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Cognitive and Functional Improvement via Novel Skill Learning for Low-Income Minoritized Middle-Aged and Older Adults

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Title: Cognitive and Functional Improvement via Novel Skill Learning for Low-Income Minoritized Middle-Aged and Older Adults
Language: English
Authors: Rodriguez, Tania M. (ORCID 0000-0002-8147-7796), Sheffler, Pamela, Ferguson, Leah E., Rebok, George W., Wu, Rachel
Source: Prevention Science. Jul 2023 24(5):926-935.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 10
Publication Date: 2023
Sponsoring Agency: National Science Foundation (NSF)
Contract Number: BCS1848026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Adults, Older Adults, Low Income Groups, Minority Groups, Novelty (Stimulus Dimension), Skill Development, Cognitive Development, Learning Processes, Learning, Skills, Cognitive Ability, At Risk Persons, Aging (Individuals), Barriers, Motivation, Policy, Lifelong Learning, Improvement
DOI: 10.1007/s11121-022-01413-0
ISSN: 1389-4986
1573-6695
Abstract: Prior research has demonstrated beneficial outcomes for learning new skills in older adulthood, including increased cognitive and functional abilities, which help prevent age-related declines and foster healthy aging. However, these studies largely have included participants not typically considered at risk for cognitive and functional decline (i.e., White, highly educated, higher income). Cognitive and functional disparities exist among minoritized racial and ethnic individuals, particularly Black and Latinx populations, because of a lifetime of inequalities associated with low socioeconomic status, low education, and discrimination. This theoretical paper proposes a potential pathway in which such disparities could be mitigated by increasing cognitive and functional abilities via novel skill learning in these at-risk populations in middle and later life to prevent decline. We also discuss indirect barriers (e.g., financial and health issues), direct barriers (e.g., limited learning opportunities), and motivational barriers (e.g., self-beliefs, values) that these adults may encounter. We further highlight that addressing these barriers to novel skill learning by providing appropriate resources is necessary to maximize the feasibility and potential effectiveness of this pathway. Lastly, we encourage future research to test this pathway and help inform policymakers and existing learning programs to implement better ways of promoting lifelong learning in an inclusive and equitable manner to prevent decline.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1388292
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0169825777;n9p01jul.23;2023Aug10.05:15;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0169825777-1">Cognitive and Functional Improvement via Novel Skill Learning for Low-Income Minoritized Middle-Aged and Older Adults </title> <p>Prior research has demonstrated beneficial outcomes for learning new skills in older adulthood, including increased cognitive and functional abilities, which help prevent age-related declines and foster healthy aging. However, these studies largely have included participants not typically considered at risk for cognitive and functional decline (i.e., White, highly educated, higher income). Cognitive and functional disparities exist among minoritized racial and ethnic individuals, particularly Black and Latinx populations, because of a lifetime of inequalities associated with low socioeconomic status, low education, and discrimination. This theoretical paper proposes a potential pathway in which such disparities could be mitigated by increasing cognitive and functional abilities via novel skill learning in these at-risk populations in middle and later life to prevent decline. We also discuss indirect barriers (e.g., financial and health issues), direct barriers (e.g., limited learning opportunities), and motivational barriers (e.g., self-beliefs, values) that these adults may encounter. We further highlight that addressing these barriers to novel skill learning by providing appropriate resources is necessary to maximize the feasibility and potential effectiveness of this pathway. Lastly, we encourage future research to test this pathway and help inform policymakers and existing learning programs to implement better ways of promoting lifelong learning in an inclusive and equitable manner to prevent decline.</p> <p>Keywords: Novel skill learning; Resource barriers; Cognitive decline; Aging; Black and Latinx; Low-income; Disparities</p> <p>Hallmarks of healthy aging include maintaining cognitive abilities and functional independence (Depp et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref1">27</reflink>]; Rowe & Kahn, [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref2">80</reflink>]). Besides disease, disengagement in positive lifestyle factors, including not engaging in cognitively stimulating activities, may accelerate decline in cognitive abilities, particularly fluid abilities such as executive functioning, speed of processing, and memory (Hamm et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref3">40</reflink>]; Horn & Cattell, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref4">47</reflink>]). Engaging in stimulating activities, such as learning new skills, may provide unique opportunities for cognitive and functional gains in older adulthood (Bugos et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref5">12</reflink>]; Karp et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref6">49</reflink>]; Leanos et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref7">53</reflink>]; Mercuri & Holtzer, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref8">64</reflink>]; Park et al., [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref9">74</reflink>]; Wilson et al., [<reflink idref="bib99" id="ref10">99</reflink>]). For example, learning new real-world skills could exercise cognitive abilities, such as episodic memory, and directly translate to function in real-world settings (e.g., Park et