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Quality of Teacher-Child Relationships: An Exploration of Its Effect on Children's Emergent Literacy Skills

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Title: Quality of Teacher-Child Relationships: An Exploration of Its Effect on Children's Emergent Literacy Skills
Language: English
Authors: Vatou, Anastasia (ORCID 0000-0001-9081-9068), Gregoriadis, Athanasios (ORCID 0000-0002-3026-6614), Tsigilis, Nikolaos (ORCID 0000-0002-2388-959X), Grammatikopoulos, Vasilis (ORCID 0000-0001-7556-6162)
Source: International Journal of Early Childhood. Aug 2023 55(2):279-294.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2023
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Elementary Education
Kindergarten
Primary Education
Preschool Education
Descriptors: Teacher Student Relationship, Emergent Literacy, Teacher Attitudes, Student Attitudes, Kindergarten, Preschool Teachers, Preschool Children, Foreign Countries, Measures (Individuals), Rating Scales, Intelligence Tests, Verbal Ability, Vocabulary, Predictor Variables
Geographic Terms: Greece
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Student Teacher Relationship Scale, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
DOI: 10.1007/s13158-022-00325-y
ISSN: 0020-7187
1878-4658
Abstract: The current study aims to examine the way in which teachers' and children's perceptions about their relationships influence children's emergent literacy skills. Participants were 913 children and 114 kindergarten teachers within 72 preschool centers from Greece. The measures used were the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS), the Child Appraisal of the Relationship with the Teacher Scale (CARTS), and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R). Results of multiple regression analyses showed that teacher-child closeness and children's age were positively associated with children's receptive language skills, whereas teacher-child dependency was negatively associated with children's receptive language skills. Collectively, findings highlight the importance of supportive teacher-child relationships and their impact on child's language development.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1391165
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0171347919;iec01aug.23;2023Sep05.06:14;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0171347919-1">Quality of Teacher–Child Relationships: An Exploration of its Effect on Children's Emergent Literacy Skills </title> <p>The current study aims to examine the way in which teachers' and children's perceptions about their relationships influence children's emergent literacy skills. Participants were 913 children and 114 kindergarten teachers within 72 preschool centers from Greece. The measures used were the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS), the Child Appraisal of the Relationship with the Teacher Scale (CARTS), and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R). Results of multiple regression analyses showed that teacher–child closeness and children's age were positively associated with children's receptive language skills, whereas teacher–child dependency was negatively associated with children's receptive language skills. Collectively, findings highlight the importance of supportive teacher–child relationships and their impact on child's language development.</p> <p>Résumé: L'étude actuelle vise à examiner la manière dont les perceptions des enseignants et des enfants sur leurs relations influencent les compétences émergentes en littératie des enfants. Les participants étaient 913 enfants et 114 enseignants de maternelle dans 72 centres préscolaires de Grèce. Les mesures utilisées étaient Student–Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS), Child Appraisal of the Relationship with the Teacher Scale (CARTS) et Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R). Les résultats des analyses de régression multiple ont montré que la proximité enseignant-enfant et l'âge des enfants étaient positivement associés aux compétences langagières réceptives des enfants, tandis que la dépendance enseignant-enfant était associée négativement aux compétences langagières réceptives des enfants. Collectivement, les résultats soulignent l'importance des relations entre enseignant encourageant et enfant, et leur impact sur le développement du langage de l'enfant.</p> <p>Resumen: El estudio actual tiene como objetivo examinar la forma en que las percepciones de los maestros y los niños sobre sus relaciones influyen en las habilidades de alfabetización emergentes de los niños. Los participantes fueron 913 niños y 114 maestros de jardín de infantes de 72 preescolares centros de Grecia. Las medidas utilizadas fueron la Student – Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS), la Child Appraisal of the Relationship Scale (CARTS) y el Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test – Revised (PPVT-R). Los análisis de regresión múltiple mostraron que la cercanía entre maestro y niño y la edad de los niños se asociaron positivamente con las habilidades del lenguaje receptivo de los niños, mientras que la dependencia entre maestro y niño se asoció negativamente con las habilidades lingüísticas receptivas de los niños. Colectivamente, los hallazgos resaltan la importancia del apoyo de las relaciones entre maestro y niño y su impacto en el desarrollo del lenguaje del niño.</p> <p>Keywords: Teachers' and children's perceptions; Teacher–child dependency; Receptive language skills; Early childhood education</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-2">Introduction</hd> <p>An extensive body of literature has shown that children's participation in high-quality early childhood education and care (ECEC) settings can act as a primary mechanism for enhancing their emergent language skills, especially vocabulary knowledge (Mashburn et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref1">24</reflink>]). Previous studies have shown that high-quality teacher–child relationships are an important contributor to the provision of children's language growth within the ECEC settings (Hamre & Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref2">13</reflink>]; Mashburn et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref3">24</reflink>]). Children's vocabulary rapidly develops during the early years, and early teacher–child interactions are important in supporting this development (Hoff, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref4">14</reflink>]). This is especially true for children who experience positive teacher–child relationships where they have learning opportunities to further converse with teachers; thus children listen and learn novel words and seem to use these newly learned words to their conversations with others, for example with parents or peers (Christ et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref5">6</reflink>]). Therefore, children's early vocabulary skills seem to be connected