they were grouped into three categories: Monoracial White (61%), Monoracial Minoritized (22%), and Multiracial (17%). Likely because of the recruitment method, the sample was more diverse than the student body as a whole (approx. Monoracial White 75.88%, Monoracial Minoritized 18.35%, Multiracial 3.05%, and Unknown 2.72%).[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref63">36</reflink>] Participants who selected more than one racial background (e.g., African American/Black and Caucasian/White) were classified as Multiracial. Participants who selected Caucasian/White race alone were categorized as Monoracial White, and participants who selected only one racial category other than White (e.g. African American/Black only) were categorized as Monoracial Minoritized. In 20 cases (2.2%), two of the researchers recoded the participant's category based on what they wrote as their "other" race (e.g., Jamaican, Irish, Jewish), with 100% agreement. Five of those 20 cases (0.6%) were excluded from the analyses because it was not possible to definitively categorize them (e.g., American). This left a total sample of <emph>n</emph> = 888 participants (inclusion rate = 67%; female = 67%, <emph>M</emph><subs>Age</subs> = 21.7, <emph>SD</emph> = 5.58; see Table 1 for demographic information).</p> <p>Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the sample (n = 887).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Age</td><td><italic>M</italic></td><td><italic>SD</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td /><td char=".">21.71</td><td char=".">5.58</td></tr><tr><td><bold>Racial Category</bold></td><td><italic>#</italic></td><td><italic>%</italic></td></tr><tr><td>Monoracial White</td><td char=".">541</td><td char=".">61%</td></tr><tr><td>Monoracial Minoritized</td><td char=".">199</td><td char=".">22%</td></tr><tr><td> African American/Black</td><td char=".">96</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Middle Eastern/Arab-American</td><td char=".">9</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Hispanic/Latino</td><td char=".">28</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Asian</td><td char=".">60</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Native-American</td><td char=".">2</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Multiracial</td><td char=".">148</td><td char=".">17%</td></tr><tr><td> Caucasian/White</td><td char=".">123</td><td /></tr><tr><td> African American/Black</td><td char=".">63</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Middle Eastern/Arab-American</td><td char=".">16</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Hispanic/Latino</td><td char=".">57</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Asian</td><td char=".">23</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Native-American</td><td char=".">56</td><td /></tr><tr><td><bold>Gender</bold></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Male</td><td char=".">274</td><td char=".">30.9%</td></tr><tr><td> Female</td><td char=".">598</td><td char=".">67.3%</td></tr><tr><td> Transgender</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">0.6%</td></tr><tr><td> No response</td><td char=".">10</td><td char=".">1.1%</td></tr><tr><td><bold>Sexual Orientation</bold></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Gay/Lesbian</td><td char=".">35</td><td char=".">3.9%</td></tr><tr><td> Heterosexual</td><td char=".">732</td><td char=".">82.4%</td></tr><tr><td> Bisexual</td><td char=".">57</td><td char=".">6.4%</td></tr><tr><td> Polysexual</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">0.5%</td></tr><tr><td> Pansexual</td><td char=".">22</td><td char=".">2.5%</td></tr><tr><td> Asexual</td><td char=".">17</td><td char=".">1.9%</td></tr><tr><td> Other</td><td char=".">20</td><td char=".">2.3%</td></tr><tr><td><bold>Year in School</bold></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Freshman</td><td char=".">272</td><td char=".">30.6%</td></tr><tr><td> Sophomore</td><td char=".">144</td><td char=".">16.2%</td></tr><tr><td> Junior</td><td char=".">127</td><td char=".">14.3%</td></tr><tr><td> Senior</td><td char=".">119</td><td char=".">13.4%</td></tr><tr><td> Fifth year +</td><td char=".">40</td><td char=".">4.5%</td></tr><tr><td> Graduate</td><td char=".">185</td><td char=".">20.8%</td></tr><tr><td><bold>Marital Status</bold></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> Married</td><td char=".">56</td><td char=".">6.3%</td></tr><tr><td> Single (never married)</td><td char=".">736</td><td char=".">82.9%</td></tr><tr><td> Divorced</td><td char=".">11</td><td char=".">1.2%</td></tr><tr><td> Widowed</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">0.2%</td></tr><tr><td> Engaged/Living w. Partner</td><td char=".">66</td><td char=".">7.4%</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0162174237-13">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0162174237-14">ERI</hd> <p>ERI was assessed using Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM), which is a twelve-item measure that includes two subscales: affirmation, belonging, and commitment (e.g., "<emph>I have a strong sense of belonging to my own ethnic group.</emph>") and exploration (e.g., "<emph>I have spent time trying to find out more about my ethnic group, such as exploring history, traditions, and customs.</emph>").[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref64">37</reflink>] The affirmation, belonging, and commitment subscale will be referred to as "ERI commitment" throughout this paper. Notably, certain items that described "my own ethnic group" were modified to say "people like me" for this study. The purpose of this change was to increase clarity of the questions and account for potential perceived in-group variability. To ensure that the participants understood that "people like me" was referring to members of the ethnic in-group, the survey was programmed to remind participants which ethnic/racial identity they had previously indicated, and directed participants to "Please select how much you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about this ethnic identity."