al., [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref11">74</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although research on the potential for cognitive and functional gains in older adulthood seems promising, clear disparities exist among different sectors of the older adult (and middle-aged) population. Compared to majority middle-aged and older adults, minoritized adults on average have been shown to have a higher risk of cognitive and functional decline. Black and Latinx older adults perform worse on cognitive assessments compared to White older adults on average (Masel & Peek, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref12">62</reflink>]; Sloan & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref13">88</reflink>]; Weuve et al., [<reflink idref="bib96" id="ref14">96</reflink>]). Two factors that contribute to these disparities include (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref15">1</reflink>) barriers to resources (e.g., access to healthcare, Richardson & Norris, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref16">79</reflink>]) and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref17">2</reflink>) a lifetime of experienced disadvantages and inequalities (Forrester et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref18">32</reflink>]; Zsembik & Peek, [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref19">107</reflink>]). A compelling biopsychosocial framework explains that experiencing high levels of stress due to long-term social inequality from barriers and disadvantages leads to an increased risk of cognitive decline in minoritized adults. Factors that relate to cognitive decline among minoritized individuals include low socioeconomic status (including income and education levels) and racial/ethnic discrimination (Forrester et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref20">32</reflink>]). Black and Latinx adults disproportionately have lower income (an aspect of socioeconomic status) compared with White adults in the USA (Gradín, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref21">39</reflink>]; White, [<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref22">97</reflink>]), which results in economic and psychological barriers (e.g., Choi & McDougall, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref23">20</reflink>]). Minoritized adults also are more likely to have lower education levels (de Brey et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref24">23</reflink>]; Hirschman & Lee, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref25">46</reflink>]), which is related to lower cognitive functioning in older adulthood (Lövdén et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref26">56</reflink>]; Sharp & Gatz, [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref27">84</reflink>]). In terms of discrimination, minoritized individuals face discrimination based on historically imposed negative stereotypes and systemic issues (Bailey et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref28">6</reflink>]; Feagin & Cobas, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref29">30</reflink>]). All these factors interact and lead to other physical and mental health problems (e.g., depression), which also have been associated with cognitive impairment (Barnes et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref30">8</reflink>]). Although some of these factors do affect majority adults, they are more prevalent among minoritized populations, likely contributing to the observed disparities.</p> <p>Despite the findings that show that minoritized racial and ethnic individuals are at greater risk for cognitive and functional decline, little research has investigated how to prevent and/or improve cognitive and functional abilities among minoritized adults. Interventions that have focused on improving cognitive abilities often do not address the underlying environmental and/or individual barriers contributing to cognitive and functional decline in minoritized adults. Understandably, it is very difficult to improve a lifetime of inequality that results in low socioeconomic status (income and education levels) and in experiences of discrimination among minoritized individuals via short-term interventions. Indeed, the main focus of this paper is not to discuss ways of attenuating a lifetime of disadvantages and resulting stress. Our discussion instead focuses on potential routes for minoritized adults to become healthy agers via cognitive activity, despite a lifetime of experienced adversities.</p> <p> <emph>Misrepresentative samples.</emph> Given that the minoritized racial and ethnic population is predicted to become the majority in the USA by 2050 (Ortman & Guarneri, [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref31">71</reflink>]), it is necessary to create interventions for improving cognitive and functional abilities in at-risk minoritized older adults, specifically addressing barriers they tend to face. Furthermore, although it is important to develop interventions with minoritized older adults to address ongoing cognitive and functional decline, it is equally important to investigate and develop preventive interventions with middle-aged minoritized adults, as declines in cognition start during early midlife at around 45–49 years of age (Singh-Manoux et al., [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref32">87</reflink>]). Some studies have identified factors that may contribute to cognitive and functional decline in minoritized older adults (e.g., low education levels, poverty and scarcity, discrimination; Forrester, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref33">31</reflink>]; Forrester et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref34">32</reflink>]; Sachs-Ericsson et al., [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref35">81</reflink>]; Zahodne et al., [<reflink idref="bib105" id="ref36">105</reflink>]). By contrast, only three cognitive intervention studies out of hundreds have included more than 25% of minoritized older adults (Tzuang et al., [<reflink idref="bib94" id="ref37">94</reflink>]), and even fewer have included minoritized individuals with low income and/or low education levels. This trend is in line with research samples in general: individuals who participate in research tend to have higher income and higher education levels and are often White (Konkel, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref38">51</reflink>]; Thalmayer et al., [<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref39">92</reflink>]).