to later reading abilities and early school success (Justice et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref6">19</reflink>]; Manolitsis et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref7">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>Research affirms that children develop their language through interactions with others. Positive and supportive teacher–child interactions promote children's engagement in the learning environment (Cadima et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref8">4</reflink>]) and contribute to the well-being of teachers (OECD, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref9">26</reflink>]). Several researchers use the general principles of attachment theory as a theoretical background to examine teacher–child relationships in the ECEC settings (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref10">5</reflink>]; Jerome et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref11">17</reflink>]; Justice et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref12">18</reflink>]). According to attachment theory, teacher–child relationships are conceptualized with three relational dimensions, closeness, conflict and dependency (e.g., Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref13">28</reflink>]; Verschueren & Koomen, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref14">42</reflink>]). Close teacher–child relationships enhance children's feelings of security and confidence and serve as a secure base that allows them to explore the classroom environment, whereas conflict teacher–child relationships increase children's insecure feelings and stress (Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref15">28</reflink>]; Pianta et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref16">29</reflink>]; Verschueren & Koomen, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref17">42</reflink>]). In turn, negative teacher-children relationships can influence their academic achievement (Pianta et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref18">29</reflink>]; Solheim et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref19">36</reflink>]). The construct of dependency, as the third relational dimension, refers to children's overreliance and clinginess toward the teacher (Sabol & Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref20">33</reflink>]; Verschueren & Koomen, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref21">43</reflink>]). Dependent teacher–child relationships in early years have been associated with the children's inability to rely on the teacher for support or guidance (Verschueren & Koomen, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref22">42</reflink>]).</p> <p>Several studies on teacher–child relationships have typically considered the teacher–child relationship quality by measuring the dimensions of closeness and conflict (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref23">5</reflink>]; Jerome et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref24">17</reflink>]; Roorda & Koomen, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref25">30</reflink>]; Solheim et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref26">36</reflink>]; Verschueren & Koomen, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref27">43</reflink>]). The teacher–child dependency and its impact on school- and children- outcomes has been examined far less than closeness and conflict (Neuhaus et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref28">25</reflink>]; Schmitt et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref29">34</reflink>]; Verschueren & Koomen, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref30">43</reflink>]). Although a healthy dependency on a sensitive and responsive person is necessary for one's optimal functioning (Bowlby, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref31">1</reflink>]), far less is known about the construct of dependency and its impact on children's outcomes. With regard to the construct of dependency, researchers have mainly investigated its cultural adaption (e.g., Gregoriadis & Tsigilis, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref32">10</reflink>]). For example, in the Greek educational context, Gregoriadis and Tsigilis ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref33">10</reflink>]) found that the dependency dimension had a positive relationship with the closeness dimension. This finding was interpreted using the differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures (Gregoriadis et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref34">11</reflink>]). A culture described as more individualistic emphasizes on individual goals, whereas a culture described as more collectivistic emphasizes on group goals. It has been argued that in collectivistic countries (e.g. from South European background) dependency may reflect feelings of security and proximity (Gregoriadis & Tsigilis, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref35">10</reflink>]).</p> <p>Furthermore, numerous studies have mainly investigated the influence of the quality of teacher–child relationships quality on children's academic achievement based on teachers' perceptions (e.g., Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref36">5</reflink>]; Gregoriadis et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref37">11</reflink>]; Rudasill & Acar, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref38">31</reflink>]; Solheim et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref39">36</reflink>]; Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref40">37</reflink>]). Only a few studies examined the impact of teacher–child relationships quality on children's socio-emotional and academic development by using children's perceptions (e.g., Howes et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref41">15</reflink>]; Roorda & Koomen, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref42">30</reflink>]). Nowadays, researchers seem to accept that young children can provide—with the use of developmentally appropriate measures—valuable insights regarding their interpersonal relations (e.g., Ruzek et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref43">32</reflink>]). The inclusion of both teachers' and children's views about their interpersonal relations, enhance our understanding of how these relationships impact on children's academic development (Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref44">38</reflink>]).