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Improving the Quality of Adaptive Learning Support Provided by Kindergarten Teachers in Play-Based Mathematical Learning Situations

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Title: Improving the Quality of Adaptive Learning Support Provided by Kindergarten Teachers in Play-Based Mathematical Learning Situations
Language: English
Authors: Wullschleger, Andrea (ORCID 0000-0003-4390-3835), Lindmeier, Anke (ORCID 0000-0002-2819-4375), Heinze, Aiso (ORCID 0000-0002-7408-0395), Meier-Wyder, Anuschka (ORCID 0000-0003-0703-2403), Leuchter, Miriam (ORCID 0000-0002-7962-6561), Vogt, Franziska (ORCID 0000-0002-2023-0431), Opitz, Elisabeth Moser (ORCID 0000-0002-5243-4770)
Source: European Early Childhood Education Research Journal. 2023 31(2):225-242.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 18
Publication Date: 2023
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Preschool Education
Elementary Education
Kindergarten
Primary Education
Descriptors: Faculty Development, Preschool Teachers, Teacher Student Relationship, Interaction, Planning, Reflection, Mathematics Instruction, Preschool Education, Classroom Techniques, Foreign Countries, Kindergarten, Social Emotional Learning, Teaching Methods
Geographic Terms: Switzerland, Germany
DOI: 10.1080/1350293X.2022.2081348
ISSN: 1350-293X
1752-1807
Abstract: Adaptive learning support is a key element of high quality preschool education and includes the planning of learning situations and teacher-child interactions. The provision of effective adaptive learning support in kindergarten is challenging. This longitudinal experimental study examined the impact of two professional development programs on 132 kindergarten teachers. One program focused on teacher-child interactions (micro-adaptive learning support), the other on planning, preparation, and reflection (macro-adaptive learning support). Each program had a positive impact on the quality of the specific type of adaptive mathematical learning support provided by kindergarten teachers, macro or micro, it was designed to improve.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1388794
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0163823104;h3h01apr.23;2023May23.06:09;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0163823104-1">Improving the quality of adaptive learning support provided by kindergarten teachers in play-based mathematical learning situations </title> <p>Adaptive learning support is a key element of high quality preschool education and includes the planning of learning situations and teacher–child interactions. The provision of effective adaptive learning support in kindergarten is challenging. This longitudinal experimental study examined the impact of two professional development programs on 132 kindergarten teachers. One program focused on teacher–child interactions (micro-adaptive learning support), the other on planning, preparation, and reflection (macro-adaptive learning support). Each program had a positive impact on the quality of the specific type of adaptive mathematical learning support provided by kindergarten teachers, macro or micro, it was designed to improve.</p> <p>Keywords: Kindergarten teachers; macro-adaptive learning support; micro-adaptive learning support; professional development; play-based mathematical learning</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-2">1. Introduction</hd> <p>Targeting adaptive learning support so that it falls within a child's zone of proximal development is a key goal of preschool education (Sylva et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref1">44</reflink>]). According to Vygotsky ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref2">49</reflink>]), children learn effectively if they are guided from the <emph>level of actual development</emph> into the <emph>zone of proximal development</emph> and on to the <emph>level of potential development</emph>. Learning support in preschools must therefore be very adaptive (Vaughn and Parsons [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref3">47</reflink>]).</p> <p>Learning in preschool institutions tends to be informal and is often embedded in natural and play-based learning situations (e.g. Gasteiger, Brunner, and Chen [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref4">15</reflink>]; Walsh, McMillan, and McGuinness [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref5">50</reflink>]). Adaptive support during teacher–child interactions is critically important for fostering the desired academic and socio-emotional outcomes in such situations (e.g. Gasteiger [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref6">14</reflink>]; Walsh, McMillan, and McGuinness [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref7">50</reflink>]). New curricula with an increased emphasis on the academic progress of younger children which are now being implemented in many countries require preschool teachers to prepare more and increase their monitoring and assessment of children's learning (DeLuca, Pyle, and Lapointe-McEwan [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref8">7</reflink>]; Pyle and DeLuca [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref9">33</reflink>]). Because this emphasis on academic learning is new for preschool teachers in some countries – particularly in German speaking countries – it merits special attention (Gasteiger, Brunner, and Chen [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref10">15</reflink>]). This paper focuses on the learning support provided in kindergarten – preschool for children aged 4–6 in German speaking countries.</p> <p>Adaptive learning support includes both the support provided during a learning situation and the preparation for and reflection after the provision of the support (Hardy, Decristan, and Klieme [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref11">17</reflink>]; Parsons et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref12">31</reflink>]). We distinguish between micro- and macro-adaptive learning support during these different phases of teaching (Corno and Snow [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref13">6</reflink>]; Hammond and Gibbons [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref14">16</reflink>]; Schön [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref15">38</reflink>]). In the context of kindergarten micro-adaptive learning support can be defined as teacher–child interactions during the learning situation, and macro-adaptive learning support as the planning, preparation, and reflection phases before and after. The two types of adaptive learning support have different competence requirements (Lindmeier [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref16">28</reflink>]; Lindmeier et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref17">29</reflink>]; Knievel, Lindmeier, and Heinze [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref18">22</reflink>]): Micro-adaptive learning support entails being able to respond spontaneously to the child, while macro-adaptive learning support involves planning the learning situation and reflecting on it afterwards.</p> <p>Research focusing on micro-adaptive learning support confirms that it is challenging for kindergarten teachers to provide high quality adaptive learning support during learning situations (e.g. Cabell et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref19">4</reflink>]; König [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref20">23</reflink>]; Siraj-Blatchford et al. [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref21">39</reflink>]). Studies have shown that kindergarten teachers have difficulty adapting and planning learning situations in response to diagnoses (Wullschleger [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref22">52</reflink>]; Bruns [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref23">2</reflink>]). There is a disconnect between the significance attributed to high quality adaptive learning support by researchers and its observed quality in kindergartens. It is therefore very important that kindergarten teachers' professional development focuses on improving adaptive learning support skills.