</p> <p>The purpose of this theoretical article is to propose a new pathway for healthy aging that involves preventing future or further cognitive and functional decline (by improving cognitive and functional abilities) among minoritized low-income middle-aged and older adults via engagement in novel skill learning. We emphasize the need to shed light on and address learning resource barriers for these populations to feasibly engage in new learning opportunities. The following section briefly reviews potentially beneficial ways of addressing some barriers that minoritized adults face to improve cognitive and functional abilities throughout adulthood.</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-2">The Benefits of Novel Skill Learning on Cognitive and Functional Abilities</hd> <p>Novel skill learning can be defined as the process of acquiring content and/or procedural knowledge about a specific skill that is new to the individual learning it (Sheffler et al., [<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref40">85</reflink>]), and the types of skills that are learned can vary widely (e.g., learning to dance, paint, a new language, etc.). One potentially powerful approach to improving cognitive and functional abilities in minoritized adults is learning new skills, while providing the resources and motivation to do so. Previous research suggests that learning new skills in adulthood, even older adulthood, may increase cognitive and functional abilities (Leanos et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref41">53</reflink>]; Nguyen et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref42">69</reflink>]). Acquiring certain skills can be beneficial for real-world function and can be particularly important for adapting to biological, physical, and environmental changes (Nguyen et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref43">69</reflink>]; Sterns & Miklos, [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref44">90</reflink>]). In terms of functional abilities, learning how to use new technology and software could help adults remain competent in everyday situations (e.g., online banking; ordering groceries online; ordering transportation through apps; Charness & Boot, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref45">16</reflink>]; Harvey et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref46">43</reflink>]); stay connected with others (Chopik, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref47">21</reflink>]); and even benefit them on the job market (Maurer, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref48">63</reflink>]). In terms of cognitive benefits, older adults engaging with new technology, as well as learning other new skills, such as piano and photography, could improve cognitive abilities that are among the fastest to decline, such as episodic memory and processing speed (Bugos et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref49">12</reflink>]; Chan et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref50">15</reflink>]; Leanos et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref51">53</reflink>]; Noice et al., [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref52">70</reflink>]; Park et al., [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref53">74</reflink>]).</p> <p>Community volunteer work represents one potential avenue for learning new skills (see Anderson et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref54">4</reflink>] for a review) but may not be feasible for adults who cannot afford to volunteer due to time and money constraints (e.g., they work or need to care for family members). In general, volunteering provides adults with a sense of purpose, cognitive stimulation, confidence, and self-growth (e.g., Narushima, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref55">66</reflink>]). A notable example with minoritized older adults of the benefits of volunteering is Experience Corps®, a program that improves academic outcomes for urban, underserved (often minoritized populations) elementary school children with unmet needs while improving the lives of the older adult volunteers (Fried et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref56">35</reflink>]; Parisi et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref57">73</reflink>]; Rebok et al., [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref58">76</reflink>]). Unlike other volunteer programs for older adults, participants in the Experience Corps program were mostly low-income African Americans with low levels of education. In this now successful AARP program, older adults helped elementary school students in kindergarten through third grade for at least 15 hours a week throughout a full academic year by taking on an array of roles such as reading with the children and teaching them problem-solving skills. The volunteers had the opportunity to create social networks with the school employees, children, and other team members. They also stayed physically active, as they had to walk throughout the school while providing their service. These activities were designed to concurrently increase the cognitive, social, and physical activity of the older adults volunteering. Results from a randomized controlled trial showed that, in comparison to a low-activity control group, older adult volunteers experienced improvements in cognitive functioning, neurocognitive plasticity, and physical and social activity (Brydges et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref59">10</reflink>]; Carlson et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref60">14</reflink>]; Parisi et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref61">72</reflink>]; Varma