View in EDS HTML Full Text PDF Full Text

Factors Impacting Reading Motivation: Insights from the Bioecological Model of Human Development

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Title: Factors Impacting Reading Motivation: Insights from the Bioecological Model of Human Development
Language: English
Authors: Hitomi Kambara (ORCID 0000-0001-5302-1305), Yu-Cheng Lin
Source: Journal of Educational Research. 2023 116(5):309-321.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 13
Publication Date: 2023
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Grade 4
Intermediate Grades
Descriptors: Reading Motivation, Sociocultural Patterns, Child Development, Foreign Countries, Grade 4, Cultural Differences
Geographic Terms: United States, Japan
DOI: 10.1080/00220671.2023.2265881
ISSN: 0022-0671
1940-0675
Abstract: There is an absence of cross-cultural qualitative research exploring sociocultural factors affecting reading motivation. To address the gap, the present study adopted the Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model of human development to investigate factors impacting reading motivation across American and Japanese fourth grade students. Additionally, we aimed to identify ways to motivate both students to read. Semi-structured interviews for 12 students in each country were conducted. Our study identified a consistent pattern in which the reading motivation of both American and Japanese students was directly influenced by the "microsystem." Our findings also suggest distinct patterns between American and Japanese students. While American students exhibited a direct impact from the "microsystem," Japanese students' reading motivation was influenced by several systems, including the "microsystem," "exosystem," and "macrosystem." We explained that the observed unique patterns between American and Japanese students could be due to cultural differences. We identified several effective ways to motivate students to read.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2023
Accession Number: EJ1405104
Database: ERIC
Full text is not displayed to guests.
FullText Links:
  – Type: pdflink
    Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwG_5Dpxc9BUFDkdD2lt1mBcAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDCi_dGxjmbxxXVEYwAIBEICBmx6u-sUKtWmnTNBvgkFrUOxAzW8WqgGPrLVTF0ado29gFk0o-g7MIxkwhp1gAf9VAxRkELGIhq-FqouHut15tT4AXfbhrixOy5QNYlM9P-DcumeDHevh0xmbTCtC6mx5f76Ih3clxFDW_VCU3lHRNHjkfw2iBaom5qKqG0-LADPx-XEcYMaF5ynOKHg6Rc9R2BMaNiGXadGpNmAI
Text:
  Availability: 1
  Value: <anid>AN0173452021;ere01sep.23;2023Nov08.04:12;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0173452021-1">Factors impacting reading motivation: Insights from the bioecological model of human development </title> <p>There is an absence of cross-cultural qualitative research exploring sociocultural factors affecting reading motivation. To address the gap, the present study adopted the Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model of human development to investigate factors impacting reading motivation across American and Japanese fourth grade students. Additionally, we aimed to identify ways to motivate both students to read. Semi-structured interviews for 12 students in each country were conducted. Our study identified a consistent pattern in which the reading motivation of both American and Japanese students was directly influenced by the microsystem. Our findings also suggest distinct patterns between American and Japanese students. While American students exhibited a direct impact from the microsystem, Japanese students' reading motivation was influenced by several systems, including the microsystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. We explained that the observed unique patterns between American and Japanese students could be due to cultural differences. We identified several effective ways to motivate students to read.</p> <p>Keywords: Cross-cultural research; reading motivation; sociocultural factors; the bioecological model of human development</p> <p>Reading motivation is a significant factor that impacts individuals' reading accomplishment and reading comprehension (Barber & Klauda, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref1">5</reflink>]; De Naeghel et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref2">15</reflink>]; Hebbecker et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref3">20</reflink>]; Stutz et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref4">62</reflink>]; Taboada et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref5">64</reflink>]; Unrau & Schlackman, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref6">67</reflink>]; Wang & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref7">68</reflink>]). Reading motivation refers to the individual's self-belief, goals, and values toward the topics and activities related to reading (Guthrie & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref8">17</reflink>]). Reading motivation is extremely critical for readers because it "concerns energy, direction, persistence, and equifinality–all aspects of activation and intention" (Ryan & Deci, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref9">57</reflink>], p. 69). Without reading motivation, young readers "will never reach their full literacy potential" (Gambrell, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref10">16</reflink>], p. 1). Thus, elementary school is especially essential for cultivating reading motivation along with solid reading skills (Gambrell, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref11">16</reflink>]).</p> <p>As culture forms one's motivation and attitudes (Klassen et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref12">34</reflink>]), cultural differences between Eastern Asian and Western countries may significantly impact students' motivation and attitudes (Karasawa et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref13">30</reflink>]; Klassen et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref14">34</reflink>]; Salili et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref15">60</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref16">69</reflink>]). There are unique cultural values related to students' motivation and perceived ability (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref17">69</reflink>]). Particularly, the cultural differences between Japan and the United States might affect motivation through the distinctive structures of schools and parents (Karasawa et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref18">30</reflink>]; Markus & Kitayama, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref19">41</reflink>]; Salili et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref20">60</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref21">69</reflink>]). For instance, schools in Japan tend to incorporate a great number of shared task structures focused on effort and performance that require group collaboration and teamwork (Karasawa et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref22">30</reflink>]). Thus, Japanese students tend to perceive ability as a cooperative effort (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref23">69</reflink>]). Conversely, schools in the United States are likely to establish structures based on individual mastery, exertion, and capability; therefore, American students may perceive ability as more of a personal action (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref24">69</reflink>]). While we already know that cultural differences may sharpen students' motivation, there are very scarce reading motivation studies conducting a cross-cultural comparison between Western and Eastern countries, and particularly fewer cross-cultural comparisons of reading motivation between the United States and Japan (Kambara & Lin, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref25">24</reflink>]; Kambara et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref26">27</reflink>]). Kambara & Lin ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref27">24</reflink>]) compared American and Japanese fourth grade students' reading motivation. Their quantitative results found that American students showed higher reading motivation than Japanese students regardless of gender. To further investigate country and gender effects on reading motivation in both countries, Kambara et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref28">27</reflink>]) investigated self-construal and reading motivation between Hispanic American and Japanese college students. They found that reading motivation, especially the component of reading efficacy, was modulated by country, suggesting that sociocultural differences might influence reading motivation.</p> <p>However, these existing quantitative studies exclusively focused on the relation between reading motivation and sociocultural factors (e.g., self-construal) and failed to provide different perspectives of participants, including in-depth and comprehensive descriptions of participants' beliefs and thoughts (McGeown et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref29">46</reflink>]). One of the promising ways to overcome this limitation is to employ a qualitative approach through the bioecological model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref30">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref31">10</reflink>]; Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref32">11</reflink>]) to investigate the impact of unique sociocultural factors on reading motivation. Unlike the quantitative approach, using the bioecological model of human development can advance our knowledge toward different layers of relationships that explicitly and implicitly affect students' reading motivation between the United States and Japan. The present qualitative investigation aimed to identify specific sociocultural factors related to American and Japanese students' reading motivation using the bioecological model of human development. This study also sought to identify some ways to motivate them to read. Thus, we addressed two research questions in this paper: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref33">1</reflink>) What are sociocultural factors affecting reading motivation among American and Japanese students? and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref34">2</reflink>) What are some ways to motivate them to read?</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-2">Theoretical framework</hd> <p>To better comprehend sociocultural factors impacting reading motivation, this study adopted the bioecological model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref35">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref36">10</reflink>]; Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref37">11</reflink>]) which asserts that individuals' psychobiological dispositions, such as personality traits and ethnicity, interact with individuals' ecological environments in affecting their motivation and growth (Liem & McInerney, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref38">38</reflink>]). The contribution of this study is to use the bioecological model of human development in literacy research to investigate factors impacting American and Japanese students' reading motivation. The model introduces five levels of relationship that explicitly and implicitly affect the individuals. The <emph>microsystem</emph> presents the direct impacts and interactions with individuals such as family, teachers, friends, and peers in home and school environments as well as a religious community. The <emph>mesosystem</emph> represents the interaction between two or more varied units with which the individual has direct contact. Instances of the <emph>mesosystem</emph> are the interaction between teachers and parents, or between siblings and friends. The <emph>exosystem</emph> shows the factors that indirectly affect informal and formal social structures, including the educational system, educational policies, and assessment practices. The <emph>macrosystem</emph> displays the effect of wider cultural contexts that account for how people and institutions in the inner systems (<emph>micro-</emph>, <emph>meso</emph>-, and <emph>exosystem</emph>) impact individuals. An example includes the level of the subculture that involves some related cultural beliefs, norms, and ideologies (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref39">9</reflink>]). The <emph>chronosystem</emph> mirrors the time-related dimensions (consistencies or changes) of the systems (<emph>micro-</emph>, <emph>meso</emph>-, <emph>exo-,</emph> and <emph>macrosystem)</emph> that impact individuals' academic development, containing adjustment or assumption of individuals' achievement goals (Liem & Elliot, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref40">37</reflink>]). Examples include environmental changes that occur over life, future possibilities, and past experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-3">Factors impacting reading motivation: parents, teachers, and peers</hd> <p>Numerous factors, including parental involvement, parental beliefs, home literacy environment, teachers, and friends have been found to contribute to reading motivation (Baker & Scher, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref41">4</reflink>]; De Naeghel et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref42">14</reflink>]; Jang et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref43">23</reflink>]; Klauda & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref44">35</reflink>]; Loera et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref45">40</reflink>]; Merga, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref46">47</reflink>]; Sweet et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref47">63</reflink>]; Yeo et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref48">72</reflink>]; Zhou & Salili, [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref49">75</reflink>]). Particularly, some studies reported that parental involvement was the most powerful influence on students' reading motivation (Baker & Scher, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref50">4</reflink>], Yeo et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref51">72</reflink>]). For instance, Baker and Scher ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref52">4</reflink>]) revealed that parents' beliefs toward reading importance were positively associated with their children's reading motivation, including competence, value, and enjoyment. Furthermore, teachers were found to be another essential factor in predicting students' reading motivation. Prior research studies indicated that autonomy-supportive teachers had a positive correlation with students' intrinsic reading motivation (De Naeghel et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref53">14</reflink>]; Jang et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref54">23</reflink>]; Sweet et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref55">63</reflink>]). Jang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref56">23</reflink>]) indicated that students' engagement can be enhanced by the combination of teachers' autonomy support and structure. De Naeghel et al. ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref57">14</reflink>]) also reported that teacher involvement, autonomy support, and structure were significant in facilitating students' autonomous reading motivation. In addition to teacher and parental related factors, Klauda and Wigfield ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref58">35</reflink>]) reported that students displayed enjoyment in engaging in discussions with their friends about reading materials. Similarly, Merga ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref59">47</reflink>]) reported that peer encouragement was positively correlated with students' reading engagement. The results indicated that friend influence was one of the significant aspects impacting students' reading motivation.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-4">Cross-cultural studies of reading motivation</hd> <p>To the best of our knowledge, there are only three studies that have examined elementary students' reading motivation across different countries. Two cross-cultural studies explored reading motivation between the United States and Eastern Asia. Wang and Guthrie ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref60">68</reflink>]) examined the impact of reading amount, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, and past reading achievement on text comprehension between Taiwanese and American fourth grade students. They demonstrated that intrinsic motivation positively correlated with text comprehension, while extrinsic motivation negatively correlated with text comprehension in both groups of students. No difference in either intrinsic or extrinsic reading motivation among American and Taiwanese students was reported. Recently, Kambara & Lin ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref61">24</reflink>]) investigated country and gender differences in reading motivation between American and Japanese fourth grade students. The study reported that American students showed higher reading motivation than Japanese students on most dimensions. They claimed that individualistic and collectivistic cultures may strongly influence students' reading motivation across the two countries. However, Kambara & Lin ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref62">24</reflink>]) study did not find any gender effect across the countries. One of the few studies investigated reading motivation between United States and multiple countries. Orellana et al. ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref63">53</reflink>]) looked at the reading motivation of different grades from kindergarten to second grade in the United States, Finland, Greece, and Chile. The findings reported that students' reading motivation patterns across the four countries were similar, and students' reading motivation exhibited an increase at the end of the school year. All three existing cross-cultural studies employed quantitative methods. Thus, the current literature lacks qualitative studies that compare reading motivation across different countries.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-5">Cultural differences between western countries and Eastern Asian countries</hd> <p>Culture refers to regular activities and practices held by a certain group of people (Razfar & Gutiérrez, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref64">54</reflink>]). The United States holds an individualistic culture deeply rooted in Greek Philosophy (Nisbett, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref65">51</reflink>]; Triandis, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref66">65</reflink>]). Individuals in these cultures have an independent view of self that perceives themselves as separate from others (Markus & Kitayama, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref67">41</reflink>]). Individualistic cultures predominantly emphasize independence and personal goals (Hamamura, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref68">19</reflink>]). Self-expression, social recognition, and competition are encouraged in individualistic societies (Kitayama et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref69">32</reflink>]; Triandis et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref70">66</reflink>]) as self-reliance is typically related to competition with others and independence (Hsu, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref71">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>Conversely, Japan has a collectivistic culture which was strongly influenced by Confucianism (Winfield et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref72">71</reflink>]). Individuals in collectivistic cultures hold an interdependent view of self, which links personal success with the shared success of others (Matsumoto, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref73">44</reflink>]). Collectivistic societies and Confucianism encourage in-group conformity and cooperation (Kitayama et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref74">32</reflink>]) as individuals value group membership and connection with others (Guzley et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref75">18</reflink>]; Hamamura, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref76">19</reflink>]). Hence, collectivism is related to low levels of competition (Triandis et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref77">66</reflink>]). Compliance is particularly viewed as proper behavior in collectivistic cultures where individuals must fulfill others' expectations in a rigidly hierarchical society (Winfield et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref78">71</reflink>]).</p> <p>These cultural distinctions across the two countries significantly influence motivation (Markus & Kitayama, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref79">41</reflink>]) as the norms and values that exist within an individual's culture frame the development of one's motivation and attitudes (Klassen, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref80">33</reflink>]; Oettingen & Zosuls, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref81">52</reflink>]). Furthermore, individuals in individualistic cultures emphasize their enhancements to build their self-efficacy beliefs (Kitayama et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref82">32</reflink>]). In contrast, individuals in collectivistic cultures are likely to derive more value from the expectations of their in-group members, especially authority figures, such as teachers and parents (Oettingen & Zosuls, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref83">52</reflink>]). These dissimilarities in the growth of self-efficacy beliefs are related to cultural differences in how individuals evaluate their ability (Kambara et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref84">27</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref85">69</reflink>]). For example, Kambara et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref86">27</reflink>]) revealed that social orientation in collectivistic and individualistic countries directly correlates with reading motivation, specifically reading self-efficacy.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-6">Method</hd> <p>We used a multiple-case study to address our research questions. A multiple-case study yields more vigorous and compelling validations than a single case study (Yin, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref87">74</reflink>]). It contains more than one case or duplications across the cases to examine similar circumstances (Lewis-Beck et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref88">36</reflink>]; Yin, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref89">74</reflink>]) as separate case studies to "predict similar results" (Yin, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref90">74</reflink>], p. 55). In the present study, we conducted semi-structured interviews of 24 participants across the two countries to grasp detailed contextual information about the unique sociocultural influences on students' reading motivation and identify ways to motivate them to read. We integrated quantitative information into our qualitative results to enhance the precision and scientific aspects of our statements (Maxwell, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref91">45</reflink>]), aiming "to identify and accurately characterize the diversity of actions, perceptions, or beliefs within the studied setting or group" (p. 478).</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-7">Researcher positionality</hd> <p>We recognize our roles as the tool of our research to endorse trustworthiness. We reflect on our positionality and acknowledge that our curiosity, perceptions, and life experiences may influence our interpretations of the study. We are both professors and researchers who identify as Eastern Asian and international scholars in the United States. The first author is a Japanese-English bilingual and a literacy scholar. She grew up in Japan until the completion of high school and immigrated to the United States to complete higher education. The second author is a Taiwanese-Chinese-English trilingual and conducts research related to bilingualism, language, and cognition. Both authors have worked with students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds in both K-12 and higher education contexts. We have conducted several reading motivation research studies with participants across different racial and ethnic backgrounds and in international contexts. With our background in multilingual contexts and expertise in reading motivation, we are familiar with the multidimensionality and uniqueness of reading motivation across diverse cultures. The first author is particularly fluent in both Japanese and American cultures and languages. However, we must concede that our participants may hold different life and educational experiences than ourselves. We aimed to embrace a rich interview process to assure we captured our participants' multiple voices and perspectives.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-8">Participants</hd> <p>A total of 24 participants including 12 American and 12 Japanese fourth grade students participated in this study. Table 1 shows a list of participants' demographics, containing names (pseudonyms), ages, gender, ethnicity, and reading level. The 12 American participants (<emph>M</emph> = 9.5 years) were selected from two elementary schools that were in middle-class communities in the Midwest region of the United States. The first elementary school contained a total of 829 students (664 white, 16 Native American, 37 Asian, 17 African American, and 50 Hispanic students, as well as 45 students of two or more races) from pre-K to fifth grade and contained 87 fourth grade students. The other school consisted of a total of 736 students (698 white, 12 Native American, 5 Asian, 3 African American, and 12 Hispanic students, as well as five students of two or more races) and included 79 fourth grade students. The 12 Japanese participants (<emph>M</emph> = 9.75 years) were also recruited from two elementary schools that were classified as middle-class communities in the central northern region of Japan. The first school contained 403 students (401 Japanese and 2 mixed races) comprising 49 fourth grade students, while the other school included 507 students (504 Japanese and 3 mixed races) containing 74 fourth grade students. We employed purposive sampling (Yin, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref92">73</reflink>]) to select the participants whose characteristics were relevant to the study: (a) average readers and (b) fourth grade students based on information and verifications from school principals and teachers. The average readers were identified by teachers in the participating schools based on the annual testing scores.