</p> <p>This study uses an experimental design with a play-based mathematics activity to examine whether two professional development programs, one focusing on micro- the other on macro-adaptive learning support, can each separately increase the quality of the respective adaptive support provided by kindergarten teachers.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-3">1.1. Adaptive learning support in kindergarten</hd> <p>Adaptation in the context of teaching and learning is the fit between the needs of the learner and instruction by the teacher (Vaughn and Parsons [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref24">47</reflink>]). Parsons et al. ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref25">31</reflink>], 230) define adaptive instruction as follows: '[...] teachers constantly monitor classroom proceedings, observing student learning, motivation and behavior, which serve as stimuli or antecedents for teachers to adapt their instruction.' We distinguish between micro- and macro-adaptive learning support based on the following concepts: Corno and Snow's ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref26">6</reflink>]) differentiation between macro-adaptation (longer term, month-to-month teacher and program-level decisions) and micro-adaptation (moment-to-moment adaptations), Schön's ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref27">38</reflink>]) concept of reflection-on-action (reflecting on students' needs before and after a learning situation) and reflection-in-action (changing planned actions in the moment), and Hammond and Gibbons ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref28">16</reflink>]) differentiation between macro- (pre-planned) and micro-scaffolding (contingent).</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-4">1.1.1. Micro-adaptive learning support</hd> <p>Micro-adaptive learning support focuses on the teacher's responses (Corno and Snow [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref29">6</reflink>]) during teacher–child interactions 'in the dynamic unfolding of lessons' (Hammond and Gibbons [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref30">16</reflink>], 20). La Paro, Pianta, and Stuhlman ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref31">27</reflink>]) defined the quality of these interactions in the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) using three criteria: two focus on social and emotional learning support (management in the sense of monitoring the children and preventing disruptive behavior and emotional climate) and one is subject-specific (instructional support). CLASS has been used to assess pedagogical process quality in preschool (Hardy and Steffensky [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref32">18</reflink>]).</p> <p> <emph>Management</emph> includes handling and preventing disturbances to ensure learners are engaged and attentive (Freiberg, Oviatt, and Naveira [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref33">11</reflink>]). In kindergarten, this dimension refers to the structuring of daily routines or guiding children (Kuger and Kluczniok [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref34">26</reflink>]). <emph>Emotional climate</emph> refers to the emotional connection of the kindergarten teacher to the children. It includes supportive, trusting, and appreciative behavior occasioning socio-emotional support (Kuger and Kluczniok [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref35">26</reflink>]). <emph>Instructional support</emph> focuses on ' ... the degree to which a teacher promotes higher-order thinking and problem solving ... how teachers engage children in activities and facilitate activities so that the learning opportunities are maximized' (La Paro, Pianta, and Stuhlman [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref36">27</reflink>], 414). This means challenging the children in domain-specific learning situations (Kuger and Kluczniok [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref37">26</reflink>]) and using support strategies such as giving hints or asking cognitive-activating questions (Wullschleger [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref38">52</reflink>]). Instructional support also encompasses the technical language for a subject. In this study we focus on mathematical learning and so also consider mathematical language, which is an important aspect of children's learning (Klibanoff et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref39">21</reflink>]; Swaminathan and Trawick-Smith [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref40">41</reflink>]).</p> <p>Research on early childhood education has shown that providing micro-adaptive learning support is challenging. Studies of teacher–child interactions in everyday situations have found that very few of the interactions are adaptive (Cabell et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref41">4</reflink>]; König [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref42">23</reflink>]; Siraj-Blatchford et al. [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref43">39</reflink>]). These findings also seem to apply to mathematical learning situations (Cabell et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref44">4</reflink>]). Bruns ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref45">2</reflink>]) investigated mathematics related interactions in a quasi-experimental study in Germany and Switzerland. She investigated the adaptive mathematical learning support provided by 31 kindergarten teachers and found that most teachers provided inadequate support and none exhibited the highest level of competence. Tournier ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref46">45</reflink>]) examined the cognitive activation skills of kindergarten teachers in science, free play, and mathematical learning situations. She found that cognitive activating hints and questions were rarely given in a free play or mathematics learning context.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-5">1.1.2. Macro-adaptive learning support</hd> <p>Macro-adaptive learning support includes the planning and preparation before learning situations (e.g. considering students' prior knowledge, selecting and sequencing tasks) (Hammond and Gibbons [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref47">16</reflink>]) and the reflection afterwards about what occurred during the learning situation (Schön [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref48">38</reflink>]). The activities must suit the children's level of development, which requires sophisticated knowledge about children's <emph>level of actual development</emph> and therefore requires diagnostic practices (Ruiz-Primo and Furtak [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref49">36</reflink>]). Many assessment techniques are suitable for gathering information on the learning processes and abilities of kindergarten-age children (e.g. observations, evaluation of work samples). Such evaluation is a continuous and dynamic process of collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting information (Brassard and Boehm [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref50">1</reflink>]; Epstein et al. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref51">10</reflink>]; Gasteiger [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref52">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>Few studies combine an assessment of the quality of macro-adaptive support with an assessment of micro-adaptive support. Wullschleger ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref53">52</reflink>]) conducted a video- and interview-based analysis of micro- and macro-adaptive learning support in play-based mathematical learning situations. Although the kindergarten teachers were able to diagnose children's mathematical competence, they often struggled to tailor their learning support in the subsequent interaction. The teachers rarely used their diagnostic knowledge when planning a mathematical game session. Similarly, Bruns ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref54">2</reflink>]) found that only one third of the kindergarten teachers in her study defined mathematical learning goals and the mathematics activities offered did not align with the learning goals.</p> <p>Although there is not a great deal of research on adaptive learning support in play-based mathematical situations in kindergarten, these findings indicate that there is a gap between the significance attributed to micro- and macro-adaptive learning support and its observed quality. To address this gap, this study examined whether the instructional quality of macro-adaptive learning support and subject related micro-adaptive learning support can be improved through targeted professional development programs.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-6">1.2. Professional development of kindergarten teachers matters</hd> <p>To enhance the quality of adaptive learning support, it is important to have information about the professional development of kindergarten teachers. Teacher professional development takes many forms, such as in-service training, coaching, and professional development courses (Desimone [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref55">8</reflink>]; Son et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref56">40</reflink>]). Research has shown that such programs are effective tools for improving early childhood education. Fukkink and Lont ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref57">12</reflink>]) conducted a meta-analysis on the effects of specialized training on caregivers' competences, looking at professional knowledge, attitudes, and skills related to teacher–child interactions. They found that specialized training had a significant positive effect on the caregivers' pedagogical competence. These results are in line with the meta-analysis conducted by Werner et al. ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref58">51</reflink>]).</p> <p>There is limited research into the effectiveness of professional development programs focusing on mathematics in early childhood education. Vick Whittaker et al. ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref59">48</reflink>]) investigated the effects of a mathematics and science curriculum combined with professional development support on the quality of 42 pre-kindergarten teachers' classroom interactions. They found that targeted curricula combined with embedded professional development support had a positive effect on the quality of teachers' classroom interactions. Similarly, Bruns, Eichen, and Gasteiger ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref60">3</reflink>]) created a professional development course focusing on mathematical learning in kindergarten and tested its effects on 99 early childhood teachers. The study found a small positive impact on pedagogical content knowledge and a significant change in unfavourable personal beliefs (decrease in static orientation towards mathematics). Focusing on math talk, Swaminathan and Trawick-Smith ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref61">41</reflink>]) trained 13 teachers and assistants with minimal levels of education in math talk during free play. The authors found a significant increase and diversification in math talk over a five-month period.</p> <p>This research overview shows that it is possible to enhance the professional development of a kindergarten teacher's ability to support high-quality learning.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-7">2. Materials and methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0163823104-8">2.1. Enhancing adaptive learning support – the study</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to examine whether kindergarten teachers' micro- and macro-adaptive mathematical learning support could be separately enhanced. The focus was on instructional support, in this case subject-related mathematical learning support. Socio-emotional characteristics were also considered since they are also important for micro-adaptive learning support. The study investigated the following research question:</p> <p>How do two professional subject-related development programs, one focusing on micro- and the other on macro-adaptive mathematical learning support, improve the quality of micro- and macro-adaptive support provided by kindergarten teachers in a play-based learning situation?</p> <p>Given the theoretical and empirical evidence, we hypothesized that each program would enhance the quality of kindergarten teachers' mathematical learning support in its respective area. Because the focus of the program was on subject-specific instructional support, no effect on the quality of social-emotional learning support was expected.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-9">2.2. Participants</hd> <p>The study was carried out in Switzerland and Germany. In Switzerland, kindergarten is part of elementary school. The kindergarten teachers are obliged to follow a curriculum that includes mathematical learning goals. For more than a decade all prospective kindergarten teachers have had to attend academic professional training. In Germany kindergarten is not a part of the public schooling system. There are curricula but they are neither as targeted nor as prescriptive as the curricula in Switzerland. Most kindergarten teachers attend a vocational school in Germany, although an academic education route is also possible (Gasteiger, Brunner, and Chen [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref62">15</reflink>]).</p> <p>A total of 132 kindergarten teachers participated in the study, 65 from the German-speaking part of Switzerland and 67 from Germany (Kiel and Vechta). On average professional experience was 13.5 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 10.4, <emph>min</emph> = 0, <emph>max</emph> = 41). Most participants in Germany (<emph>n</emph> = 60) and about half of the participants in Switzerland (<emph>n</emph> = 31) had been educated in a vocational training setting. (Table 1)</p> <p>Table 1. Study participants.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Participants</td><td>Country</td><td /><td>Kindergarten teachers</td><td>Male</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td /><td>Switzerland</td><td char="(" /><td>65</td><td>0</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Germany</td><td char="(" /><td>67</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Total</td><td char="(" /><td>132</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Years of professional experience</td><td>Country</td><td char="(">Mean (SD)</td><td>Min.</td><td>Max.</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Switzerland</td><td>12.46 (9.43)</td><td>0</td><td>35</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Germany</td><td>14.61 (11.31)</td><td>1</td><td>41</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Total</td><td>13.54 (10.44)</td><td>0</td><td>41</td></tr><tr><td>Professional training</td><td>Country</td><td /><td>Academic</td><td>Vocational</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Switzerland</td><td /><td>31</td><td>34</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Germany</td><td /><td>7</td><td>60</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Total</td><td /><td>38</td><td>94</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0163823104-10">2.3. Procedure</hd> <p>The study was designed as a controlled longitudinal experiment. The project was approved by the ethical committee of the University of Zurich and the kindergarten teachers and their parents gave written consent. The quality of micro- and macro-adaptive learning support was assessed before (pre-test, t1) and after the intervention (post-test, t2; Figure 1). After the pre-test, all participants attended a briefing session (3 h) during which they were introduced to a box of games proven to promote children's numerical development (Hauser et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref63">20</reflink>]). The participants were told to use these games three times per week for about 20–30 min each, for six months.