et al., [<reflink idref="bib95" id="ref62">95</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-3">Resource Barriers for Novel Skill Learning</hd> <p>If novel skill learning could be beneficial for minoritized middle-aged and older adults who may be at risk for cognitive and functional decline, why is it not a widespread opportunity? A notable aforementioned barrier (low resources) may be an important factor. A novel lifespan theory proposes that the cognitive, motivational, and environmental resources that facilitate learning new skills during childhood can also benefit adults (Wu et al., [<reflink idref="bib101" id="ref63">101</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib102" id="ref64">102</reflink>]). However, learning new skills is an <emph>important privilege</emph> (Wu et al., [<reflink idref="bib102" id="ref65">102</reflink>]): it is important for improving cognitive and functional abilities throughout the lifespan, but it is a privilege because it requires resources that are not accessible to all. Although low-income minoritized adults, who may be at risk for premature cognitive and functional decline, could potentially benefit from novel skill learning, several resources are required to do so.</p> <p>First, the environment and accessibility to resources needed for novel skill learning play an important role in not only making it a feasible goal for someone to learn new skills, but also in making the experience optimal. Resources for novel skill learning can be conceptualized into two categories: <emph>indirect learning resources</emph> and <emph>direct learning resources</emph>. Indirect learning resources include aspects that facilitate learning and are necessary for an individual to be able to apply cognitive effort toward learning a new skill. The resources that indirectly impact learning include, but are not limited to, physical and mental health, money, time, energy, transportation, and social support. Direct learning resources are learning tools and materials that are required for learning a particular skill (e.g., instructors, books, technology, courses, etc.), as well as available learning opportunities. These resources may be difficult to obtain and/or access for low-income minoritized adults due to socioeconomic barriers, race- and/or age-based stereotypes, and discrimination (e.g., Byrd & Chavous, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref66">13</reflink>]). Removing these barriers to resources for novel skill learning may increase the likelihood of adults engaging in more novel skill learning, especially during younger and middle-age adulthood to prevent subsequent decline in cognitive and functional abilities and, as such, potentially achieve healthy aging (Fig. 1).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1Pathway to healthy aging via novel skill learning among low-income minoritized middle-aged and older adults. Access to indirect learning resources (e.g., money, time, health) and direct learning resources (e.g., learning opportunities and materials), coupled with increasing motivation to learn new abilities facilitates engagement in novel skill learning. In turn, increased cognitive and functional abilities predict healthy aging</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-4">Indirect Learning Resources</hd> <p>Limited access to several indirect resources, such as good healthcare and higher income, can make it difficult to participate in novel skill learning, as they provide a solid foundation for dedicated time and attention toward learning new skills. For example, novel skill learning could be more achievable for an individual who is healthy enough (including having enough energy) to engage in the activity and has extra money to pay for the tools they need to learn a new skill, compared with individuals who do not. Without these indirect resources, learning new skills could become a privilege difficult to attain due to stressors (e.g., financial, health) that limit time, energy, and cognitive capacity that could be dedicated to learning (Marois & Ivanoff, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref67">61</reflink>]). For instance, physical pain or other chronic health issues hinder learning opportunities and motivation (e.g., as seen with students who experience chronic illness; Lum et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref68">57</reflink>]; Shiu, [<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref69">86</reflink>]). Low financial resources impose a cognitive load (Mani et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref70">59</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref71">60</reflink>]; Zhao & Tomm, [<reflink idref="bib106" id="ref72">106</reflink>]), occupying cognitive resources that could otherwise be allocated to learning novel skills. Minoritized individuals tend to be disproportionately affected by health issues and have less access to quality healthcare, as well as financial issues, due to, for example, working physically demanding, low-wage jobs (Bucknor & Baker, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref73">11</reflink>]; D'Anna et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref74">22</reflink>]; Richardson & Norris, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref75">79</reflink>]; Yearby, [<reflink idref="bib104" id="ref76">104</reflink>]). Moreover, having to work in time-intensive jobs that require a lot of physical effort might deprive them of time and energy that could otherwise be allocated to learning new skills. This issue is exemplified and exacerbated by the fact that Black and Latinx older adults experience higher rates of retirement insecurity than White older adults, and many must continue working without the opportunity to retire to meet financial needs (Francis & Weller, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref77">33</reflink>]; Rhee, [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref78">78</reflink>]). Linked with financial issues are barriers related to transportation. Previous studies have identified transportation as a barrier