</p> <p>Children spend a great amount of time with teachers in ECEC settings and teacher–child language interactions tend to be unique sources for children's language development (Hoff, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref45">14</reflink>]). Moreover, early years have been theorized as the most important time for children to develop their vocabulary skills, as for example comprehension and production of words, before entering to the formal primary education (Grøver, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref46">12</reflink>]; Manolitsis et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref47">23</reflink>]). However, very few studies have focused on the impact of teacher–child relationship quality on the development of children's receptive vocabulary (Cabell et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref48">3</reflink>]; Mashburn et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref49">24</reflink>]). Given that the quality of teacher–child relationships plays a crucial role in children's lives (Verschueren & Koomen, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref50">42</reflink>]), it is important to understand how all three relational dimensions (closeness, conflict, and dependency) are associated with children's early language development in the ECEC setting. By focusing on children's vocabulary, this study aims to examine how the quality of teacher–child relationships is related with children's receptive language skills by examining both teachers' and children's perceptions.</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-3">Association between Teacher–Child Relationships and Children's Language Development</hd> <p>From a theoretical perspective, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref51">45</reflink>]) asserts that children's language development is promoted within a social context; thus, children's language development occurs through interactions with teachers and peers (Rudasill & Acar, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref52">31</reflink>]; Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref53">37</reflink>]). According to the ecological theory, children's development occurs through reciprocal interactions among individuals in their immediate environment, within classrooms (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref54">2</reflink>]; Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref55">28</reflink>]). Therefore, teacher–child relationship quality can be considered as an environmental contributor to children's development (Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref56">28</reflink>]; Rudasill & Acar, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref57">31</reflink>]; Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref58">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>Children appear to benefit from participating in high-quality classrooms; their development is enhanced when interpersonal relationships with teachers are supportive and well-organized (Pakarinen et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref59">27</reflink>]; Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref60">37</reflink>]). However, children's development can be undermined by poor relationships (Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref61">37</reflink>]). Indeed, research based on attachment theory, argues that sensitive and supportive relationships contribute to higher levels of children's engagement which in turn promote children's language development (Cabell et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref62">3</reflink>]; Cadima et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref63">4</reflink>]; Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref64">37</reflink>]). Children whose teachers are warm, caring, respectful and supportive, tend to experience high-quality teaching strategies like positive feedback during language learning activities (Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref65">37</reflink>]). Within close relationships with teachers, children tend to have more opportunities for personalized conversations with them and engage more in classroom activities rather than children who have conflictual relationships with them (Cabell et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref66">3</reflink>]; Hamre & Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref67">13</reflink>]; Howes et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref68">15</reflink>]). Hence, children's outcomes such as language development can be the product of a combination of their experiences and social classroom environment (Pakarinen et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref69">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>Previous studies showed a direct association among close and conflictual teacher–child relationships and children's language development (Schmitt et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref70">34</reflink>]; Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref71">37</reflink>]). For example, Spilt et al. ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref72">37</reflink>]) examined the links between close teacher–child relationships and receptive language development of 4.707 children attending a range from the end of preschool years until the early elementary years. Findings report positive reciprocal associations between teacher–child close relationships and children's receptive language. Children with higher language abilities also develop more close relationships with teachers than children with lower language abilities. Taken together, teacher–child close relationships predict language development, but children's receptive language skills can also predict the closeness in the teacher–child relationships (Justice et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref73">18</reflink>]; Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref74">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although research on teacher–child dependent relationships is relatively poor, dependent behaviors also seem to play a significant role in children's academic and socio-emotional development (Rudasill & Acar, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref75">31</reflink>]; Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref76">39</reflink>]). According to Spilt et al. ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref77">39</reflink>]), children who experience an insecure attachment bond with their teachers, like dependent relationships, tend to experience less autonomy and engagement in classroom activities. In fact, less engagement may hamper children's academic progress and readiness (Neuhaus et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref78">25</reflink>]). However, as noted above, Greek teachers seem to perceive the dependency as a positive aspect of a relationship, thus in some occasions the teacher–child dependency may influence the children's learning development positively.