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Study design.</p> <p>For the professional development phase, the kindergarten teachers were randomly assigned to three groups: One was allocated to a program to improve the quality of micro-adaptive learning support (group<sups>MICRO</sups>), one to a program for improving macro-adaptive learning support (group<sups>MACRO</sups>), and a third served as a control group (group<sups>CONTROL</sups>).</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-11">2.3.1. Assessment of micro- and macro-adaptive learning support</hd> <p>The quality of micro-adaptive learning support was examined using video recorded semi-standardized learning situations during a play-based mathematical activity. For each kindergarten teacher, the support he/she offered in two situations (approximately 15 min each) with a group of 2–3 children was recorded twice. At t1, all groups used the easy-to-understand 'gold coins' game (Schmassmann and Moser Opitz [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref64">37</reflink>]), a board game where children use dice, count objects, and link numbers and quantities. At t2, the kindergarten teachers had to choose two of the 10 board and card games that all participants had been given at the briefing session. Most of these games were more complex than the 'gold coin' game used at t1 (greater mathematical demands, more complex rules), and therefore demanded more adaptive support.</p> <p>Macro-adaptive support quality is difficult to rate objectively using video observation since it is dependent on subjective factors like the teacher's knowledge of their children's abilities. We used structured interviews to infer whether the observed play-based situation was adaptively planned and purposefully used to foster mathematical learning. These interviews took place directly after the video recordings.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-12">2.3.2. Professional development programs</hd> <p>After the briefing session both groups attended three training sessions which each lasted three hours. Everyone received the same information about the numerical development of kindergarten children, which was based on the model proposed by Krajewski and Schneider ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref65">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>Group<sups>MICRO</sups>: The focus of this program was managing, supporting, and activating the children in play-based mathematical learning situations. It provided strategies for explaining, giving hints, asking cognitively activating questions, dealing with mistakes, structuring solution processes, illustrating mathematical content, and using mathematical language (Wullschleger [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref66">52</reflink>]). The strategies were illustrated using video examples and role play and the participants were asked to apply them between the training sessions.</p> <p>Group<sups>MACRO</sups>: This program emphasized the adaptive planning and preparation of and reflection on learning situations. Diagnosing the mathematical competences of children in play-based situations was practised with the help of video clips. The difficulty level of the games selected and their potential for mathematical development was analysed as an important prerequisite for adaptive planning. Between the training sessions the participants were asked to practice diagnosing numerical competence.</p> <p>Group<sups>CONTROL</sups>: The control group only attended the briefing session and received the box of games and written instructions. The teachers were invited to join the program after the post-test.</p> <p>All participants – children and teachers – had access to a program to enhance children's mathematical learning.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-13">2.4. Measures</hd> <p>A researcher-developed instrument was used to assess the quality of micro- and macro-adaptive learning support (Meier-Wyder et al. [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref67">30</reflink>]). The instrument, derived from existing instruments CLASS (Pianta, La Paro, and Hamre [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref68">32</reflink>]), ECERS R (Harms, Clifford, and Cryer [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref69">19</reflink>]), and KES-R (Roßbach et al. [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref70">34</reflink>]), was specifically designed for a mathematical learning context. It was expanded with items developed by the research group that focused on macro-adaptive learning support.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-14">2.4.1. Quality assessment of micro-adaptive learning support</hd> <p>Four items provided information about micro-adaptive learning support (Table 2), two items focused on subject-related support, and two items addressed social-emotional learning support.</p> <p>Table 2. Rating instrument for assessing the quality of micro-adaptive learning support.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td /><td>Item</td><td>Indicator</td><td>Examples</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Social-emotional learning support</td><td>Emotional warmth</td><td>• Non-verbal: benevolent gestures/mimicking; direct eye contact • Verbal: friendly and encouraging language • Responsiveness</td><td>• The kindergarten teacher uses encouraging nods and glances.</td></tr><tr><td>Classroom management</td><td>• Presence of kindergarten teacher to maximize time on-task • Maintaining motivation by directing attention to the game • Preventing disturbances; appropriate regulation of disturbances</td><td>• The rules of the game are established and made explicit.</td></tr><tr><td>Subject-related learning support</td><td>Adaptive learning process stimulation</td><td>• Fit between the actions of the kindergarten teacher and the mathematical activities of the children • Promotion into the zone of proximal development through targeted explanations or hints, challenging questions, etc.</td><td>• How can you determine as quickly as possible the number of eyes on your dice?</td></tr><tr><td>Stimulation of mathematical language</td><td>• Use of mathematical language by the kindergarten teacher • Demanding mathematical language from children</td><td>• How many more/fewer gold coins do you have than child X?</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Ratings: 4 = clearly observable; 3 = mostly observable; 2 = partially observable; 1 = not observable. The maximum score for each item was 4, the minimum score 1.</p> <p>Four learning situations with each teacher were recorded on video, two at t1 and two at t2. The video clips were then divided into 5-minute intervals and each of the intervals was assessed for its support quality. The quality score for t1 was calculated using the mean of the ratings of all intervals of t1. The quality score for the data for t2 was calculated using the mean values of the ratings of all intervals of t2.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-15">2.4.2. Quality assessment of macro-adaptive learning support</hd> <p>The quality of <emph>macro-adaptive learning support</emph> was assessed using data from an in-depth interview conducted immediately after the video recordings. The interviews covered the deliberations of the teacher when planning, implementing and then reflecting on the game situation. The rating of the interview data corresponded to specific interview questions. See Table 3 for a synopsis of the items.