to partaking in learning opportunities in adulthood (Hansen et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref79">41</reflink>]; Laal, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref80">52</reflink>]; Patterson et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref81">75</reflink>]). Transportation barriers (i.e., needing to rely on public transportation in areas dominated by cars) are prevalent among low-income and minoritized racial and ethnic populations (Anderson, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref82">3</reflink>]; Sanchez et al., [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref83">82</reflink>]). Relying on public transportation can lead to issues in terms of time and barriers for accessing job opportunities and healthcare services (Sanchez et al., [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref84">82</reflink>]; Syed et al., [<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref85">91</reflink>]). In sum, barriers faced by minoritized adults in terms of financial and health resources can create challenges that compromise the time and energy needed for novel skill learning.</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-5">Direct Learning Resources</hd> <p>Important direct learning resources are the availability of easily accessible, high-quality, and free or low-cost learning opportunities and materials/tools. Although free or low-cost skill learning options exist within community centers and organized programs, such as the Osher Lifelong Learning Institute, participation of minoritized adults in these opportunities still lags behind majority adults (e.g., Hansen et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref86">41</reflink>]). These in-person learning opportunities may be difficult to access for those who rely on public transportation. With the increase in online learning opportunities, technology access can help mitigate some of the time and transportation constraints among low-income minoritized individuals who are still working and/or have other responsibilities (e.g., babysit grandkids; Hansen et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref87">42</reflink>]; Morris, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref88">65</reflink>]). Having access to technological tools, such as a computer with Internet, can serve as a gateway to free, unlimited learning materials and opportunities (e.g., Coursera, Open Educational Resources; Geith & Vignare, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref89">37</reflink>]). Despite the benefits of online learning, accessing these learning tools may fall short of learning with in-person instructors (e.g., Bettinger et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref90">9</reflink>]; Xu & Jaggars, [<reflink idref="bib103" id="ref91">103</reflink>]), and it can be challenging for low-income minoritized adults to acquire functional computers and reliable Wi-Fi. The digital divide (i.e., differences in technological skill and access among age groups) is exacerbated by socioeconomic barriers (e.g., low income) experienced predominantly by minoritized individuals (Choi & DiNitto, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref92">19</reflink>]; Francis & Weller, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref93">34</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-6">Motivation for Learning</hd> <p>Motivation interacts with indirect and direct learning resources. It relates to self-beliefs and values, and it is an important factor that contributes to learning novel skills. Motivation refers to an individual's drive toward a specific goal and dictates the allotment of time and energy dedicated to achieving a goal (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref94">44</reflink>]). In the context of skill learning, motivation is needed throughout the learning process. Consider a middle-aged English as a second language (ESL) learner. From the very start, a great deal of motivation is needed for the individual to even attempt to begin learning the new skill, such as for finding an instructor and acquiring the learning materials. Later, as more grammar and vocabulary are introduced, motivation helps the individual persist through the increased challenge instead of giving up. After acquisition of the new skill, motivation is required so that the skill can be maintained and/or improved (e.g., practicing English on a regular basis and expanding conversational skills). In this way, motivation "fuels" the skill learning process (Wu & Strickland-Hughes, [<reflink idref="bib100" id="ref95">100</reflink>]). Motivation may be distinguished as intrinsic (originating from within; e.g., learning for the sake of learning) and extrinsic (originating from external means; e.g., learning to obtain a good grade; Deci & Ryan, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref96">25</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref97">26</reflink>]), and there is much empirical support for the role of intrinsic motivation in learning and achievement (Froiland & Worrell, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref98">36</reflink>]; Lemos & Veríssimo, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref99">55</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although motivation is critical for the pursuit of learning new skills, it may be especially challenging for low-income minoritized individuals. These populations often face prejudice and discrimination in their daily lives, which can compound to threaten and/or diminish motivation and its related constructs. For younger learners, it is well documented that racial climate and experiences of racial prejudice and discrimination in the classroom hamper school motivation and engagement (Byrd & Chavous, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref100">13</reflink>]; Chavous et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref101">18</reflink>]), as well as achievement outcomes (Banerjee et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref102">7</reflink>]; Neblett et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref103">68</reflink>]). Outside