</p> <p>Table 1. American and Japanese participant demographics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>American Participants (Pseudonyms)</td><td>Ethnicity</td><td>Gender</td><td>Age</td><td>Reading Level</td><td>Japanese Participants (Pseudonyms)</td><td>Ethnicity</td><td>Gender</td><td>Age</td><td>Reading Level</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Michael</td><td>White</td><td>Male</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td><td>Mieko</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td></tr><tr><td>Elle</td><td>White</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">9</td><td>Average</td><td>Shunsuke</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Male</td><td char=".">9</td><td>Average</td></tr><tr><td>Sam</td><td>White</td><td>Male</td><td char=".">9</td><td>Average</td><td>Yumi</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td></tr><tr><td>Chrystal</td><td>White</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td><td>Akiko</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td></tr><tr><td>Julissa</td><td>Hispanic</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td><td>Sumire</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td></tr><tr><td>Ryan</td><td>White</td><td>Male</td><td char=".">9</td><td>Average</td><td>Ichiro</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Male</td><td char=".">9</td><td>Average</td></tr><tr><td>George</td><td>White</td><td>Male</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td><td>Kayo</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td></tr><tr><td>Carolina</td><td>Hispanic</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">9</td><td>Average</td><td>Aiko</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td></tr><tr><td>Laura</td><td>White</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td><td>Motoru</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Male</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td></tr><tr><td>Kenneth</td><td>African- American</td><td>Male</td><td char=".">9</td><td>Average</td><td>Omitaro</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Male</td><td char=".">9</td><td>Average</td></tr><tr><td>Angela</td><td>White</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td><td>Yuriko</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td></tr><tr><td>Stacy</td><td>White</td><td>Female</td><td char=".">9</td><td>Average</td><td>Ken</td><td>Japanese</td><td>Male</td><td char=".">10</td><td>Average</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0173452021-9">Interviews</hd> <p>Each student participated in a semi-structured individual interview lasting 50-70 min with the first author in a room at their school. Interview questions included open-ended questions to comprehend sociocultural influences affecting participants' reading motivation and ways to enhance students' reading motivation in both countries. The interview questions consisted of a total of 18 questions. Sixteen questions (e.g., <emph>How do you feel when your friends recommend their favorite books for you to read? Can you give a few examples of the books?</emph>) were based on sociocultural influences (e.g., family, teachers, and friends) impacting elementary students' reading motivation derived from the bioecological model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref93">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref94">10</reflink>]; Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref95">11</reflink>]). Two questions (e.g., <emph>What motivates you to read more at school</emph>?) focused on ways to increase elementary students' reading motivation. For Japanese participants, the first author, a proficient Japanese-English bilingual, completed the translation of the interview questions from English into Japanese. Three Japanese-English researchers assessed the translated interview questions for accuracy and cultural appropriateness. The discrepancies between the English and back-translated versions were contrasted and discussed numerous times until full agreement was reached by all researchers. We also piloted the interview questions with a fourth-grade student in each country who did not participate in the study. Based on their feedback, we revised our interview questions. Through interviews, we obtained observational data about students' daily reading activities and experiences in more detail. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-10">Procedures</hd> <p>Before submitting the application to the university institutional review board (IRB), we contacted elementary schools to seek their support in the present study and received consent and support letters from school principals. Upon receiving the IRB approval, we obtained parental and child consent forms from the interested schools before data collection and the first author's visit. Teachers and school principals helped the researchers choose participants for this study. Participants took part in an individual semi-structured interview in a private room with the first author at the participants' schools.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-11">Data analysis</hd> <p>We utilized a combination of provisional and initial codes (Saldana, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref96">59</reflink>]) to develop codes from the interview transcriptions. To develop provisional codes, we first revisited the theoretical framework. Following the same procedure proposed by Miles et al. ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref97">48</reflink>]), each researcher identified several provisional codes (e.g., <emph>parents</emph> and <emph>teachers</emph>) based on the theoretical framework. Second, initial codes (e.g., <emph>competition</emph> and <emph>compliance)</emph> were included when participants shared ideas that were not covered by the provisional codes. We noted analytic memos (Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref98">12</reflink>]) that contained codes and direct quotes. Finally, we selected themes based on the reemergence of codes and collaboratively engaged in discussions throughout the whole process. In sum, we categorized and interpreted the themes by using the multiple levels of the bioecological model of human development to answer Research Question 1 (see Tables 2 and 3). The data from interview questions 1-16 were used to address Research Question 1. We identified three themes related to American students' reading motivation: (a) Parental and Teacher Influences, (b) Competition with Peers, and (c) Recognition from Others. We found four themes related to Japanese students' reading motivation: (a) Peer Influence, (b) Compliance with Adults' Expectations, (c) Grades and Academic Success for the Future, and (d) Manga. To address Research Question 2, we adopted a similar procedure based on the categories of the bioecological model of human development (see Tables 4 and 5). The data from interview questions 17 and 18 were used to address Research Question 2. We discovered two themes related to ways to enhance American students' reading motivation: (a) Technology-Enriched Learning Environments and (b) Reading Materials Based on Students' Reading Interests. Moreover, we identified two different themes related to ways to facilitate Japanese students' reading motivation: (a) Reading Enjoyment and (b) Supportive Environments for Reading Interests.</p> <p>Table 2. American students' microsystem codes and themes.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>BBMHD</td><td>Theme</td><td>Codes</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Microsystem</td><td>Parental and teacher influences</td><td>Mom</td><td>Teacher</td><td>Dad</td><td>Parents' read aloud</td><td>Library visits with parents</td><td>Reading</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td char=".">100%</td><td char=".">100%</td><td char=".">50%</td><td char=".">75%</td><td char=".">75%</td><td char=".">42%</td></tr><tr><td>Competition with peers</td><td>Reading better than classmates</td><td>Reading faster than classmates</td><td>Desire to read above grade level than peers</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td char=".">83%</td><td char=".">67%</td><td char=".">58%</td></tr><tr><td>Recognition with others</td><td>Compliments from parents</td><td>Compliments from teachers</td><td>Recognition from peers</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td char=".">100%</td><td char=".">83%</td><td char=".">75%</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph>. BBMHD: Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model of Human Development.</p> <p>Table 3. Japanese students' microsystem, exosystem, and macrosystem codes and themes.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>BBMHD</td><td>Theme</td><td>Codes</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>MicrosystemMicrosystem</td><td>PeerInfluence</td><td>Book suggestion from friends</td><td>Book exchange with classmates</td><td>Positive attitudes toward friend recommendations</td></tr><tr><td /><td char=".">83%</td><td char=".">58%</td><td char=".">83%</td></tr><tr><td>Compliance with Adults' Expectations</td><td>Meeting parents' expectations92%</td><td>Accommodating parents' strong emphasis on school grades83%</td></tr><tr><td>Exosystem</td><td>Grades and Academic Success for the Future</td><td>Reading for grades100%</td><td>Reading for the future 100%</td><td>Reading for entrance exams 75%</td></tr><tr><td>Macrosystem</td><td>Manga</td><td>Manga</td><td>Adult negative attitudes toward manga</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td char=".">100%</td><td char=".">58%</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 <emph>Note</emph>. BBMHD: Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model of Human Development.</p> <p>Table 4. American students' codes and themes about ways to motivate to read.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Theme</td><td /><td /><td /><td>Codes</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Technologyenriched learning environments</td><td>Computer games</td><td>Reading online</td><td>Online videos</td></tr><tr><td char=".">75%</td><td char=".">67%</td><td /><td char=".">58%</td></tr><tr><td>Reading materials based on students' reading interests</td><td>More book choice in instruction</td><td>More teacher support for reading interests</td></tr><tr><td char=".">75%</td><td char=".">67%</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 5. Japanese students' codes and themes about ways to motivate to read.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Theme</td><td>Codes</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Reading enjoyment</td><td>Reading for fun</td><td>Reading excitement</td></tr><tr><td char=".">100%</td><td char=".">100%</td></tr><tr><td>Supportive environments for reading interests</td><td>More support for reading choices</td><td>Manga as a reading choice</td></tr><tr><td char=".">75%</td><td char=".">58%</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Japanese students' responses were translated into English by the first author who is a Japanese-English bilingual speaker. Two Japanese-English bilingual researchers carefully reviewed and verified that equivalent translation was achieved. Further revisions of inappropriate expressions and vague phrases translated from Japanese to English were conducted. For instance, the English translation directly from the original response in Japanese "what I have been told is studying and reading by both teachers and parents are for my grades" was rephrased as "what I have been told by both teachers and parents is studying and reading are for my grades." This cross-cultural adaptation procedure ensured that the English translation was appropriate for readers while maintaining the original meanings of the interviewees.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-12">Trustworthiness</hd> <p>We established the trustworthiness of our research study following the four requirements of Lincoln and Guba ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref99">39</reflink>]). To improve credibility, we conducted member checking to ensure that transcripts represented participants' intended meanings by revisiting each participant and obtaining approvals on the transcription. To establish transferability, we provided rich and thick descriptions, including the findings and the context of the study. We included external audits to establish dependability. Three researchers who are not part of the research team examined both the research process and the results of the research study. To foster confirmability, we reflected and reported our research positions and potential biases in the method section above.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-13">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173452021-14">Factors affecting reading motivation between American and Japanese students</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173452021-15">American students</hd> <p>Among the American samples, we found three factors: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref100">1</reflink>) parental and teacher influence, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref101">2</reflink>) competition with peers, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref102">3</reflink>) recognition from others, that reflected the <emph>microsystem</emph> based on the bioecological model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref103">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref104">10</reflink>]; Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref105">11</reflink>]). <emph>The microsystem,</emph> which represents people who have direct interactions with a student, strongly impacted American students' reading motivation.