</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-4">Children's Characteristics as Predictors of Receptive Vocabulary Skills</hd> <p>Children's background characteristics—age and gender—are also essential to understand children's school success (Ewing & Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref79">8</reflink>]). Previous research has shown that young children under 3 years of age do not differ significantly, in terms of language development (Sylvestre et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref80">40</reflink>]). Beyond the age of five to six, children's vocabulary development continues to grow in an impressive way (Maier et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref81">22</reflink>]). At the ages four to six, children are expected to display significant differences of variability in their language development within the classroom (Fenson et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref82">9</reflink>]).</p> <p>Furthermore, previous studies found that children's gender is strongly linked to the quality of teacher–child relationship and children's outcomes (e.g., Ewing & Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref83">8</reflink>]). Children's gender contributes to the quality of teacher–child relationships and can serve as an indicator of risk or as a predictor of success to early skills development (Neuhaus et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref84">25</reflink>]; Sabol & Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref85">33</reflink>]). Teachers may have different expectations for boys and girls regarding their academic achievement (e.g., Hamre & Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref86">13</reflink>]). Therefore, given the importance of the quality of teacher–child relationships on children's language development, a closer investigation of how children's characteristics relate with children's outcomes is timely.</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-5">The Present Study</hd> <p>The aim of this study is to investigate the association between the quality of teacher–child relationships and the children's receptive language skills by examining both teachers' and children's perceptions. More specifically, this study investigates whether the quality of teacher–child relationships predict children's receptive language skills and whether this prediction is independent of the instrument used to measure teacher–child relationship. Our study explored the following research questions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref87">1</reflink>) Is children's report of the quality in their teacher–child relationship (closeness, conflict and dependency) associated with their receptive language skills? (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref88">2</reflink>) Is teachers' report of the quality in the teacher- child relationship (closeness, conflict and dependency) associated with children's receptive language skills? (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref89">3</reflink>) Are individual child characteristics (age and gender) associated with children's receptive language skills?</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-6">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0171347919-7">Participants</hd> <p>One hundred and fourteen early childhood teachers were recruited to participate in this study from three prefectures in Greece (Thessaloniki, Halkidiki and Kilkis). A random sample of eight children (four girls and four boys) (<emph>N</emph> = 913) were selected from each classroom to participate in this study. Specifically, 114 kindergarten teachers (<emph>M</emph><subs>age</subs> = 48.28 years, SD<subs>age</subs> = 6.62) filled in the STRS forms for 913 children and provided demographic information for them (age, gender, and ethnicity). Regarding children's gender, 49.6% were boys and 50.4% were girls. Also, 89.4% of the participated children were Greek, whereas 10.6% were foreign. The average age of the children was 5.14 (SD<subs>age</subs> = 0.59).</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-8">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0171347919-9">Teachers' Instrument</hd> <p>The Greek version of the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale-STRS (Koomen et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref90">20</reflink>]) was used to examine teachers' perceptions about their relationships with their children. The psychometric properties of the Greek version of the STRS were previously examined in another study (e.g., Gregoriadis & Tsigilis, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref91">10</reflink>]). This version includes 28 items that demonstrate three relational dimensions: Closeness (11 items, e.g., "This child values his/her relationship with me"), Conflict (11 items, e.g., "Dealing with this child drains my energy") and Dependency (6 items, e.g., "This child reacts strongly to separation from me"). Teachers respond to a five-point Likert scale (1 "definitely does not apply" to "definitely applies"). The internal consistency of the Greek version of STRS in the current study was overall good (Closeness <emph>α</emph> = 0.83, Conflict <emph>α</emph> = 0.90 and Dependency <emph>α</emph> = 0.67).</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-10">Children's Instruments</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0171347919-11">Quality of Child-Teacher Relationships</hd> <p>The Greek version of the Child Appraisal of Relationships with Teacher Scale -CARTS (Vervoort et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref92">44</reflink>]) was used to investigate children's perceptions about their relationships with their teachers. The validity and reliability of the Greek version of CARTS were also previously examined (e.g., Gregoriadis et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref93">11</reflink>]; Vatou et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref94">41</reflink>]). The Greek adaption of CARTS consists of 16 items and assesses the three dimensions of relationships Closeness (4 items, e.g., "I like to be with my teacher"), Conflict (7 items, e.g., "My teacher often punishes me") and Dependency (5 items, e.g., "I often ask my teacher whether I do things right"). According to the developers of CARTS, the scale is completed in two phases. First, the child listens to a given statement the researcher reads, and the child confirms it or not. Then, the child responds whether the given statement is "always" or "sometimes" true. A researcher notes each child's; response on a five-point Likert scale (1—"No, always", 2—"No sometimes", 3—"Child understands the item, but does not answer with yes or no", 4—"Yes, sometimes" and 5—"Yes, always"). The internal consistency of the Greek version of CARTS in the current study was good (Closeness <emph>α</emph> = 0.63, Conflict <emph>α</emph> = 0.71 and Dependency <emph>α</emph> = 0.75).</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-12">Receptive Language Skills</hd> <p>The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—Revised (PPVT-R; Dunn & Dunn, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref95">7</reflink>]) was used to measure children's receptive language skills. The PPVT-R is a widely used measure with high psychometric properties. The children were shown a series of four pictures. During the assessment, a researcher said a spoken word and instructed the children to point to the picture that illustrated the word (noun, verb, or adjective) that the researcher just stated (e.g., "Show me 'horse'"). The PPVT-R has been validated in previous Greek studies (Simos et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref96">35</reflink>]) including a nationally representative sample of children. In this study, PPVT-R scores have demonstrated high reliability (<emph>α</emph> = 0.83).