of the classroom, experiencing racial discrimination in online contexts has been shown to affect learning motivation as well (Tynes et al., [<reflink idref="bib93" id="ref104">93</reflink>]). Experiencing discrimination against one's racial/ethnic group may reduce learning motivation by communicating to an individual that they are less capable of learning a given task due to their group membership, which can engender feelings of incompetence (Evans, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref105">29</reflink>]) and withdrawal of effort (Alfaro et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref106">2</reflink>]; Neblett et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref107">68</reflink>]). In the same vein, pervasive racial/ethnic stereotypes regarding intelligence and learning ability also may affect motivation by decreasing learners' perceived competence and confidence that they will be successful in learning a new skill (Steele & Aronson, [<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref108">89</reflink>]). Evidence for these effects was demonstrated in Steele and Aronson's ([<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref109">89</reflink>]) foundational study of stereotype threat, in which Black undergraduate students performed worse on an exam when the test was framed as measuring intelligence compared to when it was framed as not diagnostic of intelligence. Similar stereotype threat effects have been found in Latinx populations (Gonzales et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref110">38</reflink>]), and in older adults, when negative age stereotypes on learning and memory are made salient (Chasteen et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref111">17</reflink>]). Most of the literature on the topic of racial discrimination and motivation has focused on children and younger adults. More research is needed to examine the effects of racial discrimination and stereotypes on minoritized older adult populations, whose multiple identities may have a double impact on their learning motivation. Furthermore, as minor discrimination events experienced on a regular basis may be even more detrimental than major discrimination events (Ayalon & Gum, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref112">5</reflink>]), racial and ethnic discrimination may have an even greater impact on older adults' learning motivation, as older adults have likely experienced more discrimination events throughout their lifetime than have their younger counterparts.</p> <p>Motivation theories provide guidance on how we can improve motivation to learn new skills in middle-aged and older minoritized adults. According to expectancy-value theory, motivation is determined by expectations of success and the amount of value placed on a given task (Eccles et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref113">28</reflink>]; Wigfield & Eccles, [<reflink idref="bib98" id="ref114">98</reflink>]), while self-determination theory emphasizes the role of competence as one of three fundamental human needs that drive motivation and optimal development (Deci & Ryan, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref115">25</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref116">26</reflink>]). As minoritized learners' experiences of prejudice, discrimination, and stereotypes may impact their expectations of success and perceived competence, helping to combat discrimination and dispel stereotypes may be especially important to boost motivation in these populations. For minoritized middle-aged and older adult learners, racial/ethnic stereotypes may converge with age stereotypes regarding learning, such as the common belief that older adults cannot learn new skills. Thus, combatting not only racial/ethnic stereotypes but also age stereotypes can help boost expectations and perceived competence. Finally, there is some evidence to suggest that, particularly for older adult learners, intrinsic motivation to learn new skills is largely dependent on the perceived value of a given task (Hess, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref117">45</reflink>]) and relatedly, purpose (Adair & Mowsesian, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref118">1</reflink>]; Kim & Merriam, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref119">50</reflink>]). Therefore, helping minoritized older adult learners to find the value in learning new skills and/or tailoring skill learning interventions to skills that are more relevant and useful to this population may help increase their motivation for engaging in novel skill learning.</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-7">Future Directions</hd> <p>Building on prior research that demonstrates the benefits of learning new skills among older adults in general, future research is needed to expand this work to minoritized older adults, as well as minoritized younger and middle-aged adults, in the service of preventing decline. The proposed pathway for increasing cognitive and functional abilities via novel skill learning has been previously tested with groups of predominantly higher income, White older adults. Thus, future interventions are necessary to test this pathway among minoritized low-income adults to mitigate or even prevent decline. To create successful learning interventions for this population, the interventions must be tailored to address unique barriers this population might face. For instance, studies could provide participants with the necessary learning tools during the learning sessions that they could keep after the intervention (e.g., laptops or tablets for learning to engage with technology). Additionally, studies could include reasonable stipends, flexible assessments and course schedule options, as well as free transportation, for those still working or with variable time commitments (Hansen et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref120">41</reflink>]). Providing motivational lectures also may boost the participants' confidence and engagement in the learning process (Jake-Schoffman et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref121">48</reflink>]). Before starting a learning intervention, researchers should conduct focus groups with minoritized participants to better understand their barriers to learning new skills (see Leanos et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref122">53</reflink>]). Ensuing interventions could place individuals in a tailored learning experience that supports their individual needs to ensure their participation is feasible and their learning is optimal. Learning interventions also could be offered in the participants' native languages to mitigate potential language barriers. Overall, more research is needed to investigate and reduce the barriers to learning experienced by disadvantaged populations, namely low-income minoritized adults (Wu et al., [<reflink idref="bib102" id="ref123">102</reflink>]).