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-16">Microsystem</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173452021-17">Parental and teacher influences</hd> <p>The daily reading activities and involvement with parents and teachers play an important role in shaping students' reading engagement and perceptions of reading. Participants reported that parental involvement was crucial in stimulating students' reading motivation. All participants mentioned their mothers' influence, and 50% of participants reported about their fathers' influence. Parents' read aloud and library visits with parents were discussed by 75% of the participants. For instance, Angela stated,</p> <p>Every weekend, my mom brings me and my brother to a local library to choose books we can read for a week. My mom or dad reads books to us before we sleep every night. I like when my parents do. They are really good at reading aloud with funny voices and faces.</p> <p>Additionally, Elie stated, "I love to read thanks to my mom. My mom has bought a lot of interesting books for me and my sister. She reads books to us during our bedtime stories."</p> <p>Furthermore, teacher involvement was reported as a strong contributing factor to students' reading motivation. All participants mentioned a significant teacher's influence on their reading engagement and behavior. Our data indicated that 42% of participants mentioned that their reading teacher impacted their reading motivation. For instance, Sam reported how his teacher influenced his interest in reading, "My teacher is a reading teacher. She wants the whole class to read more and enjoy reading. She makes reading so much fun. She always shares with us about her favorite books." Stacy also reported, "My reading teacher tells me every day to keep reading. I read, and reading is getting fun, as she said." Angela also described how her teacher has promoted her reading enjoyment, "My teacher reads different types of books to the class twice a day. I like to listen to my teacher reading."</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-18">Competition with peers</hd> <p>Social competition plays a critical role in encouraging American students to engage in reading activities and read more books. According to our data, 83% of participants indicated that they were motivated by competition to read better than their classmates, while 67% of participants reported they wanted to read faster than their classmates. George shared his competition with his friends about reading speeds, "My friends and I just talk about who can finish reading first. It is fun to do competitions." Laura also described her motivation, "It is important for me to be the best. I want to read faster and get better grades than my friends." Additionally, Sam stated how he and his friend compete based on their test scores,</p> <p>My friend and I were playing a game about who can finish a chapter book first and get higher scores on a reading passage. I read it first and made a 100. He got an 85. I had a higher score than him. I feel so excited to get a better score than my friend. I always want to win.</p> <p>Moreover, 58% of participants reported competitiveness about reading above grade level. For example, Michael remarked on the significance of reading above his grade level, and particularly about being higher than his classmates, "I want to read better than my classmates. I was excited when I was told I read above my grade level and read better than other classmates." Elle also added her comments, "My teacher told me I am reading sixth-grade level books, so I want to read more difficult books. I read better than my other friends."</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-19">Recognition from others</hd> <p>All American participants mentioned that obtaining recognition from others, such as parents, teachers, and peers, was one of the main reasons they engage with reading. All participants indicated they read in order to receive compliments from their parents. George stated, "My parents are so happy when I get 100 on my reading tests. My dad said I am awesome. I want to read more and have good scores on tests." Kenneth mentioned, "My mom and dad say I am really good at reading. That is why I read more and get high scores on a test." Stacy also shared how her parents' recognition motivated her,</p> <p>My parents always tell me I am good at reading and encourage me to read more. They are so proud of my reading performance. I like to hear more from my parents that I am a good reader. I want to get high scores on reading!</p> <p>Our data indicated that 83% of participants reported they engage with reading in order to obtain compliments from their teachers. Kenneth shared his perspective about how important his teacher's compliments are for him as he engages with reading, "I am very good at reading. Most of the time, I get 100 on reading quizzes. I like to hear from my teachers that I am the smartest kid in class." Julissa referenced that receiving teachers' recognition encouraged her to read more, "My teacher always told me I am such a good reader! When she says it, I feel good and want to read more." Laura described how teachers' recognition is important in motivating her to read, "I get the highest score in my class and got an award for the <emph>super reader</emph>. My teachers say to me that I am a good reader. I want to be recognized as the best reader in my class." Furthermore, 75% of the participants indicated that they read in order to obtain recognition from their peers. Chrystal stated how recognition from peers is important for her motivation to read,</p> <p>A lot of classmates look at my scores on reading tests and say, 'Oh my gosh, you are so good at reading.' Also, many times, my friends ask me which reading level I am at. They are like 'Wow! You read at a fifth-grade level. You are a really good reader!' I feel really good when they say that. I am proud of myself.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-20">Japanese students</hd> <p>Among the Japanese samples, we found four factors: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref106">1</reflink>) peer influence, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref107">2</reflink>) compliance with adults' expectations, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref108">3</reflink>) grades and academic success for the future, and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref109">4</reflink>) manga that reflect the <emph>microsystem</emph>, <emph>exosystem</emph>, and <emph>macrosystem</emph> of the bioecological model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref110">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref111">10</reflink>]; Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref112">11</reflink>]). <emph>The microsystem (</emph>people who have direct interactions with an individual), the <emph>exosystem</emph> (educational system, educational policies, and assessment practices), and the <emph>macrosystem</emph> (cultural norms and activities) impacted their reading motivation.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-21">Microsystem</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173452021-22">Peer influence</hd> <p>Our data indicated that 83% of participants reported that book suggestions from friends motivated them to read and impacted them in becoming skillful readers. In addition, 58% of participants shared that book exchanges with friends impacted their reading motivation. Yuriko stated,</p> <p>My best friend changed my view of reading. One day, she introduced an interesting book to me. I was not a fan of reading. Actually, I was a poor reader who constantly received low scores on Japanese tests until third grade. Now, I am really good at reading.</p> <p>Shunsuke also mentioned, "My classmate lent me a book series of Japanese history, I tried and finished them." In addition, Kayo discussed, "My classmate talked with me about his favorite history book. It made me try reading the book." Furthermore, Ken discussed, "Science became my favorite subject. In class, my best friend had a science book with fun quizzes, so I asked if the book is interesting. He said the book is interesting, so I tried it and loved it."</p> <p>Additionally, 83% of participants indicated positive attitudes regarding their friends' recommendations. Aiko stated, "I am interested in what my friends are reading. I would love to read books if my friends recommend them." Yuriko also mentioned, "I believe if my friends say that a book is good, it must be good." Furthermore, many students described positive attitudes about sharing their favorite books with their friends. Meiko mentioned, "I would like to share my favorite books with my friends because I am confident that they are so fun." Also, Shunsuke discussed, "I think my friends will enjoy what I am reading. They can't stop reading once they start."</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-23">Compliance with adults' expectations</hd> <p>Our data suggested that 92% of Japanese students discussed the significance of meeting parents' expectations. Shunsuke stated, "My dad pushes me to read textbooks every night before bed." Akiko similarly discussed, "My parents always ask me to read textbooks for at least 20 min before I go to bed. They are pretty strict about my reading time. It is sometimes hard, but I need to meet their rules and expectations." Koutaro also discussed his perspectives,</p> <p>My parents have been telling me to read for my grades. My parents require me to read textbooks with either one of them every day after school. I have limited time for my hobbies. I have to follow them because I do not want to fail to meet the expectations set by my parents and teacher.</p> <p>Accommodating a strong emphasis on grades from Japanese parents was also discussed by 83% of participants. Sumire stated, "My mom always cares about my test scores. She gets angry if I get low scores and tells me to read more. I feel like I need to keep studying, including reading, to meet my mom's expectations." Meiko also shared how her parents have high standards toward her performance, "My mom always asks me what my test scores are. She keeps saying that I better read textbooks more for my future. Getting high scores on tests is very important to my parents."</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-24">Exosystem</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173452021-25">Grades and academic success for the future</hd> <p>All Japanese participants demonstrated the primary reason to read is to do well for their grades and the future. Our data suggested that 75% of participants indicated they read to be able to pass entrance exams in the future. Kayo mentioned, "I need to read and get high scores on my tests. I do not want to go to a middle school that is at a low level." Akiko also discussed, "For me, reading helps me understand different subjects and get good grades in all subjects." Sumire mentioned, "I study hard and read a lot because I want to do well on tests and also the middle school entrance exam." Omitaro also mentioned, "The main purpose for reading is getting good test scores and going to a good high school and university." Additionally, Yumi shared her perspectives on the reasons why she reads,</p> <p>It is important to get high scores on tests and go to a good middle school, high school, and college. Both parents and teachers frequently encourage me to study more to get good grades on tests. My parents especially told me that I can pass a college entrance exam, go to a good university, and will be successful in the future if I study more. Teachers just tell me and other students to study hard. They do not emphasize 'reading' particularly, but I interpret that studying includes reading. Due to the influence of the adults around me, I consider reading as the most significant element for my grades and future because I cannot get good grades in all subjects without reading.</p> <p>Furthermore, Shunsuke reported his perspective,</p> <p>I care about my grades a lot because they are important for my future. My parents and teachers encourage me to study hard, so I read for grades and my future. Some subjects are fun to read, so I like to read them. But some subjects are not fun at all. I have to read textbooks to get good grades, even though I do not enjoy them.</p> <p>Ken also stated,</p> <p>I consider reading very important for grades. Teachers and parents always told me reading is very important for my future. Without reading, I cannot get good grades and become successful in the future. There are a lot of tests I need to pass. I need to pass entrance exams for middle school, high school, and university.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-26">Macrosystem</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173452021-27">Manga</hd> <p>All Japanese participants implied that fiction, particularly <emph>manga</emph> (Japanese comics), reading materials greatly stimulated their reading interests. Ken mentioned, "Manga makes me forget time. One hour can pass so quickly." In addition, Sumire stated, "My favorite book genre is definitely manga. It is so fun and amazing." Yuriko shared her perspective, "I enjoy reading manga and actually learn a lot from reading manga. I learn different types of perspectives about life and people." Koutaro also communicated his perspective related to manga, "Manga has been very popular among kids in Japan. Many friends and I love to read the manga. Some TV shows were based on manga, and I love to read these manga based on TV." In addition, Ichiro shared about his strong reading interest,</p> <p>My favorite manga is <emph>Detective Conan</emph>. Reading manga makes me laugh and entertains me very much. Generally, I do not like reading, but the manga is different. I wish all subjects were written in manga formats. I do not like history and science. But if our textbooks were written in manga formats, I would love to read them.