</p> <p>This measure asks participants to rate each item on how much they agree or disagree with each statement, where 1 indicates <emph>Strongly Disagree</emph> and 4 indicates <emph>Strongly Agree</emph>. Total scores for each subscale were averaged as suggested by Phinney[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref65">6</reflink>], with a higher score indicating higher identity with their ethnic group. The MEIM has adequate reliability for diverse groups of college students, which was replicated in this study (commitment coefficient α =.89; exploration coefficient α =.70).[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref66">6</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref67">37</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-15">Multiracial ERI</hd> <p>Participants who indicated that they were Multiracial by selecting multiple racial backgrounds in the demographics section received two additional measures. First, they completed the Multi-Racial Identity Integration Scale (MRIIS), which is an eight-item measure that includes two subscales: racial distance (4 items; e.g., "<emph>I keep everything about my different racial identities separate.</emph>") and racial conflict (4 items; e.g., "<emph>I feel torn between my different racial identities.</emph>").[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref68">29</reflink>] These measures ask participants to select the option that best fits their beliefs, where 1 indicates <emph>Completely Disagree</emph> and 5 indicates <emph>Completely Agree,</emph> with total scores ranging between 4 and 20. Scores were totaled by subscale. Higher scores are related to more racial distance and racial conflict, and thus lower levels of Multiracial identity integration. Cheng and Lee[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref69">29</reflink>] found adequate internal reliability for the MRIIS (racial distance: coefficient α =.80; racial conflict: coefficient α =.74). In the current study, racial distance did not have adequate internal reliability (coefficient α =.61), but racial conflict did (coefficient α =.87). Therefore, we chose to use only the Multiracial conflict subscale for our analyses.</p> <p>Participants also completed the Multi-Racial Pride Scale (MRPS), which is a four-item measure that includes items such as, "<emph>I am proud of being a Multiracial person</emph>."[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref70">29</reflink>] This measure asks participants to select the option that best fits their beliefs, where 1 indicates <emph>Completely Disagree</emph> and 5 indicates <emph>Completely Agree.</emph> Cheng and Lee[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref71">29</reflink>] showed that the MRPS had adequate internal reliability (coefficient α =.81–.89), replicated here (coefficient α =.82). Items were averaged. Higher scores on the MRPS indicated more pride.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-16">Experienced discrimination</hd> <p>All participants also completed the General Ethnic Discrimination Scale.[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref72">38</reflink>] This scale asks participants how often they have experienced specific types of discrimination (e.g., <emph>treated unfairly by strangers; been called a racist name</emph>) because of their racial/ethnic group in the past year and in their lifetime. Responses were rated on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = <emph>Never;</emph> 6 = <emph>Almost all the time</emph>). The scale also asks how stressful that discrimination was for the participant on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = <emph>Not at all stressful;</emph> 6 = <emph>Extremely stressful).</emph> Higher scores indicate more frequent experience of discrimination. There are 17 items each for discrimination in the last year and lifetime, and 16 items for stress of discrimination. Landrine et al[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref73">38</reflink>] found adequate reliability for these measures (α =.94–.95). In this study, only the mean item responses for the lifetime scores were used because even early experienced discrimination can have long-lasting effects, and lifetime discrimination was found to have adequate reliability (α =.94).[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref74">39</reflink>]</p> <p>It is important to note that when describing participant reports of discrimination, the current paper will use the word "experienced" rather than the more traditional word "perceived." Researchers are undecided on whether discrimination shapes ERI or if ERI increases perceptions of and sensitivity toward discrimination, but either way, these experiences still occur.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref75">19</reflink>] Research suggests that experiences of racial discrimination are often dismissed by White individuals, and so a change in terminology may prevent the current research from being misused or misconstrued.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref76">40</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref77">41</reflink>] Additionally, precedent for using the word "experienced" rather than "perceived" discrimination has been established in research.[[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref78">42</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref79">44</reflink>]] In sum, in order to circumvent misinterpretations of findings and to be more in line with other research that investigates experience frequency, the term "experienced discrimination" will describe the responses to the discrimination measure.