</p> <p>Beyond what tailored interventions might be able to provide for low-income minoritized adults, general policies and programs could be created to reduce barriers and increase engagement in lifespan learning. In addition to universal healthcare and universal income, mitigating systematic discrimination and racism would be a critical factor (e.g., D'Anna et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref124">22</reflink>]; Yearby, [<reflink idref="bib104" id="ref125">104</reflink>]). Moreover, formal lifelong learning opportunities for older adults are generally scarce, and self-driven/informal learning is not encouraged enough, posing a need to design and promote compelling learning programs for the aging population (de Lima Flauzino et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref126">24</reflink>]). Aside from the scarcity of learning opportunities, materials for learning in midlife and beyond are typically self-funded compared to materials provided through schools for children (see Sheffler et al., [<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref127">85</reflink>]). Therefore, policymakers could also promote novel skill learning across the lifespan by allocating funding for increased learning opportunities both online and in person (as well as funding for learning materials) for middle-aged and older adults (Manheimer, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref128">58</reflink>]). With the virtually unlimited availability of learning opportunities offered online, improving technology access and pathways for improving technological use for low-income minoritized individuals could dramatically increase access to learning new skills, which in turn could help bridge the digital divide (Choi & DiNitto, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref129">19</reflink>]; Hansen et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref130">42</reflink>]; Reddick et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref131">77</reflink>]) and potential labor shortage in some markets (Servon, [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref132">83</reflink>]). Furthermore, lifelong learning can play a powerful role in the well-being and functional health of aging individuals, and it can provide a sense of purpose, autonomy, and motivation to keep on learning and to keep on living, as found in a qualitative study conducted with vulnerable older adults enrolled in educational courses (Narushima et al., [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref133">67</reflink>]). As more research in this area emerges, information regarding the benefits of learning new abilities could be disseminated and applied more broadly to promote the engagement of novel skill learning as a preventive and cognitive booster practice. Preventing cognitive and functional decline among minoritized individuals is crucial to ensure that they can age healthily, sustain their independence, and have a good quality of life in their later years.</p> <p>Finally, more research is needed to understand the type of skills minoritized adults seek and/or are motivated to learn. Identifying these skills is important for developing future interventions to investigate their benefits on cognitive and functional abilities, as well as other aspects (e.g., mental health, well-being; Chopik, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref134">21</reflink>]; Lehmberg & Fung, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref135">54</reflink>]). For example, besides increasing cognition among adults, learning how to use technology can be beneficial for increasing social connectivity and, in turn, decrease loneliness (Chopik, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref136">21</reflink>]). Learning musical skills has been found to reduce stress, increase feelings of enjoyment and accomplishment, and increase general physical and well-being among older adults (Lehmberg & Fung, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref137">54</reflink>]). In addition, information on skill learning interests could be applied to curricula of existing learning programs for adults, including volunteer programs (e.g., Experience Corps). For instance, integrating more skill learning–based opportunities within current AARP volunteering options for older adults could increase recruitment and bear even more fruitful cognitive and functional outcomes. Overall, learning and volunteer programs could be extended to provide a greater variety of skills to learn, free materials, free transportation, and perhaps free childcare. Doing so would reduce potential barriers to increase participation from underrepresented populations at risk of cognitive and functional decline. Identifying the reasons behind which skills minoritized adults want to learn could distinguish those based on meaningfulness (e.g., to help others), entertainment, curiosity, or necessity (e.g., to learn a new language, computational skills). These reasons would be the key to understanding the motivation driving the learning of particular skills (Kim & Merriam, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref138">50</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-8">Conclusion</hd> <p>Engagement in novel