</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-13">Procedures</hd> <p>Data were collected across the preschool year (2019–2020). The research protocol and the ethics of this study were approved by the Greek National Educational Policy Institute. Teachers were recruited through email or a telephone communication with preschool directors and meetings to provide information about the study were conducted by the first researcher. Participating teachers and parents signed informed consents forms on the first visit to the school.</p> <p>Eight children, whose parents consent their participation in each classroom, were randomly selected to participate in the study (four girls and four boys). One classroom's sample consisted of nine children because there were five boys in the whole classroom. The researcher (first author) engaged in small activities and routines with children to make them feel comfortable. Then, upon the child's agreement, the researcher administrated the vocabulary task individually with each child in a quiet area. Children's perceptions about their relationships with teachers were assessed at the same session. Each session lasted approximately 30 min. Then, teachers rated the quality of their relationships with each child by filing in the STRS questionnaires.</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-14">Analytic Approach</hd> <p>Descriptive and correlational analyses were initially conducted for all variables in the model. Next, multiple regression analysis was used to investigate the relations between the quality of teacher–child relationships and children's receptive language skills. Two multiple regression models were estimated: one for STRS and another for CARTS to examine the prediction of children's receptive language skills. In these models, children's age and gender were also examined as predictors of children's achievement. This dataset did not have any missing values and all analyses were conducted in SPSS Statistics version 27.</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-15">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0171347919-16">Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analyses</hd> <p>Table 1 displays descriptive statistics and simple correlations for all variables. The correlations do not consider the hierarchical structure of the data; thus, the results should be interpreted with caution.</p> <p>Table 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p><italic>M</italic> (SD)</p></th><th align="left"><p>Min</p></th><th align="left"><p>Max</p></th><th align="left"><p>1</p></th><th align="left"><p>2</p></th><th align="left"><p>3</p></th><th align="left"><p>4</p></th><th align="left"><p>5</p></th><th align="left"><p>6</p></th><th align="left"><p>7</p></th><th align="left"><p>8</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1.Children's gender</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2. Children's age</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.14 (0.597)</p></td><td align="left"><p>4</p></td><td align="left"><p>6</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3. Closeness-STRS</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.12 (0.57)</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.89</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.18**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.02</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4. Cοnflict-STRS</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.29 (.51)</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.64</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.12**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.40**</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5. Dependency-STRS</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.92 (0.68)</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.08*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.11**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.22**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6. Closeness-CARTS</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.45 (0.46)</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.13**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.15**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.16**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>7. Cοnflict-CARTS</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.22 (0.43)</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.33</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.15**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.12**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.24**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.24**</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>8. Dependency-CARTS</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.38 (0.96)</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.20**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.10**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.10**</p></td><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>9. PPVT</p></td><td align="left"><p>41.22 (4.3)</p></td><td align="left"><p>31.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>49.0</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.31**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.10**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.10*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.08*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.10**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.07**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.28**</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>*</emph> <emph>p</emph> < 0.05 <emph>**</emph><emph>p</emph> < 0.001</p> <p>The correlations among STRS, CARTS subscales and PPVT-R showed that children's receptive language skills were positively correlated with both 'closeness' subscales and negatively correlated with 'conflict' and 'dependency' subscales. Correlations regarding children's gender showed statistically significant relations with all three relational dimensions, with the exception of dependency subscale of CARTS. Children's age was significantly positively correlated with PPVT-R (<emph>r</emph> = 0.31, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) and negatively correlated only with 'dependency' subscales (<emph>r</emph> = − 0.11, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001 for STRS and <emph>r</emph> = − 0.20, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001 for CARTS).