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-17">Data analyses</hd> <p>In the present study, we examined ethnic-racial group differences and regression models predicting Multiracial pride and ERI commitment. First, we conducted multivariate analyses using Wilks' Lambda to explore group differences (Multiracial, Monoracial Minoritized, and Monoracial White) in ERI commitment, ERI exploration, and experienced discrimination. Second, we conducted two linear regression models with discrimination, Multiracial conflict, and ERI exploration as the predictor variables and Multiracial pride and ERI commitment as the outcome variables.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-18">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0162174237-19">Descriptive statistics</hd> <p>See Table 2 for descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables. Preliminary analyses (ANOVAs and correlations) indicated that the main study variables (Multiracial pride, Multiracial conflict, ERI commitment, ERI exploration, and experienced discrimination) did not differ significantly based on participant gender (<emph>p</emph>s >.05) and were not significantly correlated with participant age (<emph>p</emph>s >.05); therefore, no covariates were included in the study analyses.</p> <p>Table 2. Correlations for major study variables.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Variable</td><td><italic>M</italic></td><td><italic>SD</italic></td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1</td><td>Participant Age</td><td char=".">21.7</td><td char=".">5.58</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>ERI Commitment</td><td char=".">3.13</td><td char=".">0.61</td><td char=".">−.02</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>ERI Exploration</td><td char=".">2.66</td><td char=".">0.61</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.53**</td><td>–</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Experienced Discrimination</td><td char=".">1.69</td><td char=".">0.75</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.17**</td><td char=".">.36**</td><td>–</td><td /></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Multiracial Pride</td><td char=".">3.72</td><td char=".">0.75</td><td char=".">−.07</td><td char=".">.19*</td><td char=".">.18*</td><td char=".">−.08</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Multiracial Identity Conflict</td><td char=".">10.2</td><td char=".">4.04</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">−.40**</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.34*</td><td char=".">−.07</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph>. * <emph>p</emph> = <.05; ** <emph>p</emph> = <.01.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-20">Ethnic-racial group differences</hd> <p>We first examined group differences (Multiracial, Monoracial Minoritized, and Monoracial White) in ERI commitment, ERI exploration, and experienced discrimination. A MANOVA using Wilks' Lambda demonstrated significant differences by group, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref80">6</reflink>, 1740) = 61.85, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>η<subs>p</subs></emph><sups>2</sups> =.176. Specifically, between-subject effects were significant for each outcome variable: ERI commitment <emph>(F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref81">2</reflink>, 872) = 31.28, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>η<subs>p</subs></emph><sups>2</sups> =.067); ERI exploration (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref82">2</reflink>, 872) = 54.90, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>η<subs>p</subs></emph><sups>2</sups> =.112); and experienced discrimination (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref83">2</reflink>, 872) = 171.29, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>η<subs>p</subs></emph><sups>2</sups> =.282).</p> <p>Post-hoc analyses examining ERI commitment indicated that Monoracial Minoritized participants (<emph>M</emph> = 3.42, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.04) reported significantly higher ERI commitment than Monoracial White participants (<emph>M</emph> = 3.03, <emph>SD =</emph> 0.03; <emph>p</emph> <.001) and Multiracial participants (<emph>M</emph> = 3.10, <emph>SD =</emph> 0.05; <emph>p</emph> <.001). Multiracial and Monoracial White participant reports of ERI commitment did not differ significantly (<emph>p</emph> =.204). Post-hoc analyses examining ERI exploration indicated that Monoracial Minoritized participants reported significantly higher ERI exploration (<emph>M</emph> = 2.99, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.04) than Monoracial White participants (<emph>M</emph> = 2.50, <emph>SD =</emph> 0.03; <emph>p</emph> <.001) and Multiracial participants (<emph>M</emph> = 2.79, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.05, <emph>p</emph> =.001). Multiracial participants reported significantly higher ERI exploration than Monoracial White participants (<emph>p</emph> <.001). Lastly, post-hoc analyses examining experienced discrimination indicated that Monoracial Minoritized participants reported significantly higher levels of experienced discrimination (<emph>M</emph> = 2.25, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.05) than Monoracial White participants (<emph>M</emph> = 1.38, <emph>SD =</emph> 0.03; <emph>p</emph> <.001) and Multiracial participants (<emph>M</emph> = 2.08, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.05, <emph>p =</emph>.010). Multiracial participants reported significantly higher levels of experienced discrimination than Monoracial White participants (<emph>p</emph> <.001).</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-21">Regression models</hd> <p>We hypothesized that, for the Multiracial subsample, discrimination, Multiracial conflict, and ERI exploration would significantly predict Multiracial pride and ERI commitment, with discrimination and ERI exploration positively related to both outcomes, and Multiracial conflict negatively related to both outcomes. To test this, two linear regression models were conducted with Multiracial pride (Model 1) and ERI commitment (Model 2) as the outcome variables. For both models, only participants who identified with more than one race category were included. Tests to see if the data met the assumption of collinearity indicated that multicollinearity was not a concern (Discrimination: Tolerance = 0.76, VIF = 1.31; ERI Exploration: Tolerance = 0.86, VIF = 1.17, Multiracial Conflict: Tolerance = 0.88, VIF = 1.14).