</p> <p>Table 3. Rating instrument for assessingthe quality of macro-adaptive learning support.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Item</td><td>Indicator</td><td>Example interview questions</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Planning of learning situation</td><td>• Use of professional knowledge to plan the game situation (game use, game allocation, group composition) in a targeted way.</td><td>• Why did you choose child X, Y and Z to play the games? • What was the reason for the group composition?</td></tr><tr><td>Diagnostic knowledge</td><td>• Explicit discussion of the mathematical competences of selected children in relation to the game.</td><td>• Which mathematical competence did you expect from each child?</td></tr><tr><td>Reflection</td><td>• Critical reflection on the goals and planning of the activity and learning support provided.</td><td>• At which points was it particularly important to support the children? • Which situations during the game were mathematically stimulating for the children?</td></tr><tr><td>Further learning support</td><td>• Explicit, relevant ideas about how to plan follow-up activities for individual children.</td><td>• What is important for the further mathematical support of each child?</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 Ratings: 4 = clearly observable; 3 = mostly observable; 2 = partially observable; 1 = not observable. The maximum score for each item was 4, the minimum score 1.</p> <p>There were two interviews with each kindergarten teacher; one reviewed the two video recordings at t1 and one the recordings at t2. For each measurement point, one score was given for each item.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-16">2.5. Data analysis</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0163823104-17">2.5.1. Quality of the instrument and group comparisons</hd> <p>The ratings were carried out by trained research assistants, two from Switzerland and two from Germany. Fifteen percent of the data was rated by all raters. First, the reliability and validity of the instrument was assessed. The interrater reliability and variance components were examined using the EduG program for the generalizability of studies (Swiss Society for Research in Education Working Group [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref71">42</reflink>]). The <emph>social-emotional learning support</emph> and <emph>subject-related learning support</emph> variables were each measured using two items. Internal consistency was assessed using the Spearman-Brown Formula (Eisinga, te Grotenhuis, and Pelzer [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref72">9</reflink>]). Cronbach's alpha was computed for the <emph>macro-adaptive learning support</emph> construct. To investigate the dimensionality of the scales, confirmatory factor analyses for a three-factor model were calculated with the software R for t1 and t2 using the lavaan statistical package (Rosseel [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref73">35</reflink>], Version 06-3). The three factors were s<emph>ubject-related micro-adaptive support</emph>, <emph>social-emotional micro-adaptive support</emph>, and <emph>macro-adaptive learning support</emph>. As the normality assumption was partially violated, the analyses were carried out using the Maximum Likelihood Robust Estimator (MLR Estimator). An error correlation was allowed for the <emph>planning of learning situation</emph> and <emph>diagnostic knowledge</emph> items since they were often discussed together in the interviews.</p> <p>Second, we tested to see if there was a difference in the quality of learning support provided at t1 by group<sups>MICRO</sups>, group<sups>MACRO</sups><subs>,</subs> and the control group. These group difference tests were carried out with ANOVAS using SPSS Statistics 25 software.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-18">2.5.2. Improvement in the quality of adaptive learning support</hd> <p>Three separate sequential regression analyses were conducted to evaluate how the two professional development programs improve the quality of micro- and macro-adaptive learning support. We chose this approach because the pre-test and the post-test situations were different: At t1, all groups used the gold coin game, whereas at t2 the teachers had to choose two different games from 10 that varied in mathematical content and difficulty, making adaptive learning support at t2 more demanding than at t1.</p> <p>The dependent variables in the three regression analyses were:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> subject-related micro-adaptive learning support at t2</item> <p></p> <item> social-emotional micro-adaptive support at t2</item> <p></p> <item> macro-adaptive learning support at t2</item> </ulist> <p>Manifest variables were used in the analyses because there were only two items of micro-adaptive learning support. In a first step, the professional development program was inserted using two dummy variables indicating participation in group<sups>MICRO</sups> or group<sups>MACRO</sups>. The control group was identified as the reference category. In a second step, the quality assessment of the respective learning support variable at t1 was inserted. In step 3, control variables were included: the country in which the teachers are employed, the professional training path (dummy variable: academic vs. vocational), and the years of professional experience. We used SPSS Statistics 25.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-19">3. Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0163823104-20">3.1. Reliability and validity of the rating instrument</hd> <p>Interrater reliability was high at t1 (G-coefficients between.81–.95) and t2 (G-coefficients between.76–.95).</p> <p>At t1 the Spearman-Brown coefficients were.79 for subject-related micro-adaptive support items and.79 for social-emotional micro-adaptive support. Cronbach's alpha for macro-adaptive learning support was.66. At t2, the Spearman-Brown coefficients were 0.81 for subject-related micro-adaptive support items and.72 for social-emotional micro-adaptive support. Cronbach's alpha for macro-adaptive learning support was.68. Internal consistency for micro-adaptive learning support was good, but for macro-adaptive learning support it was only just acceptable.</p> <p>The model assessing the dimensionality of the instrument shows acceptable fit values (Table 4; Gallagher and Brown [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref74">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 4. Goodness-of-fit indicators for the CFA models.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Measurement point</td><td>factors</td><td>df</td><td>χ2</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>χ2/df</td><td>CFI</td><td>RMSEA</td><td>SRMR</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">16</td><td char=".">28.791</td><td char=".">.025</td><td char=".">1.80</td><td char=".">.960</td><td char=".">.080</td><td char=".">.056</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">16</td><td char=".">29.396</td><td char=".">.021</td><td char=".">1.84</td><td char=".">.952</td><td char=".">.079</td><td char=".">.056</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>These results confirm that the rating instrument is reliable and valid for measuring the quality of micro- and macro-adaptive learning support.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-21">3.2. Descriptives and group differences</hd> <p>Table 5 presents a summary of an ANOVA to test whether there were differences in the quality of learning support at t1 offered by members of group<sups>MICRO</sups>, group<sups>MACRO</sups>, and the control group. There were no significant differences between the groups. Standard correlations of all variables are provided in Appendix A.