</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-17">The Quality of Teacher–Child Relationships and Children's Receptive Language Skills</hd> <p>Regarding teachers' and children's reports for closeness, conflict and dependency, a series of multiple regression analyses using 'PPVT-R' as the outcome variable were conducted. Overall, the results revealed that STRS subscales and children's age and gender accounted for 11.6% of the variance in children's receptive language skills (<emph>F</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref97">5</reflink>, 911)</subs> = 29.758, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). Moreover, results showed that CARTS subscales and children's age accounted for 14.6% of the variance in children's receptive language skills (<emph>F</emph><subs>(<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref98">5</reflink>, 911)</subs> = 38.89, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). Teacher–child closeness, teachers-child dependency and children's age were significant predictors of children's receptive language skills (Table 2). In general, the <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> difference between the first and second model indicated that the second regression model explained much more variation in children's receptive language skills rather than the first model.</p> <p>Table 2 Regression analysis results predicting PPVT from STRS and CARTS</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2" /><th align="left" colspan="4"><p>PPVT—receptive language skills</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p><italic>β</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>t</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>F</italic></p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="5"><p>STRS</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Children's age</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.24**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.772</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Closeness</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.722*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.718</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Conflict</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.519</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 1.788</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Dependency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.432*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 2.082</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.116</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>29.758**</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="5"><p>CARTS</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Children's age</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.915**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.350</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Closeness</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.847*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.863</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Conflict</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.269</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.667</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Dependency</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.919**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 6.687</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.146</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>38.890**</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>*</emph> <emph>p</emph> < 0.05 <emph>**</emph><emph>p</emph> < 0.001</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-18">Discussion</hd> <p>This study examined teachers' and children's perceptions of closeness, conflict and dependency, and their associations to the children's receptive language skills. When it comes to examining the association between teacher–child relationships and children's early skills development most studies approach the topic by using only the closeness and conflict dimensions of the quality of teacher–child relationships (e.g., Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref99">5</reflink>]; Jerome et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref100">17</reflink>]; Solheim et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref101">36</reflink>]). The current study also included the dimension of dependency when examining the relation between teacher–child relationships and children's receptive language skills.</p> <p>The initial findings regarding the association between teachers' and children's perceptions about their relationships and children's receptive language skills showed a small to moderate relation (ranging from − 0.07 to − 0.28). However, STRS and CARTS variables yielded a similar direction regarding children's receptive language skills. This finding is in contrast with previous findings (e.g., Hughes, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref102">16</reflink>]; Lim et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref103">21</reflink>]), in which teachers' and children's reports of their relationships predicted different school outcomes. For example, children's reports predicted children's sense of school belongingness, academic competence and math performance, whereas teachers' reports predicted children's behavioural engagement and academic competence (Hughes, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref104">16</reflink>]). In Lim et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref105">21</reflink>]) study, they reported that teacher-rated dependency predicted children's math achievement, whereas children's rated conflict was significant predictor of both children's math and literacy achievement.</p> <p>A series of multiple regression approach were used to further examine the contribution of teachers' and children's reports of their relationships and selected children's background characteristics on the children's receptive language skills. Results showed that teachers' and children's perceived closeness was a predictor of children's receptive language skills. This finding means that teacher–child close relationships have a positive effect on children's receptive language and children's language development can be supported in the context of positive and warm relationships (Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref106">37</reflink>]). Scholars have noted the robust role that supportive teacher–child relationships play in children's receptive language performance (e.g., Hamre & Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref107">13</reflink>]; Justice et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref108">18</reflink>]; Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref109">37</reflink>]), so this finding is not surprising.