</p> <p>Regardless of the popularity, 58% of the participants mentioned adult negative attitudes toward manga. Sumire mentioned,</p> <p>My teacher told me that manga is not an ideal book. But, my parents bought me a series of manga about Japanese history. I do not like reading traditional history books. Manga makes me comprehend the content better. I do not think the manga is bad for education, but most adults think so. I believe it depends on the content.</p> <p>Additionally, Motoru stated his view toward manga,</p> <p>Manga has been particularly popular among kids around my age. But, the society and adults view manga as non-educational reading materials. I kind of disagree with the common view that manga is not good for kids' education. My parents and teachers always tell me to stop reading my manga and focus on reading textbooks.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-28">Ways to motivate elementary students to read across the United States and Japan</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173452021-29">American students</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173452021-30">Technology-enriched learning environments</hd> <p>Many American students portrayed a strong interest and demand for technology integration into their daily reading-related activities to improve their reading motivation. Our data suggested that 75% of participants indicated their preferences for computer games, and 67% of participants preferred to read online. Additionally, 58% of participants desired more online videos. For example, Carolina stated, "I would love to do more computer reading games and tests." George mentioned, "If I could have more time to engage with reading games on a PC, I would love it and enjoy reading." In addition, Kenneth stated, "I enjoy reading games on computers and tablets. I love to do them more." In addition, Stacy added how reading online helps her enjoy reading,</p> <p>I really enjoy reading online which is much better than reading typical books. One of my favorite websites has stories with movies and quizzes afterward. I hope my parents and teachers allow me to read online more so I can have more enjoyment and motivation to read.</p> <p>Here, Elle suggested that online visual supports help her understand new vocabulary and enhance her reading comprehension,</p> <p>I like when my teacher sometimes includes materials and videos online. My teacher, Mrs. Smith, shows pictures and videos of new vocabulary before we start reading new books in class. That makes me easily understand new vocabulary and content. I hope I can engage with more technology in reading and learning.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-31">Reading materials based on students' reading interests</hd> <p>Our data suggested that 75% of participants stated they wished they had more book choices in instruction, while 67% of participants reported more teacher support for reading interests. They claimed that the current reading instruction and reading materials do not meet their reading interests. For example, Michael stated, "The books used in classrooms are not so interesting to me." Julissa also mentioned, "If we could have more choices to read based on our interests, it would be fun." Furthermore, Ryan also discussed, "Books we study could be based on our interests. It would be great if teachers asked us to choose." Angela shared her view on reading materials used in class,</p> <p>I feel like my teacher could use more reading materials based on our interests. Some materials are not interesting to me. I like to read more favorite books. If my teachers asked us about our favorite books and gave us more time to read any types of books we preferred, I would enjoy reading.</p> <p>George additionally stated his opinion toward materials he wished to read,</p> <p>I would be more motivated if my teacher let us select books to accommodate our interests. My teacher uses some specific books which do not always interest me. She could ask each of us which books we want to study as a class.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-32">Japanese students</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173452021-33">Reading enjoyment</hd> <p>While all Japanese students described how reading has been encouraged by parents and teachers, all students embraced the significance of having more reading enjoyment in their learning. Ichiro mentioned, "I hope I can have reading enjoyment, besides reading for grades." Sumire commented, "Reading for a grade is not fun. I hope I can enjoy reading." Aiko remarked how important reading enjoyment is for her to continue to be a reader, "I do not hate reading, but what I have been told by both teachers and parents is studying and reading are for my grades. I hope there is more time to enjoy reading. I want to read for fun."</p> <p>Mieko stated,</p> <p>I know reading is important for my grades and my future. Everyone, my teachers and" is too big and should be the same as "parents, always tell me to study hard. I understand reading is important for my Japanese grades. But I really hope my teachers and parents also see that reading is fun. What they say is to study and read more. They never tell us to enjoy reading.</p> <p>Motoru also shared his opinion about the need for reading enjoyment,</p> <p>Reading should be enjoyable. For me, reading can help us learn new knowledge and broaden our views. In Japanese culture, I feel like we do not have any space to enjoy reading. What we are told is always to study harder and more. I hope that the culture can be changed to focus on more reading enjoyment.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-34">Supportive environments for reading interests</hd> <p>Our data indicated that 75% of Japanese students expressed the need to have more support for their reading interests to be better-motivated readers. Akiko stated, "Generally, we do not have any choices in our reading materials, besides summer reading assignments." Shunsuke also shared, "During Japanese class, we just study from textbooks." Additionally, Kayo stated, "I would enjoy reading if we were given more choices for reading materials." Yumi discussed how choices would help motivate her more as a reader,</p> <p>I always hope I have my choice of reading materials. I barely have an interest in textbooks that are used for my Japanese class. My teacher just teaches us what we have from textbooks. I hope I have more room to choose what we can read and study on a daily basis. I would enjoy reading and studying if the Japanese class meets my reading interests.</p> <p>Our data suggested that 58% of participants showed strong interest in manga, but showed concerns about not receiving recognition for their reading interests. Motoru strongly claimed, "No adults around me say I can read the manga." Aiko discussed, "People think manga is not reading. My teacher told me that manga just represents people's conversation, so they are not educational." Shunsuke discussed his perspective on manga,</p> <p>I believe manga should be considered reading. Reading means understanding what texts' messages are using my imagination. Actually, I can learn about new worlds and perspectives from my manga. Sometimes, I can learn new vocabulary from my manga. If manga can be integrated into textbooks, that would make content easy to understand.</p> <p>Sumire also shared her view on manga,</p> <p>I think the manga is easy to understand and makes learning fun. Manga could be a good way to facilitate learning. Seeing visuals makes me understand content easier than reading traditional books. Maybe, the Japanese class could integrate more visuals like manga, so learning would be so much more fun.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-35">Discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173452021-36">Factors affecting the reading motivation among American and Japanese elementary students</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0173452021-37">American students</hd> <p>This study revealed unique factors influencing reading motivation among American and Japanese elementary students by implementing the bioecological model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref113">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref114">10</reflink>]; Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref115">11</reflink>]). First, the present study identified three factors: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref116">1</reflink>) parental and teacher influence, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref117">2</reflink>) competition with peers, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref118">3</reflink>) recognition from others, that reflect the <emph>microsystem</emph> of the bioecological model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref119">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref120">10</reflink>]; Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref121">11</reflink>]) for American students. The current study showed that parental and teacher involvement have a prominent role in influencing American students' reading motivation. The result of the present study offers another piece of evidence for the positive association between parental involvement and reading motivation as established in previous studies that revealed that home literacy environment, particularly parental involvement, has a remarkably significant effect on students' reading motivation and interest (e.g., Baker & Scher, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref122">4</reflink>]; Loera et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref123">40</reflink>]; Yeo et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref124">72</reflink>]; Zhou & Salili, [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref125">75</reflink>]). Furthermore, the findings in the current study are consistent with a prior study that revealed teachers who devote their resources and display passion can enhance students' reading motivation (De Naeghel et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref126">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>Moreover, American students demonstrated competition and recognition, which are classified as extrinsic components of reading motivation (wigfield & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref127">70</reflink>]). They described a strong desire to outperform their peers' performances by comparing reading speed and grades. In addition, they were highly motivated to read to receive recognition, such as compliments from parents, peers, and teachers. Because individuals' cultural experience shapes the development of reading motivation (Wang & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref128">68</reflink>]), the observed results could be possibly explicated by American individualistic cultures in which competition and recognition are strongly encouraged (Hsu, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref129">21</reflink>]; Triandis et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref130">66</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-38">Japanese students</hd> <p>In contrast to factors related to American students' reading motivation, we discovered four factors: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref131">1</reflink>) peer influence, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref132">2</reflink>) compliance with adults' expectations, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref133">3</reflink>) grades and academic success for the future, and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref134">4</reflink>) manga that reflect the <emph>microsystem</emph>, <emph>exosystem</emph>, and <emph>macrosystem</emph> of the bioecological model of human development (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref135">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref136">10</reflink>]; Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref137">11</reflink>]) for Japanese students. Our data informed us that strong tendencies to meet expectations from adults, such as parents, which represent <emph>the microsystem,</emph> was observed to affect reading motivation. The concept of compliance could be implicated in Eastern Asian students. The results reflect the influence of Confucianism on Japanese culture, which firmly cherishes obedience in a rigid authoritarian society (Winfield et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref138">71</reflink>]). Particularly, people in Eastern Asian countries are expected to obey authority figures, namely parents and teachers, and meet their expectations (Oettingen & Zosuls, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref139">52</reflink>]; Winfield et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref140">71</reflink>]). As compliance is considered an appropriate and anticipated behavior in Eastern Asian countries (Kishimoto & Maehara, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref141">31</reflink>]), Japanese students exhibited a great degree of compliance. Moreover, Japanese students displayed that their peers provided a positive influence on their motivation to read, which mirrors <emph>the microsystem</emph>. Consistent with the previous findings (Klauda & Wigfield, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref142">35</reflink>]; Merga, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref143">47</reflink>]), Japanese students exhibited great pleasure in discussing their favorite reading materials with friends, and they also listened to friends' recommendations. Through peer influence, many of our participants revealed positive experiences enjoying reading and enhancing reading engagements, even for specific subjects they did not prefer.