</p> <p>Table 5. Mean, standard deviation, and analysis of variance in quality of learning support at t1.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Measures</td><td>group<sup>MICRO</sup></td><td>group<sup>MACRO</sup></td><td>Control group</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td><italic>M</italic></td><td><italic>SD</italic></td><td><italic>M</italic></td><td><italic>SD</italic></td><td><italic>M</italic></td><td><italic>SD</italic></td><td><italic>F</italic>(2, 129)</td><td>η<sup>2</sup></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Subject-related micro-adaptive support</td><td char=".">4.47</td><td char=".">1.15</td><td char=".">4.47</td><td char=".">1.29</td><td char=".">4.22</td><td char=".">1.11</td><td char=".">0.608 <italic>ns</italic></td><td char=".">.009</td></tr><tr><td>Social-emotional micro-adaptive support</td><td char=".">6.11</td><td char=".">0.93</td><td char=".">6.15</td><td char=".">1.03</td><td char=".">6.22</td><td char=".">0.95</td><td char=".">0.147 <italic>ns</italic></td><td char=".">.002</td></tr><tr><td>Macro-adaptive learning support</td><td char=".">9.40</td><td char=".">2.24</td><td char=".">9.67</td><td char=".">2.44</td><td char=".">9.47</td><td char=".">2.31</td><td char=".">0.160 <italic>ns</italic></td><td char=".">.002</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0163823104-22">3.3. Impact of the programs on quality of learning support</hd> <p>Table 6 shows the results of a sequential regression analysis to predict the <emph>quality of subject-related micro-adaptive learning support at t2</emph>.</p> <p>Table 6. Sequential regression analysis predicting the quality of subject-related micro-adaptive learning support at t2.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Step and predictor variable</td><td><italic>R<sup>2</sup></italic></td><td><italic>Δ R<sup>2</sup></italic></td><td><italic>sr</italic></td><td><italic>B</italic></td><td><italic>SE B</italic></td><td>β</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Step 1</td><td>.06*</td><td char=".">.06*</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td /><td>Program<sup>MICRO</sup></td><td /><td /><td char=".">.24</td><td char=".">.59</td><td char=".">.21</td><td char=".">.24**</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Program<sup>MACRO</sup></td><td /><td /><td char=".">.12</td><td char=".">.30</td><td char=".">.22</td><td char=".">.12</td></tr><tr><td>Step 2</td><td>.24***</td><td char=".">.18***</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td /><td>Micro-adaptive support quality t1</td><td /><td /><td char=".">.44</td><td char=".">.39</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.42***</td></tr><tr><td>Step 3</td><td>.30***</td><td char=".">.06*</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char=".">.</td><td char="." /></tr><tr><td /><td>Country (0 = Germany; 1 = Switzerland)</td><td /><td /><td char=".">-.16</td><td char=".">-.35</td><td char=".">.20</td><td char=".">-.15</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Professional training (1 = acad.; 0 = vocational)</td><td /><td /><td char=".">.24</td><td char=".">.65</td><td char=".">.24</td><td char=".">.25 **</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Professional experience</td><td /><td /><td char=".">-.03</td><td char=".">-.003</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">-.03</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 * <emph>p</emph> <.05. **<emph>p </emph><.01. ***<emph>p</emph> <.001.</p> <p>When the two dummy variables for the professional development programs were included, <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> increased significantly <emph>(F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref75">2</reflink>, 127) = 4.005; <emph>p</emph> <.05; <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph>= 0.059). The micro-adaptive program has a significant influence on the quality of subject-related micro-adaptive learning support at t2 (β =.24**): Participants in group<sups>MICRO</sups> provided a higher quality of subject-related micro-adaptive learning support than participants in group<sups>MACRO</sups> or the control group.</p> <p>Including the quality of subject-related micro-adaptive learning support at t1 in the second step resulted in a significant increase of <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref76">3</reflink>, 126) = 13.515; <emph>p</emph> <.001; <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.243). The effect of the quality assessment at t1 is highly significant (β =.42***): Teachers who provided a high quality of support at t1 also offered high quality adaptive learning support at t2.</p> <p>Inserting the control variables in step 3 led to a significant increase of <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph>, up to.30 (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref77">6</reflink>, 123) = 8.853; <emph>p</emph> <.001; <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.302), because of the influence of the professional training variable (β =.25**): Kindergarten teachers with an academic degree provided significantly higher quality subject-related micro-adaptive learning support than teachers with vocational training.</p> <p>Overall, the model explains 30% of variance. According to Cohen ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref78">5</reflink>]), this corresponds to a strong effect (ƒ<sups>2</sups> = 0.433).</p> <p>In a further model, the impact of the predictors on the dependent variable <emph>quality of social-emotional micro-adaptive learning support at t2</emph> was calculated (no table). When the variables of the professional development programs were included in the first step of the model, <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> did not increase significantly <emph>(F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref79">2</reflink>, 127) = 0.183; <emph>p</emph> =.833; <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph>= 0.003).</p> <p>Table 7 shows the results of the sequential regression analysis predicting the <emph>quality of macro-adaptive learning support at t2.</emph> Inserting the variables of the professional development programs in the first step led to a significant increase of <emph>R<sups>2</sups> (F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref80">2</reflink>, 127) = 3.076; <emph>p</emph> <.05; <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph>= 0.046). The macro-adaptive program has a significant influence on the quality of macro-adaptive learning support at t2 (β =.25**). Participants in group<sups>MACRO</sups> provided a higher quality of macro-adaptive learning support at t2 compared to participants in group<sups>MICRO</sups> and the control group.</p> <p>Table 7. Sequential regression analysis predicting the quality of macro-adaptive learning support at t2.