</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-22">Model 1: Multiracial pride</hd> <p>Results of the linear regression indicated that discrimination, ERI exploration, and Multiracial conflict together explained a significant amount (7%) of variance in Multiracial pride, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref84">3</reflink>, 134) = 3.49, <emph>p</emph> =.018, Δ<emph>R</emph>[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref85">2</reflink>] =.07. Within the model, Multiracial conflict was not a significant predictor of Multiracial pride (<emph>β</emph> =.01, <emph>SE</emph> =.02, <emph>p</emph> =.937); however, both discrimination (<emph>β</emph> = −.22, <emph>SE</emph> =.09, <emph>p</emph> =.024) and ERI exploration (<emph>β</emph> =.26, <emph>SE</emph> =.11, <emph>p</emph> =.004) did significantly predict Multiracial pride. Of note, discrimination was significant in the opposite direction of our hypothesis. See Table 3 for a summary of Model 1.</p> <p>Table 3. Model 1. Predicting multiracial pride with experienced discrimination, ERI exploration, and multiracial conflict.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Predictors</td><td><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></td><td>β</td><td><italic>df</italic></td><td><italic>F</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td><bold>Overall Model</bold></td><td><bold>.07</bold></td><td /><td><bold>3, 134</bold></td><td><bold>3.49</bold></td><td><bold>.018</bold></td></tr><tr><td>Experienced Discrimination</td><td /><td char=".">−.218</td><td /><td /><td char=".">.024</td></tr><tr><td>ERI Exploration</td><td /><td char=".">.261</td><td /><td /><td char=".">.004</td></tr><tr><td>Multiracial Identity Conflict</td><td /><td char=".">.007</td><td /><td /><td char=".">.937</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0162174237-23">Model 2: Predicting ERI commitment</hd> <p>Results of the linear regression indicated discrimination, ERI exploration, and Multiracial conflict together explained a significant amount (48%) of variance in ERI commitment, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref86">1</reflink>, 134) = 40.65, <emph>p <</emph>.001, <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> =.48. Within the model, discrimination was not a significant predictor of ERI commitment (<emph>β</emph> =.08, <emph>SE</emph> =.05 <emph>p</emph> =.243). Both Multiracial conflict (<emph>β</emph> = −.48, <emph>SE</emph> =.01, <emph>p</emph> <.001) and ERI exploration (<emph>β</emph> =.53, <emph>SE</emph> =.07, <emph>p</emph> <.001) significantly predicted ERI commitment (Table 4).</p> <p>Table 4. Model 2. Predicting ERI commitment with experienced discrimination, ERI exploration, and multiracial conflict.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Predictors</td><td><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></td><td>β</td><td><italic>df</italic></td><td><italic>F</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td><bold>Overall Model</bold></td><td><bold>.48</bold></td><td /><td><bold>3, 134</bold></td><td><bold>40.65</bold></td><td><bold><.001</bold></td></tr><tr><td>Experienced Discrimination</td><td /><td char=".">.08</td><td /><td /><td char=".">.243</td></tr><tr><td>ERI Exploration</td><td /><td char=".">.53</td><td /><td /><td char="."><.001</td></tr><tr><td>Multiracial Identity Conflict</td><td /><td char=".">−.48</td><td /><td /><td char="."><.001</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0162174237-24">Discussion</hd> <p>This study set out to look at between and within group differences in ethnic/racial identity for Monoracial Minoritized, Monoracial White, and Multiracial emerging adults. Specifically, we wanted to add to the literature on Multiracial individuals. Since this is a growing demographic, and since previous literature has demonstrated the psychosocial benefits of ERI development, this study can help inform college health practitioners in the differences between groups as well as unique challenges faced by Multiracial emerging adults. The findings successfully demonstrated different levels of identity exploration, commitment, and discrimination, and highlighted potential ways to promote ERI in Multiracial participants.</p> <p>When compared to Monoracial Minoritized participants, Multiracial and Monoracial White participants showed lower ERI commitment. All three groups were significantly different on ERI exploration and experienced discrimination, with Monoracial White participants scoring lowest, Multiracial participants scoring in the middle, and Monoracial Minoritized participants scoring highest. These group level differences highlight the distinctiveness of Multiracial identity. Many researchers remove Multiracial participants or combine them with Monoracial Minoritized participants, but these results suggest that doing so is problematic given the unique experiences of each group. Although some might be concerned that this difference is due to greater within group variability for Multiracial participants, the standard deviations of the three groups were not distressingly different.</p> <p>Intuitively, multiple identities should take more time to explore and commit to than a single identity, potentially explaining lower ERI commitment for Multiracial as opposed to Monoracial Minoritized participants. In addition, some Multiracial college students pass as Monoracial White and/or are less affected by colorism, providing protection against some discrimination and ethnic salience.[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref87">45</reflink>] Monoracial White participants' lower ERI commitment could be explained by low ethnic salience, which prior research suggests occurs because White identity is considered the default, thus White identity is never or rarely a source of distress.