</p> <p>Additionally, grades and academic success in the future affected Japanese students' reading motivation<emph>, the exosystem</emph> of the bioecological model. The enormous influence of a heavily weighted test-driven culture in the Japanese education system and culture is a feasible rationale for this result (Kambara, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref144">28</reflink>]). Japan is an achievement-based society (Maruyama, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref145">42</reflink>]) in which the consideration is that education leads to success in life (Bacquet, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref146">3</reflink>]). In particular, the university entrance exam plays a significant role in one's academic success and future and has been "a common source of chronic anxiety for students, parents, and teachers" (Shimahara, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref147">61</reflink>], p. 253). Educational goals in the Japanese K-12 education system reflect an explicit primary purpose: to pass the university entrance exam and get into a "big-name" university (Allen & Ingulsrud, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref148">1</reflink>]; Beauchamp, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref149">6</reflink>]). In this test-driven educational context, Japanese students described the strong influence on their reading motivation from parents who stress the significance of studying hard, getting good grades, and eventually passing a college entrance exam, as well as teachers who underline the importance of studying hard to get good grades. Both teachers' and parents' opinions are influential because students tend to value feedback, expectations, and opinions from adults, especially from authority figures, including teachers and parents (Kitayama et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref150">32</reflink>]; Oettingen & Zosuls, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref151">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>Furthermore, <emph>the macrosystem</emph>, a unique cultural activity, drastically affected Japanese students' motivation to read. The strong interest in manga (Japanese comics) was described by all participating students. This result is not surprising; manga has been a notable element of pop culture and is the most common popular media in Japan (Ito, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref152">22</reflink>]; Matanle et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref153">43</reflink>]). The results from the present study corroborated with previous studies that Japanese students possess an enormous interest in manga (Allen & Ingulsrud, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref154">1</reflink>]; Kambara, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref155">28</reflink>]). Comparable with the prior study that examined reasons for reading manga for college students (Allen & Ingulsrud, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref156">1</reflink>]), our elementary participants also displayed tremendous reading enjoyment from reading manga and shared that manga allows them to learn new vocabulary and broaden their worldview.</p> <p>Taken together, this study revealed there are similarities and differences in factors impacting reading motivation between American and Japanese students. An example of similarity includes <emph>the microsystem</emph> representing the closest level of influence and interaction with students. It showed a direct impact on both American and Japanese students. However, as for the differences between the two groups, American students' reading motivation only encompassed <emph>the microsystem</emph>, whereas Japanese students' reading motivation comprised three systems (<emph>the microsystem, exosystem</emph>, and <emph>macrosystem</emph>). Such a discrepancy could be due to the variation in the views of selves in the two countries which was reported by previous studies (Kitayama et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref157">32</reflink>]; Markus & Kitayama, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref158">41</reflink>]). Voluminous research studies classified that American people have independent views that the self is separate from others (Brewer & Chen, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref159">8</reflink>]; Kitayama et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref160">32</reflink>]; Markus & Kitayama, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref161">41</reflink>]; Matsumoto, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref162">44</reflink>]; Mok et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref163">49</reflink>]; Triandis, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref164">65</reflink>]). Therefore, it is feasible that their reading motivation was influenced by a direct interaction between an individual and the people surrounding them. In contrast, Japanese students' reading motivation was significantly influenced by multi-layered systems due to their interdependent view of selves, in which individuals perceive themselves in connection with other people and tend to receive more direct and indirect influences from others. Thus, Japanese students showed a more complex layer of systems compared to American students. Recently, Kambara et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref165">27</reflink>]) reported that the views of selves (self-construal) significantly predicted reading motivation among American and Japanese students, showing evidence for the effect of independent and interdependent self-construal on reading motivation. It is important to note that all circles in the bioecological model of human development explicitly and implicitly affect individuals. Although we found a direct microsystem influence on American students' reading motivation, we did not exclude the possibility that there are some indirect influences from other levels of the bioecological model of human development. Future studies are needed to investigate the possibility.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-39">Multiple ways of motivating elementary students to read</hd> <p>Both American and Japanese students expressed wishes to obtain more support for their reading interests in daily instruction and curriculum. Specifically, students in both countries stressed the need for autonomy in selecting their reading materials. Previous research has delineated that students' intrinsic reading motivation could be nurtured when autonomy support is provided by their teachers (Allred & Cena, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref166">2</reflink>]; Kambara & Lin, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref167">26</reflink>]; De Naeghel et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref168">14</reflink>]; Jang et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref169">23</reflink>]). For instance, Allred and Cena ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref170">2</reflink>]) revealed that adolescents' attitudes toward reading and reading self-efficacy can be improved by offering self-selection reading opportunities. De Naeghel et al. ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref171">14</reflink>]) and Jang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref172">23</reflink>]) also disclosed that the combination of teachers' autonomy support and structure was found to be the most successful way to cultivate students' reading motivation. Particularly, Japanese students expressed their desire to choose manga as their reading material. Despite students' strong interests and desires, Japanese parents and teachers tend to condemn manga as inappropriate reading materials and disallow students to read manga, as previously reported in Allen and Ingulsrud ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref173">1</reflink>]) study. However, some researchers documented that comics and graphic novels might be effective in facilitating students' learning in numerous ways (Allen & Ingulsrud, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref174">1</reflink>]; Brenna, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref175">7</reflink>]; Sabbah et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref176">58</reflink>]). Several studies claimed that manga allows learners to acquire different strategies to facilitate problem-solving and word recognition processes, and to learn reading comprehension strategies to enhance their reading comprehension (Allen & Ingulsrud, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref177">1</reflink>]; Brenna, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref178">7</reflink>]; Sabbah et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref179">58</reflink>]).</p> <p>In contrast, American students showed great interest in the more frequent use of technology in their everyday instruction. The effectiveness of digital reading on students' reading motivation has been noted by some past studies (Ciampa, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref180">13</reflink>]; Kao et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref181">29</reflink>]; Nielen et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref182">50</reflink>]). For example, Ciampa's ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref183">13</reflink>]) study found that students' reading motivation increased when students experienced online reading software. Kao et al. ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref184">29</reflink>]) reported that providing e-books in interactive ways can promote reading motivation and story comprehension.</p> <p>Different from American students, Japanese students displayed the need for reading enjoyment in their learning. Due to the strong impact of the unique test-driven culture, reading for grades has been heavily emphasized in Japan; particularly, Japanese teachers and parents exclusively focus on reading for grades and academic success. Reading enjoyment is closely related to intrinsic motivation (Wang & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref185">68</reflink>]). The positive effect of reading enjoyment on several elements (e.g., reading comprehension, intrinsic motivation) has been emphasized by a great body of studies (Retelsdorf et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref186">55</reflink>]; Rogiers et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref187">56</reflink>]; Wang & Guthrie, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref188">68</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-40">Limitations</hd> <p>The current study possesses several limitations. First, our data primarily pertains to samples consisting of average readers from middle-class communities within a specific location. Future research should aim to include students from various reading proficiency levels, socioeconomic backgrounds, and geographical areas. It is important to acknowledge that our sample does not comprehensively represent the entire student populations in both countries. Second, researcher positionality may potentially influence the interpretations drawn from the observed data. For instance, both authors possess backgrounds and research experiences focused on cross-cultural studies, which could lead them to actively seek out similarities and differences among different countries. To address this, it is advisable for subsequent researchers to independently investigate reading motivation within each individual country. Third, the present study only interviewed students in specific regions across the two countries and cannot be overgeneralized to all cross-cultural comparisons. Several studies revealed that reading motivation can vary across diverse racial and ethnic groups (Kambara, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref189">28</reflink>]; Kambara et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref190">26</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref191">27</reflink>]; Kambara & Lin, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref192">24</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref193">26</reflink>]). Including different racial and ethnic groups can further confirm the factors impacting reading motivation and ways to motivate students to read. Fourth, the present study only relied on student interviews which leave out other potential data sources such as artifacts and observations, among others. The contexts in our study were large and diverse, whereas the data sources were from a slice of the context. Lastly, further studies can implement a mixed method approach incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data although the present qualitative study used the numerical data to offer supplemental evidence for the conclusion and interpretations following the claims by Maxwell ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref194">45</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-41">Conclusion</hd> <p>Scant research studies investigated reading motivation with the qualitative consideration of cultural impacts. The present study qualitatively examined the factors affecting reading motivation across American and Japanese students by adopting Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model of human development. Our findings revealed that both American and Japanese fourth graders' reading motivation is directly influenced by the microsystem. Compared with American students, Japanese students displayed more direct influences on their reading motivation from multiple layers of the bioecological model. Furthermore, the study reported ways to motivate both American and Japanese fourth grade students to read. This study was one of the first cross-cultural qualitative studies to provide novel insights into reading motivation using the bioecological model of human development.