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>Step and predictor variable</td><td><italic>R<sup>2</sup></italic></td><td><italic>Δ R<sup>2</sup></italic></td><td><italic>sr</italic></td><td><italic>B</italic></td><td><italic>SE B</italic></td><td>β</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Step 1</td><td>.05*</td><td char=".">.05*</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td /><td>Program<sup>MICRO</sup></td><td /><td /><td char=".">0.02</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.40</td><td char=".">.02</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Program<sup>MACRO</sup></td><td /><td /><td char=".">0.25</td><td char=".">1.18</td><td char=".">.41</td><td char=".">.25**</td></tr><tr><td>Step 2</td><td>.25***</td><td char=".">.21***</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td /><td>Macro-adaptive support quality t1</td><td /><td /><td char=".">0.36</td><td char=".">.35</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.36***</td></tr><tr><td>Step 3</td><td>.33***</td><td char=".">.08**</td><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /><td char="." /></tr><tr><td /><td>Country (0 = Germany; 1 = Switzerland)</td><td /><td /><td char=".">0.14</td><td char=".">.64</td><td char=".">.40</td><td char=".">.14</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Professional training (1 = academic; 0 = vocational)</td><td /><td /><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">-.07</td><td char=".">.46</td><td char=".">-.02</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Professional experience</td><td /><td /><td char=".">−0.26</td><td char=".">-.05</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">-.25**</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 * <emph>p</emph> <.05. **<emph>p </emph><.01. ***<emph>p</emph> <.001.</p> <p>A significant increase of <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref81">3</reflink>, 126) = 14.145; <emph>p</emph> <.001; <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.252) was found when the quality of macro-adaptive learning support at t1 was included in the second step. The quality of macro-adaptive learning support at t1 (β =.36***) has a highly significant effect: Those teachers who already provided high quality macro-adaptive learning support at t1 also provided high quality macro-adaptive learning support at t2.</p> <p>Inserting the control variables in step 3 led to a significant increase of <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph>, up to.33 (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref82">6</reflink>, 123) = 10.026; <emph>p</emph> <.001; <emph>R<sups>2</sups></emph> = 0.328), because of the influence of the professional experience variable (β = -.25**): Kindergarten teachers with more professional experience provided significantly lower quality of macro-adaptive learning support than teachers with less professional experience.</p> <p>The overall model explains 33% of variance. According to Cohen ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref83">5</reflink>]), this corresponds to a strong effect (ƒ<sups>2</sups> = 0.488).</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-23">4. Discussion and conclusion</hd> <p>This study investigated whether the quality of micro- and macro-adaptive mathematical learning support of 132 kindergarten teachers could be improved by targeted professional development programs.</p> <p>As expected, the results of regression analyses revealed that the subject-related micro-adaptive program had a positive, if small, effect on the quality of subject-related micro-adaptive mathematical learning support, and the macro-adaptive program had a small positive effect on the quality of macro-adaptive support. Even though the effects were small, they were similar to the effects of the professional training on the quality of micro-adaptive learning support and professional experience on the quality of macro-adaptive support (Tables 6 and 7). The magnitudes of the effects are in line with the results of previous studies, which reported small to medium effects from professional development programs (Bruns, Eichen, and Gasteiger [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref84">3</reflink>]; Fukkink and Lont [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref85">12</reflink>]; Vick Whittaker et al. [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref86">48</reflink>]; Werner et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref87">51</reflink>]). Small effects are quite common for professional development programs which do not include a long-term continuous development program that is integrated into the everyday professional life of the kindergarten teacher (Bruns, Eichen, and Gasteiger [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref88">3</reflink>]). Although the study duration was 6 months, the program was not very intense and no continuous individual support was given. It is likely that a more intensive long-term program with the same content would have generated a larger effect (Urban et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref89">46</reflink>]).</p> <p>The results also showed that the subject-related micro-adaptive program had no effect on the quality of macro-adaptive learning support and vice versa. These findings confirm the assumption that the two types of adaptive support are indeed different and have different competence requirements (Lindmeier [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref90">28</reflink>]; Knievel, Lindmeier, and Heinze [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref91">22</reflink>]). However, recent results from a study by Lindmeier et al. ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref92">29</reflink>]) indicate that measuring these competences is challenging and the hypothesized link between these specific competences and the quality of subject-related micro-adaptive learning support is not as clear as expected. Therefore, further research is needed to examine the constructs of micro- and macro-adaptive learning support and the associated competences of kindergarten teachers.</p> <p>No effect of the professional development program on social-emotional micro-adaptive learning support was found. This result was expected because the focus of the micro-adaptive program was instructional support.</p> <p>Although the study did not explore research questions about the influence of the control variables, it provided some information worth considering. The results showed that participants with academic professional training provided a higher quality of subject related micro-adaptive learning support. Additionally, the pre-test data of this study showed that the quality of micro- and macro-adaptive learning support was predicted by country, but not by professional training (Meier-Wyder et al. [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref93">30</reflink>]). The findings of other studies on the impact of training are inconclusive: The EPPE study (Sylva et al. [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref94">43</reflink>]) indicated that a higher level of training has an impact on instructional quality in preschool institutions. However, a case study by Kucharz et al. ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref95">25</reflink>]) found that this was not a very strong effect. Meanwhile Tournier ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref96">45</reflink>]) reported that academic training had no impact on the level of cognitive activation during adaptive learning. The mixed results could be because measurement instruments and training curricula have differing objectives. For example, subject-related adaptive learning support is often only a small part of vocational education programs. It is important that future studies examine the relationship between professional training and achievement gains more closely.</p> <p>The findings on the negative effect of professional experience on the quality of macro-adaptive learning support were unexpected. One possible explanation is that a greater focus on planning, preparation, and reflection has only recently found its way into the curricula of professional training programs for kindergarten teachers as the emphasis on academic learning in preschool institutions has increased (DeLuca, Pyle, and Lapointe-McEwan [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref97">7</reflink>]; Pyle and DeLuca [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref98">33</reflink>]). This might be especially true for Germany, where comprehensive mathematical curricula are not available in every state (Gasteiger, Brunner, and Chen [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref99">15</reflink>]).