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref88">7</reflink>] Findings on commitment were consistent with hypotheses and previous research, although we did expect significant differences between Monoracial White and Multiracial participants for ERI commitment, which was not supported here.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref89">15</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref90">16</reflink>]</p> <p>Consistent with hypotheses and extant studies, group differences in exploration existed.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref91">15</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref92">16</reflink>] Differences could be due to salience, as heightened awareness and importance of ethnicity could trigger increased exploration.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref93">7</reflink>] The significant difference between Monoracial White and Multiracial participants on ERI exploration might also be explained by higher levels of ethnic-racial socialization. Multiracial participants likely have at least one family member who is a person of color (e.g., parent). Families with a member of a minoritized ethnic-racial group often make efforts to help shape their children's ERI, and to prepare their children for discrimination.[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref94">46</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref95">47</reflink>]</p> <p>Multiracial participants' position in the middle of the three groups for discrimination was inconsistent with our hypotheses and previous research.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref96">34</reflink>] Research from the Pew Research Center[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref97">3</reflink>] indicates that although 2010 Census data suggested 2.1% of the US is Multiracial, a 2015 survey indicates that the number is now 6.9%. This number should be taken with caution, however, since 50% of the Multiracial participants in the Pew study were White and American Indian; White people can mistakenly claim Native American ancestry, even despite genetic evidence to the contrary.[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref98">48</reflink>] Gaither[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref99">34</reflink>] suggested that Multiracial emerging adults should experience the highest discrimination, but the data were from 2009 before increases in the Multiracial population, which may explain the lack of replication in the current study. These findings could also be explained, in whole or in part, by Multiracial participants' ability to pass as White in their daily lives, offering some protection from discrimination. Nonetheless, although Multiracial participants showed lower levels of discrimination than Monoracial Minoritized participants, discrimination against these individuals still occurred at higher rates, enough to cause psychological consequences, than for Monoracial White participants.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref100">32</reflink>] Multiracial participants are therefore a group more vulnerable to the negative consequences of discrimination than Monoracial White participants.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-25">Specific findings on multiracial identity</hd> <p>The regression analyses allowed for a closer look at correlates of successful Multiracial identity development. Discrimination did not explain a significant amount of variance for either Multiracial pride or ERI commitment in the first step, contrary to hypotheses. As aforementioned, this could be due to the protection Multiracial participants might have when passing as White. However, Multiracial college students are also uniquely positioned to have resilience against discrimination because of their minoritized ERI, and their dual identities provides the opportunity to switch their ERI to whichever identity provides the most maintenance of well-being.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref101">49</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref102">50</reflink>] Although Multiracial participants' ERI outcomes were not as significantly related to discrimination as predicted, the effects of discrimination on Multiracial individuals may manifest in other ways (e.g., anxiety). Further research would be necessary to fully understand this.</p> <p>Consistent with our hypotheses, ERI exploration explained a significant amount of the variance in both the Multiracial outcomes (i.e., Multiracial pride and ERI commitment). Developmentally, exploration should lead to commitment, then to identity pride.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref103">35</reflink>] Though not longitudinal, the relationships between the variables provide some support for this developmental pathway. The strong effect size for exploration on explaining positive ERI development in Multiracial individuals provides a point of potential intervention that could help Multiracial college students develop ERI successfully. ERI development is linked to many positive outcomes, thus encouraging ERI exploration is a feasible option for practitioners to promote the well-being of Multiracial clients.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref104">7</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref105">8</reflink>]</p> <p>Multiracial identity conflict only explained a significant amount of variance for ERI commitment, and was not significantly correlated with ERI exploration (also a significant explanatory variable), implying that it accounted for a large amount of unique variance. Conflict between identities has not been well-studied, yet the results described here suggest that it is an important factor for identity commitment. For Multiracial individuals, there may be a barrier to the positive effects of identity commitment if a conflict exists between the two (or more) ethnic-racial identities. Realistic-Group Conflict Theory would suggest that when groups are in competition for resources and powers, strong positive-in-group and negative-out-group attitudes will develop.