</p> <hd id="AN0173452021-42">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.</p> <ref id="AN0173452021-43"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref33" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Allen, K., & Ingulsrud, J. E. (2003). Manga literacy: Popular culture and the reading habits of Japanese college students. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 46 (8), 674 – 683.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref34" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Allred, J. B., & Cena, M. E. (2020). Reading Motivation in High School: Instructional Shifts in Student Choice and Class Time. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 64 (1), 27 – 35. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.1058</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref102" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Bacquet, J. (2020). Implications of summative and formative assessment in Japan – A review of the current literature. International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies, 8 (2), 28 – 35. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.8n.2p.28</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref41" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Baker, L., & Scher, D. (2002). Beginning readers' motivation for reading in relation to parental beliefs and home reading experiences. Reading Psychology, 23 (4), 239 – 269. https://doi.org/10.1080/713775283</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref1" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Barber, A. T., & Klauda, S. L. (2020). How reading motivation and engagement enable reading achievement: Policy implications. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7 (1), 27 – 34. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732219893385</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref149" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Beauchamp, E. R. (1992). Japanese and U.S. education compared. (Report: Fastback 338). Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref175" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Brenna, B. (2013). How graphic novels support reading comprehension strategy development in children: How graphic novels support reading comprehension. Literacy, 47 (2), 88 – 94.–. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-4369.2011.00655.x</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref159" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Brewer, M. B., & Chen, Y.-R. (2007). Where (who) are collectives in collectivism? Toward conceptual clarification of individualism and collectivism. Psychological Review, 114 (1), 133 – 151. ()., (), –. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.114.1.133</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref30" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). Developmental research, public policy, and the ecology of childhood. Child Development, 45 (1), 1 – 5. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127743</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32 (7), 513 – 531. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1994). Nature-nurture reconceptualised: A bio-ecological model. Psychological Review, 101 (4), 568 – 586. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.101.4.568</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. Sage Publications.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ciampa, K. (2012). Electronic storybooks: A constructivist approach to improving reading motivation in grade 1 students. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue Canadienne de L'éducation, 35 (4), 92 – 136. <ulink href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/canajeducrevucan.35.4.92">http://www.jstor.org/stable/canajeducrevucan.35.4.92</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> De Naeghel, J., Valcke, M., De Meyer, I., Warlop, N., van Braak, J., & Van Keer, H. (2014). The role of teacher behavior in adolescents' intrinsic reading motivation. Reading and Writing, 27 (9), 1547 – 1565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-014-9506-3</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> De Naeghel, J., Van Keer, H., Vansteenkiste, M., & Rosseel, Y. (2012). The relation between elementary students' recreational and academic reading motivation, reading frequency, engagement, and comprehension: A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104 (4), 1006 – 1021. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027800</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gambrell, L. B. (2009). Creating opportunities to read more so that students read better. In E. H. Hiebert (Ed.), Read more, read better (pp. 251 – 260). Guilford.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (3rd ed.). Longman.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Guzley, R. M., Araki, F., & Chalmers, L. E. (1998). Cross-cultural perspectives of commitment: Individualism and collectivism as a framework for conceptualization. Southern Journal of Communication, 64 (1), 1 – 19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10417949809373114</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hamamura, T. (2012). Are cultures becoming individualistic? A cross-temporal comparison of individualism-collectivism in the United States and Japan. Personality and Social Psychology Review : An Official Journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 16 (1), 3 – 24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311411587</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hebbecker, K., Förster, N., & Souvignier, E. (2019). Reciprocal effects between reading achievement and intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation. Scientific Studies of Reading, 23 (5), 419 – 436. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2019.1598413</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hsu, F. L. K. (1983). Rugged individualism reconsidered: Essay's in psychological anthropology. The University of Tennessee Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ito, K. (2008). Manga in Japanese history. In M. W. Macwilliams (Ed.), Japanese visual culture: Explorations in the world of manga and anime. M.E. Sharpe, 26 – 47.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Jang, H., Reeve, J., & Deci, E. L. (2010). Engaging students in learning activities: It is not autonomy support or structure but autonomy support and structure. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102 (3), 588 – 600. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019682</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kambara, H., & Lin, Y. C. (2021). Differences in reading motivation between American and Japanese students. Journal of Literacy Research, 53 (3), 361 – 381. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086296X211030455</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kambara, H., & Lin, Y. C. (2022). Investigating reading motivation in Latinx college students: Qualitative insights from bilingual readers. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1 – 16. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2021.2021212</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kambara, H., Chen, P., Adachi, S., & Lin, Y. (2021). Validating the adult motivation for reading scale with Japanese college students. International Journal of Educational Research, 108, 101752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2021.101752</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kambara, H., Lin, Y. C., & Adachi, S. (2022). Self-construal predicts reading motivation: A comparison between Hispanic American and Japanese college students. Social Psychology of Education, 25 (2–3), 593 – 623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-022-09698-3</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kambara, H. (2020). Exploring Japanese fourth graders' motivation to read: A mixedmethod study. Literacy Research and Instruction, 60 (2), 180 – 197. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2020.1806416</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kao, G.-T., Tsai, C., Liu, C.-Y., & Yang, C.-H. (2016). The effects of high/low interactive electronic storybooks on elementary school students' reading motivation, story comprehension and chromatics concepts. Computers & Education, 100, 56 – 70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.04.013</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Karasawa, M., Little, T. D., Miyashita, T., Mashima, M., & Azuma, H. (1997). Japanese children's action-control beliefs about school performance. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20 (3), 405 – 423. https://doi.org/10.1080/016502597385207</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kishimoto, H., & Maehara, M. (2015). Compliance and persistence with daily, weekly, and monthly bisphosphonates for osteoporosis in Japan: Analysis of data from the CISA. Archives of Osteoporosis, 10 (1), 1 – 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11657-015-0231-6</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., Matsumoto, H., & Norasakkunkit, V. (1997). Individual and collective processes in the construction of the self: Self-enhancement in the United States and self-criticism in Japan. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72 (6), 1245 – 1267. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1245</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Klassen, R. M. (2004). Optimism and realism: A review of self-efficacy from a cross-cultural perspective. International Journal of Psychology, 39 (3), 205 – 230. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590344000330</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Klassen, R., Wilson, E., Siu, A. F. Y., Hannok, W., Wong, M. W., Wongsri, N., Sonthisap, P., Pibulchol, C., Buranachaitavee, Y., & Jansem, A. (2013). Preservice teachers' work stress, self-efficacy, and occupational commitment in four countries. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28 (4), 1289 – 1309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-012-0166-x</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Klauda, S. L., & Wigfield, A. (2012). Relations of perceived parent and friend support for recreational reading with children's reading motivations. Journal of Literacy Research, 44 (1), 3 – 44. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086296X11431158</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lewis-Beck, M., Bryman, A. E., & Liao, T. F. (2003). The Sage encyclopedia of social science research methods. Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Liem, G. A. D., & Elliot, A. J. (2018). Sociocultural influences on achievement goal adoption and regulation: A goal complex perspective. In G. A. D. Liem & D. M. McInerney (Eds.), Big theories revisited 2 (pp. 41 – 67). Information Age Publishing.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Liem, G. A., & McInerney, D. M. (2018). Big theories revisited 2. Information Age Publishing.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Loera, G., Rueda, R., & Nakamoto, J. (2011). The association between parental involvement in reading and schooling and children's reading engagement in Latino families. Literacy Research and Instruction, 50 (2), 133 – 155. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071003731554</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98 (2), 224 – 253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Maruyama, F. (2014). Education reform and social class in Japan: The emerging incentive divide, education reform and social class in Japan. Educational Studies in Japan, 8, 169 – 171. https://doi.org/10.7571/esjkyoiku.8.169</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Matanle, P., Ishiguro, K., & McCann, L. (2014). Popular culture and workplace gendering among varieties of capitalism: Working women and their representation in Japanese manga: Popular culture and workplace gendering. Gender, Work & Organization, 21 (5), 472 – 489. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12050</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Matsumoto, D. (1999). Culture and self: An empirical assessment of Markus and Kitayamas theory of independent and interdependent self-construals. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2 (3), 289 – 310. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-839X.00042</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Maxwell, J. A. (2010). Using numbers in qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 16 (6), 475 – 482. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800410364740</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> McGeown, S., Bonsall, J., Andries, V., Howarth, D., & Wilkinson, K. (2020). Understanding reading motivation across different text types: Qualitative insights from children. Journal of Research in Reading, 43 (4), 597 – 608. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12320</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Merga, M. K. (2014). Peer group and friend influences on the social acceptability of adolescent book reading. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 57 (6), 472 – 482. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.273</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2019). Qualitative data analysis: A method sourcebook (4th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Mok, S. Y., Bakaç, C., & Froehlich, L. (2021). My family's goals are also my goals': The relationship between collectivism, distal utility value, and learning and career goals of international university students in Germany. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 21 (2), 355 – 378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10775-020-09447-y</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Nielen, T., M. J., Smith, G. G., Sikkema-de Jong, M. T., Bisz, J., van Horne, B., & Bus, A. G. (2018). Digital guidance for susceptible readers: Effects on fifth graders' reading motivation and incidental vocabulary learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 56 (1), 48 – 73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633117708283</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Nisbett, R. E. (2003). The geography of thought: How Asians and Westerners think differently...and why. Free Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Oettingen, G., & Zosuls, K. M. (2006). Culture and self-efficacy in adolescents. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (pp. 245e – 2265). Information Age.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Orellana, P., Jacques, L., Korkeamäki, R., Tafa, E., & Gambrell, L. (2019). Motivation to read in grades K–2: A cross-cultural perspective. International Journal of Early Years Education, 27 (4), 423 – 440. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2019.1676201</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Razfar, A., & Gutiérrez, K. (2013). Reconceptualizing early childhood literacy: The sociocul- tural influence and new directions in digital and hybrid mediation. In J. Larson & J. Marsh (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood literacy (2nd ed., pp. 52 – 79). SAGE.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Retelsdorf, J., Köller, O., & Möller, J. (2011). On the effects of motivation on reading performance growth in secondary school. Learning and Instruction, 21 (4), 550 – 559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2010.11.001</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rogiers, A., Van Keer, H., & Merchie, E. (2020). The profile of the skilled reader: An investigation into the role of reading enjoyment and student characteristics. International Journal of Educational Research, 99, 101512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.101512</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. The American Psychologist, 55 (1), 68 – 78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sabbah, M., Masood, M., & Iranmanesh, M. (2013). Effects of graphic novels on reading comprehension in Malaysian year 5 students. Journal of Graphic Novels & Comics, 4 (1), 146 – 160. https://doi.org/10.1080/21504857.2012.757246</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Saldana, J. (2009). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. 3E. Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Salili, F., Chiu, C.-Y., & Hong, Y.-Y. (Eds.). (2001). Student motivation: The culture and context of learning. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shimahara, N. K. (1978). Socialisation for college entrance examinations in Japan. Comparative Education, 14 (3), 253 – 266. <ulink href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3098719">http://www.jstor.org/stable/3098719</ulink> https://doi.org/10.1080/0305006780140307</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stutz, F., Schaffner, E., & Schiefele, U. (2016). Relations among reading motivation, reading amount, and reading comprehension in the early elementary grades. Learning and Individual Differences, 45, 101 – 113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.11.022</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sweet, A. P., Guthrie, J. T., & Ng, M. M. (1998). Teacher perceptions and student reading motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90 (2), 210 – 223. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.90.2.210</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Taboada, A., Tonks, S. M., Wigfield, A., & Guthrie, J. T. (2009). Effects of motivational and cognitive variables on reading comprehension. Reading and Writing, 22 (1), 85 – 106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-008-9133-y</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Triandis, H. C. (1993). Collectivism and Individualism as Cultural Syndromes. Cross-Cultural Research, 27 (3–4), 155 – 180. https://doi.org/10.1177/106939719302700301</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Triandis, H. C., Bontempo, R., Villareal, M. J., Asai, M., & Lucca, N. (1988). Individualism and collectivism: Cross-cultural perspectives on self-ingroup relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54 (2), 323 – 338. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.2.323</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Unrau, N., & Schlackman, J. (2006). Motivation and its relationship with reading achievement in an urban middle school. The Journal of Educational Research, 100 (2), 81 – 101. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.100.2.81-101</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wang, J. H., & Guthrie, J. (2004). Modeling the effects of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, amount of reading, and past reading achievement on text comprehension between U.S. and Chinese students. Reading Research Quarterly, 39 (2), 162 – 186. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.39.2.2</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wang, M. T., Guo, J., & Degol, J. L. (2020). The role of sociocultural factors in student achievement motivation: A cross-cultural review. Adolescent Research Review, 5 (4), 435 – 450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00124-y</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wigfield, A., & Guthrie, J. T. (1997). Relations of children's motivation for reading to the amount and breadth of their reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89 (3), 420 – 432. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.89.3.420</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Winfield, B., Mizuno, T., & Beaudoin, C. (2000). Confucianism, collectivism and constitutions: Press systems in China and Japan. Communication Law and Policy, 5 (3), 323 – 347. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326926CLP0503_2</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Yeo, L. S., Ong, W. W., & Ng, C. M. (2014). The home literacy environment and preschool children's reading skills and interest. Early Education and Development, 25 (6), 791 – 814. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2014.862147</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Yin, R. K. (2011). Qualitative research from start to finish. The Guilford Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Yin, R. K. (2017). Case study research and applications: Design and methods. Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhou, H., & Salili, F. (2008). Intrinsic reading motivation of Chinese preschoolers and its relationship with home literacy. International Journal of Psychology : Journal International de Psychologie, 43 (5), 912 – 916. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590701838147</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Hitomi Kambara and Yu-Cheng Lin</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref91"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref92"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref96"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref97"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref98"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref99"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref127"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref141"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref144"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref145"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref147"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref152"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref153"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref163"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref167"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref176"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref180"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref181"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref182"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref186"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref187"></nolink>
Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1405104
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Factors Impacting Reading Motivation: Insights from the Bioecological Model of Human Development
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hitomi+Kambara%22">Hitomi Kambara</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5302-1305">0000-0001-5302-1305</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yu-Cheng+Lin%22">Yu-Cheng Lin</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Educational+Research%22"><i>Journal of Educational Research</i></searchLink>. 2023 116(5):309-321.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 13
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+4%22">Grade 4</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Intermediate+Grades%22">Intermediate Grades</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Motivation%22">Reading Motivation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sociocultural+Patterns%22">Sociocultural Patterns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Development%22">Child Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+4%22">Grade 4</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cultural+Differences%22">Cultural Differences</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22United+States%22">United States</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Japan%22">Japan</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/00220671.2023.2265881
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0022-0671<br />1940-0675
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: There is an absence of cross-cultural qualitative research exploring sociocultural factors affecting reading motivation. To address the gap, the present study adopted the Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model of human development to investigate factors impacting reading motivation across American and Japanese fourth grade students. Additionally, we aimed to identify ways to motivate both students to read. Semi-structured interviews for 12 students in each country were conducted. Our study identified a consistent pattern in which the reading motivation of both American and Japanese students was directly influenced by the "microsystem." Our findings also suggest distinct patterns between American and Japanese students. While American students exhibited a direct impact from the "microsystem," Japanese students' reading motivation was influenced by several systems, including the "microsystem," "exosystem," and "macrosystem." We explained that the observed unique patterns between American and Japanese students could be due to cultural differences. We identified several effective ways to motivate students to read.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2023
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1405104
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1405104
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/00220671.2023.2265881
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 13
        StartPage: 309
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Reading Motivation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Sociocultural Patterns
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Child Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade 4
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cultural Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: United States
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Japan
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Factors Impacting Reading Motivation: Insights from the Bioecological Model of Human Development
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Hitomi Kambara
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Yu-Cheng Lin
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2023
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0022-0671
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1940-0675
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 116
            – Type: issue
              Value: 5
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Educational Research
              Type: main
ResultId 1