</p> <p>The study has limitations which might affect the interpretation of the results. The reliability scores for the quality of macro-adaptive learning support were only just acceptable. This could be because the number of ratings for each item was low. Also, the study could not evaluate whether the professional development program has a long-term effect on the quality of adaptive learning support.</p> <p>The study shows that it is possible to bridge the gap between the significance attributed to high quality adaptive learning support and its observed quality in kindergartens by using targeted measures. It also highlights the importance of having programs specifically designed to improve micro- and macro-adaptive learning support. This outcome is particularly relevant in an educational policy climate where academic progress in preschools is increasingly becoming a priority, especially in countries where academic learning in preschool (kindergarten) is not yet the norm.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-24">Acknowledgement</hd> <p>The authors gratefully acknowledge Ayse Yenal Vance for help with language and proofreading.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-25">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-26">Declaration of interests</hd> <p>The authors confirm that this work is original and has not been published elsewhere nor is it currently under consideration for publication elsewhere.</p> <p>The authors confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this publication and there has been no significant financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.</p> <hd id="AN0163823104-27">Appendix</hd> <p>Appendix A. Standard correlations between adaptive learning support quality at t2, professional development programs, adaptive learning support quality at t1, and control variables</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><td>n</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>10</td><td>11</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1. Subject-related micro-adaptive support t2</td><td char=".">132</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>2. Social-emotional micro-adaptive support t2</td><td char=".">132</td><td char=".">.383**</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>3. Macro-adaptive support quality t2</td><td char=".">132</td><td char=".">.361**</td><td char=".">.315**</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>4. Program<sup>MICRO</sup></td><td char=".">132</td><td char=".">.142</td><td char=".">-.017</td><td char=".">-.071</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>5. Program<sup>MACRO</sup></td><td char=".">132</td><td char=".">.013</td><td char=".">.054</td><td char=".">.226**</td><td char=".">-.475**</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>6. Subject-related micro-adaptive support t1</td><td char=".">132</td><td char=".">.343**</td><td char=".">.423**</td><td char=".">.316**</td><td char=".">.057</td><td char=".">.006</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>7. Social-emotional micro-adaptive support t1</td><td char=".">132</td><td char=".">.226**</td><td char=".">.616**</td><td char=".">.263**</td><td char=".">-.040</td><td char=".">-.004</td><td char=".">.656**</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>8. Macro-adaptive support quality t1</td><td char=".">132</td><td char=".">.247**</td><td char=".">.331**</td><td char=".">.460**</td><td char=".">-.035</td><td char=".">.048</td><td char=".">.457**</td><td char=".">.444**</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>9. Country</td><td char=".">132</td><td char=".">-.039</td><td char=".">.519**</td><td char=".">.344**</td><td char=".">.027</td><td char=".">.010</td><td char=".">.385**</td><td char=".">.511**</td><td char=".">.449**</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>10. Professional training</td><td char=".">132</td><td char=".">.163</td><td char=".">.253**</td><td char=".">.224*</td><td char=".">.031</td><td char=".">-.068</td><td char=".">.210*</td><td char=".">.258**</td><td char=".">.295**</td><td>.429**</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>11. Professional experience</td><td char=".">132</td><td char=".">-.078</td><td char=".">-.087</td><td char=".">-.247**</td><td char=".">-.096</td><td char=".">.181*</td><td char=".">-.029</td><td char=".">-.052</td><td char=".">-.123</td><td>-.103</td><td>-.432**</td><td>—</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>5 Note<emph>.</emph> *** <emph>p</emph> <.001. **<emph>p </emph><.01.* <emph>p</emph> <.05.</p> <ref id="AN0163823104-28"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref50" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Brassard, M. R., and A. E. Boehm. 2007. Preschool Assessment: Principles and Practices. Guilford: Guilford Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref23" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Bruns, J. 2014. Adaptive Förderung in der Elementarpädagogischen Praxis. Eine Empirische Studie zum Didaktischen Handeln von Erzieherinnen und Erziehern im Bereich Mathematik [Adaptive Support in Early Education. 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  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Adaptive learning support is a key element of high quality preschool education and includes the planning of learning situations and teacher-child interactions. The provision of effective adaptive learning support in kindergarten is challenging. This longitudinal experimental study examined the impact of two professional development programs on 132 kindergarten teachers. One program focused on teacher-child interactions (micro-adaptive learning support), the other on planning, preparation, and reflection (macro-adaptive learning support). Each program had a positive impact on the quality of the specific type of adaptive mathematical learning support provided by kindergarten teachers, macro or micro, it was designed to improve.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1388794
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1388794
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/1350293X.2022.2081348
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 18
        StartPage: 225
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Faculty Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Student Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interaction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Planning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reflection
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mathematics Instruction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Classroom Techniques
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Kindergarten
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Emotional Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Switzerland
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Germany
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Improving the Quality of Adaptive Learning Support Provided by Kindergarten Teachers in Play-Based Mathematical Learning Situations
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Wullschleger, Andrea
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lindmeier, Anke
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Heinze, Aiso
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Meier-Wyder, Anuschka
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Leuchter, Miriam
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Vogt, Franziska
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Opitz, Elisabeth Moser
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2023
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1350-293X
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1752-1807
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 31
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: European Early Childhood Education Research Journal
              Type: main
ResultId 1