</p> <p>It is of interest that teacher–child dependency contributes negatively to the prediction of the children's receptive language skills. It seems that when teachers rate children as overly dependent and needy, children have low receptive language skills. This finding indicates that although children spend extra time with their teachers due to this dependent relationship, they do not gain language benefits (Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref110">28</reflink>]). Our findings seem to replicate those from individualistic societies showing that dependent children have low receptive language skills (Rudasill & Acar, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref111">31</reflink>]; Spilt et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref112">39</reflink>]). To some extent, this is unlike previous empirical research regarding the positive association between closeness and dependency. It seems that teacher–child dependency in the Greek context does not extend its impact to children's receptive language development. In other words, dependency may be perceived as a positive characteristic of the teacher–child relationship in the Greek educational context (Gregoriadis & Tsigilis, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref113">10</reflink>]; Gregoriadis et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref114">11</reflink>]), but it does not necessarily translate into benefits that a child might gain from a positive relationship with his/her teacher. Or it could mean that the positive interpretation of dependent teacher–child relationships is not influencing the child's learning outcomes as well.</p> <p>Contrary to prior findings (Rudasill & Acar, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref115">31</reflink>]; Schmitt et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref116">34</reflink>]), no significant associations were found between conflict and children's receptive language skills. Although correlation analysis supported a low significant negative association between conflict and children's language development, findings from regression analyses suggested that conflict did not act as predictor. A possible explanation of this finding could be the fact that there is a low variation in the measure of conflict for children, indicating that most teachers describe close relationships with their children and therefore, it is possible that children experience frequent positive interactions during learning activities (e.g., Rudasill & Acar, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref117">31</reflink>]).</p> <p>Regarding the children's background characteristics, the results showed that children's gender did not predict children's receptive language skills (e.g., Pakarinen et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref118">27</reflink>]). The lack of gender differences on children's vocabulary is surprising, in particular because in the literature gender norms and expectations were well established (e.g., Ewing & Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref119">8</reflink>]). For example, previous research noted that gender may act as a risk factor of poorer school adjustment and achievement, especially for boys (Hamre & Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref120">13</reflink>]). Finally, in line with previous studies, children's age was found to be positively contributing to their receptive language skills, demonstrating that older children tend to have higher vocabulary skills than younger children (e.g., Maier et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref121">22</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-19">Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research</hd> <p>Several limitations should be considered when interpreting the results of this study. First, we included both teachers' and children's reports of their relationships thus reducing the shared method bias. However, future studies that include independent ratings such as observations should examine further the study's variables. Secondly, this study has a cross-sectional nature and does not explore how children's receptive language development change regarding teacher–child relationships over time and, as such, causal inferences cannot be drawn because of our design. Future studies should apply experimental designs to determine cause-and-effect relations between teacher–child relationships and children's receptive language skills. Third, this study was conducted in a collectivistic context, so the results cannot be easily generalized in other cultural contexts. Moreover, the current study aspires to encourage a more in-depth examination of the dependency construct. It would be interesting, if future research attempts to apply both the STRS and CARTS in other educational settings to map their differences and examine the cultural influences as well.</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-20">Conclusions and Practical Implications</hd> <p>In conclusion, the present study contributes to our knowledge about teacher–child relationship quality and children's receptive language development in several ways. First, our findings indicated that both teachers and children rated the quality of their relationships showing the same direction with regard to children's receptive language skills. The fact that children's reports are consistently related to their outcomes suggest that children's perceptions are valuable and reliable measure of their interpersonal experiences. Second, in this study, the quality of the teacher–child relationships was assessed by including all three relational dimensions (closeness, conflict, and dependency), meaning that this study also investigated the dependency as a potential predictor of children's receptive language skills. Contrary to our expectations, however, teacher–child dependency had a negative effect on children's receptive language skills. This finding suggests that teacher–child dependency may have negative connotations independent on the type of society (collectivistic vs individualistic).</p> <p>The findings of this study have several practical implications for early childhood teachers and for pre-service teachers' educators. First, it is evident that supportive teacher–child relationships affect children's receptive language development. It appears that a learning language environment facilitated by teachers' emotional support, sensitivity and responsiveness to children's needs is extremely important to children's development (Cabell et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref122">3</reflink>]; Hamre & Pianta, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref123">13</reflink>]). In ECEC settings, teachers organize the learning environment to enhance children's academic and social development through playful activities. Teachers' use of questions or comments when interacting with children may be a way to enhance children's language within classrooms (Justice et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref124">19</reflink>]). Second, the results of this study highlight the importance of close relationships in comparison to dependent relationships. Teachers' knowledge regarding the existence of specific malleable dimensions of teacher–child relationships that influence children's language development, may provide teachers with evidence-based instructional practices and classroom management skills to create inclusive, positive classroom environments for all children. We also suggest more attention to be directed towards the dependency dimension of the quality of teacher–child relationships that is linked negatively to children's language skills. When children perceive their relationships with teachers as dependent, it is more likely to be academically at risk. To help children be more independent, professional development or intervention programs should focus on supporting teachers with skills or individualized practices to deal with dependent relationships.