skill learning across the lifespan can serve as a pathway to increase cognitive and functional abilities among low-income minoritized adults to potentially mitigate or even prevent age-related decline. However, studies investigating the benefits of novel skill learning have primarily included White, higher income, and highly educated participants. Minoritized Black and Latinx individuals are more likely to face a lifetime of adversities related to lower socioeconomic status and social discrimination that could eventually lead them to experience higher rates of cognitive and functional decline compared with White older adults. Thus, more research is needed to test how novel skill learning can help bridge cognitive and functional disparities between majority and minoritized adults via prevention. Addressing learning barriers represents but one of many factors involved in narrowing this gap, and it may have positive lifelong impacts on the health and well-being of these populations.</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-9">Funding</hd> <p>NSF CAREER Award to R.W. (BCS-1848026).</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-10">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0169825777-11">Ethics Approval</hd> <p>Not applicable.</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-12">Informed Consent</hd> <p>Not applicable.</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-13">Conflict of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0169825777-14">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0169825777-15"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref15" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Adair SR, Mowsesian R. The meanings and motivations of learning during the retirement transition. Educational Gerontology: An International Quarterly. 1993; 19: 317-330. 10.1080/0360127930190404</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref17" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Alfaro EC, Umaña-Taylor AJ, Gonzales-Backen MA, Bámaca MY, Zeiders KH. 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  Data: Cognitive and Functional Improvement via Novel Skill Learning for Low-Income Minoritized Middle-Aged and Older Adults
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  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Prior research has demonstrated beneficial outcomes for learning new skills in older adulthood, including increased cognitive and functional abilities, which help prevent age-related declines and foster healthy aging. However, these studies largely have included participants not typically considered at risk for cognitive and functional decline (i.e., White, highly educated, higher income). Cognitive and functional disparities exist among minoritized racial and ethnic individuals, particularly Black and Latinx populations, because of a lifetime of inequalities associated with low socioeconomic status, low education, and discrimination. This theoretical paper proposes a potential pathway in which such disparities could be mitigated by increasing cognitive and functional abilities via novel skill learning in these at-risk populations in middle and later life to prevent decline. We also discuss indirect barriers (e.g., financial and health issues), direct barriers (e.g., limited learning opportunities), and motivational barriers (e.g., self-beliefs, values) that these adults may encounter. We further highlight that addressing these barriers to novel skill learning by providing appropriate resources is necessary to maximize the feasibility and potential effectiveness of this pathway. Lastly, we encourage future research to test this pathway and help inform policymakers and existing learning programs to implement better ways of promoting lifelong learning in an inclusive and equitable manner to prevent decline.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1388292
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1388292
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s11121-022-01413-0
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 10
        StartPage: 926
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Adults
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Older Adults
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Low Income Groups
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Minority Groups
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Novelty (Stimulus Dimension)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Skill Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cognitive Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Learning Processes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cognitive Ability
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: At Risk Persons
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Aging (Individuals)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Barriers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Motivation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Policy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Lifelong Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Improvement
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Cognitive and Functional Improvement via Novel Skill Learning for Low-Income Minoritized Middle-Aged and Older Adults
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Rodriguez, Tania M.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Sheffler, Pamela
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Ferguson, Leah E.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Rebok, George W.
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Wu, Rachel
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 07
              Type: published
              Y: 2023
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1389-4986
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1573-6695
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 24
            – Type: issue
              Value: 5
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Prevention Science
              Type: main
ResultId 1