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref106">21</reflink>] Similarly, Social Identity Theory hypothesizes that individuals internalize group membership into the concept of self, further promoting this divide between groups.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref107">22</reflink>] However, when you are a member of multiple groups that are in conflict, internalization of group identity could be impacted. Multiracial pride was likely unrelated to identity conflict because this conflict can sometimes lead to distancing oneself from one identity and committing more to another rather than accepting a Multiracial identity. The ERI commitment outcome here did not require that participants self-identify as Multiracial, since some emerging adults with multiple ethnic/racial labels chose to label themselves with a single Monoracial identity, so the large beta weight of conflict could be due to a certain amount of relinquishing a Multiracial identity for a Monoracial one to decrease conflict.[[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref108">51</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref109">53</reflink>]]</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-26">Future directions</hd> <p>To reemphasize, future research, including basic, experimental, and intervention-focused methods, must treat Multiracial participants as a separate group from Monoracial participants with unique identity development and experiences. Multiracial participants should not be removed or combined with Minoritized Monoracial participants. Relationships between experienced discrimination and Multiracial identity facets should be more closely examined, as this study suggested they may not be as clear cut as previous research suggests. Other important influences on identity development, such as parent socialization and identity salience, should be investigated further in Multiracial participants compared to Monoracial participants. Qualitative and longitudinal research would be useful to understand the nature of the differences between groups and developmental changes in these effects. Experimental and intervention studies could discover new ways to promote positive identity development.</p> <p>Specifically, innovative methods to increase Multiracial pride and decrease identity conflict would be useful. Community-level interventions could improve the experience of marginalized students and identity exploration in emerging adulthood. For example, colleges and universities could have students with marginalized identities connected with organizations early and often to facilitate identity exploration. Faculty members could incorporate research/novels/concepts written by and about marginalized people, showing support for these groups and allowing for intellectual exploration of various identities. In general, findings support interventions which help provide more opportunities for identity exploration and provide funding and support for groups of students with nonwhite identities.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-27">Limitations</hd> <p>It is important to note several limitations of this study. First, data were collected at a single time point. Therefore, we cannot determine causal relationships between any of the variables explored in this paper. Additionally, this study relied on self-report for all predictor and outcome variables, which can be subject to issues such as social desirability.[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref110">54</reflink>] Next, participants were grouped into the three main categories based on the "Select All that Apply" ethnic-racial background question rather than the "Which background do you most identify with?" question, due to the changeable nature of ERI in Multiracial emerging adults. However, it is important that future research investigates the different ways that Multiracial emerging adults can identify, and how, when asked to select one identity rather than all identities, self-labelling as Multiracial shapes outcomes, rather than designating participants into specific groups. We also recognize the issues with within group diversity, particularly between minoritized racial groups whether Monoracial or Multiracial. In the current study, subgroups within the three broader categories did not have enough power to explore complex relationships, but future studies should try to parse out these differences. Future research should consider longitudinal methods, incorporating non-self-report measures (e.g., physiological measures, multiple reporters), and including community samples. Still, recruitment methods in the current study allowed for responses from a diverse sample (relative to the diversity of the University) providing the statistical power needed to compare between groups and within the Multiracial group.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-28">Conclusion</hd> <p>The current study replicated many previous findings and added to the extant literature by expanding knowledge about the unique experiences of Multiracial emerging adults. The results provide support for researchers and practitioners treating Multiracial emerging adults as separate, rather than combining them with other minoritized groups. Multiracial college-aged participants displayed different rates of experienced discrimination, ERI exploration, and ERI commitment than Monoracial participants, and because conflict between their identities affects their ERI commitment, research and interventions related should avoid broad groupings of marginalized ERI (i.e., White and Minoritized groups). For Multiracial participants, ERI exploration related to ERI commitment and, importantly, Multiracial identity pride, showing the importance of ERI exploration and warranting the consideration of system-level interventions designed to increase opportunities for ERI exploration on college campuses. Results provide foundations for new research and intervention by emphasizing which features of identity development are particularly impactful and highlight the distinctness of Multiracial experiences. Numbers of Multiracial Americans are on the rise and studies should shape science and practice in ways that invite rather than exclude this growing demographic[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref111">2</reflink>].