</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-21">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>We have greatly valued teachers' participation in this research study and their willingness to share about their experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-22">Author contributions</hd> <p>All authors contributed to the study conception and design. AV and AG organized the database. AV and NT performed the statistical analysis. All authors wrote sections of the manuscript. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-23">Funding</hd> <p>This work was supported by the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation under the HFRI PhD Fellowship grant (Scholarship Code:1056).</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-24">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0171347919-25">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0171347919-26">Ethical approval</hd> <p>The ethical approval was provided from the Greek National Educational Policy Institute (Official ethics committee of the Greek Ministry of Education). Protocol number of the license approval: Φ15/72273/136296/Δ1. 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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Quality of Teacher-Child Relationships: An Exploration of Its Effect on Children's Emergent Literacy Skills
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Vatou%2C+Anastasia%22">Vatou, Anastasia</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9081-9068">0000-0001-9081-9068</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gregoriadis%2C+Athanasios%22">Gregoriadis, Athanasios</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3026-6614">0000-0002-3026-6614</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Tsigilis%2C+Nikolaos%22">Tsigilis, Nikolaos</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2388-959X">0000-0002-2388-959X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Grammatikopoulos%2C+Vasilis%22">Grammatikopoulos, Vasilis</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7556-6162">0000-0001-7556-6162</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22International+Journal+of+Early+Childhood%22"><i>International Journal of Early Childhood</i></searchLink>. Aug 2023 55(2):279-294.
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  Label: Availability
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 16
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Primary+Education%22">Primary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Preschool+Education%22">Preschool Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Student+Relationship%22">Teacher Student Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Emergent+Literacy%22">Emergent Literacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Kindergarten%22">Kindergarten</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preschool+Teachers%22">Preschool Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preschool+Children%22">Preschool Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Measures+%28Individuals%29%22">Measures (Individuals)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Rating+Scales%22">Rating Scales</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intelligence+Tests%22">Intelligence Tests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Verbal+Ability%22">Verbal Ability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Vocabulary%22">Vocabulary</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Predictor+Variables%22">Predictor Variables</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Greece%22">Greece</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectThesaurus
  Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Student+Teacher+Relationship+Scale%22">Student Teacher Relationship Scale</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Peabody+Picture+Vocabulary+Test%22">Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s13158-022-00325-y
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0020-7187<br />1878-4658
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The current study aims to examine the way in which teachers' and children's perceptions about their relationships influence children's emergent literacy skills. Participants were 913 children and 114 kindergarten teachers within 72 preschool centers from Greece. The measures used were the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS), the Child Appraisal of the Relationship with the Teacher Scale (CARTS), and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R). Results of multiple regression analyses showed that teacher-child closeness and children's age were positively associated with children's receptive language skills, whereas teacher-child dependency was negatively associated with children's receptive language skills. Collectively, findings highlight the importance of supportive teacher-child relationships and their impact on child's language development.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1391165
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    Identifiers:
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        Value: 10.1007/s13158-022-00325-y
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 16
        StartPage: 279
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Student Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Emergent Literacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Kindergarten
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Children
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      – SubjectFull: Rating Scales
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      – SubjectFull: Predictor Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Greece
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Teacher Relationship Scale
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
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      – TitleFull: Quality of Teacher-Child Relationships: An Exploration of Its Effect on Children's Emergent Literacy Skills
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