</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-29">Conflict of interest disclosure</hd> <p>The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of the United States of America and received approval from the Institutional Review Board of Bowling Green State University.</p> <hd id="AN0162174237-30">Funding details</hd> <p>Funding for the participant incentives used in this research was provided by the Psychology Diversity Committee at Bowling Green State University.</p> <ref id="AN0162174237-31"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Work & Data Collection Completed at: Bowling Green State University</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0162174237-32"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Syed M, Santos C, Yoo HC, Juang LP. Invisibility of racial/ethnic minorities in developmental science: implications for research and institutional practices. 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  Data: Examination of Ethnic Racial Identity Exploration and Commitment in Emerging Adults: Group Comparisons and Specific Features of Multiracial Identity
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Identification%22">Racial Identification</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethnicity%22">Ethnicity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Multiracial+Persons%22">Multiracial Persons</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22White+Students%22">White Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Minority+Group+Students%22">Minority Group Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Discrimination%22">Racial Discrimination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Theories%22">Theories</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept%22">Self Concept</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Conflict%22">Conflict</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Differences%22">Racial Differences</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectThesaurus
  Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Multigroup+Ethnic+Identity+Measure%22">Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/07448481.2021.1900197
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0744-8481<br />1940-3208
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Objective: Building on existing literature on ethnic/racial identity in emerging adulthood, we compared between-group differences for Multiracial and Monoracial participants and relevant within-group relationships for Multiracial participants. Participants: Participants were college students (n = 888; 67% women; M[subscript age] = 21.7; SD = 5.58) categorized into three groups: Monoracial White (61%), Multiracial (17%), and Monoracial Minoritized (22%). Methods: Measures included ethnic racial identity (ERI) exploration and commitment, discrimination, and features of Multiracial identity. The survey was sent through campus email and completed electronically. Results: Monoracial Minoritized participants reported higher discrimination and ERI commitment and exploration than Multiracial and Monoracial White participants. Multiracial participants reported higher ERI exploration and discrimination than Monoracial White participants. Multiracial participants' ERI exploration and racial conflict explained ERI commitment in regression models. Conclusions: Multiracial individuals should be researched and intervened with differentially from other racial groups, with variables specific to their unique experiences.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1385359
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1385359
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/07448481.2021.1900197
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 10
        StartPage: 616
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Racial Identification
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Ethnicity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Multiracial Persons
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: White Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Minority Group Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Discrimination
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Theories
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Concept
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Conflict
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Examination of Ethnic Racial Identity Exploration and Commitment in Emerging Adults: Group Comparisons and Specific Features of Multiracial Identity
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Jensen, Cjersti
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Koerten, Hannah
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Mattei, Gina
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Grant Weinandy, Jennifer
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Froemming, Maren
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Dulek, Erin
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Dworsky, Dryw
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2023
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0744-8481
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1940-3208
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 71
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of American College Health
              Type: main
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