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A Model for Integrating Engineering Design into Science Teacher Education

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Title: A Model for Integrating Engineering Design into Science Teacher Education
Language: English
Authors: Frackson Mumba (ORCID 0000-0002-4166-0617), Alexis Rutt, Reid Bailey, Laura Pottmeyer, Rachael van Aswegen, Jennie Chiu, John Ojeogwu
Source: Journal of Science Education and Technology. 2024 33(1):45-56.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2024
Sponsoring Agency: National Science Foundation (NSF), Division of Undergraduate Education (DUE)
National Science Foundation (NSF), Division of Engineering Education and Centers (EEC)
Contract Number: 1439858
1636443
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Secondary Education
Descriptors: State Standards, Preservice Teacher Education, Preservice Teachers, Secondary School Science, Secondary School Teachers, Science Instruction, Engineering Education, Science Education, Integrated Curriculum, Design
DOI: 10.1007/s10956-023-10055-y
ISSN: 1059-0145
1573-1839
Abstract: "The Framework for K-12 Science Education" and the Next Generation Science Standards require teachers to integrate engineering design into K-12 science teaching. However, many teachers have no formal preparation in engineering design and how to integrate it into science instruction. Furthermore, few models exist for preparing teachers in engineering design and how to integrate it into science teaching. Therefore, in this paper, we describe the model we have used for the past 8 years to prepare eighty-one (81) secondary pre-service science teachers in engineering design and how to integrate it into science instruction. We have also provided the outcomes and suggestions for implementing this model in science teacher education programs. We believe the model is transferable to other institutions and school districts that are involved in preparing teachers in engineering design integrated science teaching.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1409412
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0175022840;4n601feb.24;2024Jan30.04:22;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0175022840-1">A Model for Integrating Engineering Design into Science Teacher Education </title> <p>The Framework for K-12 Science Education and the Next Generation Science Standards require teachers to integrate engineering design into K-12 science teaching. However, many teachers have no formal preparation in engineering design and how to integrate it into science instruction. Furthermore, few models exist for preparing teachers in engineering design and how to integrate it into science teaching. Therefore, in this paper, we describe the model we have used for the past 8 years to prepare eighty-one (<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref1">81</reflink>) secondary pre-service science teachers in engineering design and how to integrate it into science instruction. We have also provided the outcomes and suggestions for implementing this model in science teacher education programs. We believe the model is transferable to other institutions and school districts that are involved in preparing teachers in engineering design integrated science teaching.</p> <p>Keywords: Engineering design; Science; Integration; Model; Pre-service teacher; STEM education</p> <p>Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-023-10055-y.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Current US science education reforms (National Research Council [NRC], [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref2">23</reflink>]; Next Generation Science Standards [NGSS], NGSS Lead States, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref3">25</reflink>]) emphasize engineering design in K-12 science instruction. Similarly, our state standards require teachers to address science and engineering practices in their science instruction. Researchers have identified the benefits of including engineering design in K-12 science instruction. These benefits include the potential to make science and mathematics relevant to students (Sias et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref4">36</reflink>]; Standish et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref5">38</reflink>]); to motivate learning of STEM concepts among students (Wendell & Rodgers, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref6">39</reflink>]); to increase students' interest in STEM careers (Mohr-Schroeder et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref7">17</reflink>]); and to provide real-life contexts for students to learn and apply their understanding of mathematics and science principles (Durandt et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]; Guzey et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>]). For example, instead of doing ratio and proportion mathematical problems, students can apply their understanding of these concepts by designing community gardens that meet certain ratio and cost requirements (Chiu et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref11">6</reflink>]). Students can conduct an engineering project on photosynthesis and cellular respiration to design a solution with enough light and nutrients for their garden. Additionally, engineering design projects can motivate students to learn STEM content that traditionally may not have been interesting to them (Guzey et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref12">9</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref13">10</reflink>]; Leonard & Derry, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>]). For instance, students may be very interested in gardening but not math, and the design challenge can motivate students to develop, revisit, and/or utilize their understanding of ratios and proportions.</p> <p>However, the call for engineering design integration in science instruction has brought several challenges to science teachers (Bamberger, et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref15">3</reflink>]; Capobianco et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref16">5</reflink>]; Nesmith & Cooper, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref17">24</reflink>]; Kim et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref18">13</reflink>]; Nesmith & Cooper, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref19">24</reflink>]). For example, most science teachers have received little or no preparation in engineering. Banilower et al. ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref20">4</reflink>]) reported that only 13% of high school teachers, 10% middle school science teachers, and 3% elementary school teachers had taken courses in engineering in college. Similarly, pre-service science teachers enter science teacher education programs with little or no preparation in engineering (Kim et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref21">13</reflink>]). However, they are required to address the science and engineering practices prescribed in the NGSS and state standards during their field experience in schools (Capobianco et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref22">5</reflink>]), and after they are employed as full-time teachers. Science teachers with developing understanding of engineering design processes are likely to relay steps of engineering design to their students without providing detailed explanations of the purpose and rationale for each step (Hynes, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref23">11</reflink>]). Ideally, science teachers would have a post-secondary degree or sufficient coursework in engineering; however, there are not enough teachers with such preparation in schools (Banilower et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref24">4</reflink>]).</p> <p>In view of these challenges, the addition of engineering design in current science education reforms (NRC, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref25">23</reflink>]; NGSS Lead States, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref26">25</reflink>]) will not lead to improved instructional practice and student learning in science classrooms without adequate teacher preparation in engineering design integrated science (EDIS) teaching. As such, science teachers need preparation in engineering and support to develop knowledge of engineering design and how to integrate it into science instruction (Antink-Meyer & Meyer, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref27">1</reflink>]; Bamberger et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref28">3</reflink>]; Radloff & Capobianco, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref29">31</reflink>]). Although some teacher education programs across the country have started addressing this challenge (e.g., Nesmith & Cooper, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref30">24</reflink>]; Radloff & Capobianco, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref31">31</reflink>]), there is a need for more models for integrating engineering in science teacher education. Such models should have guidelines for preparing teachers in engineering design and how to integrate it into science lessons.</p> <p>In response to these challenges, we have developed and implemented a model for integrating engineering design into our science teacher education program. In this paper, we describe the model and activities we have used for the past 8 years to prepare eighty-one secondary pre-service science teachers in engineering design and how to integrate it into science instruction. We have also provided the outcomes and suggestions for implementing this model in science teacher education programs.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-3">Science Teacher Education Program</hd> <p>At our university, we have a 1-year graduate secondary science teacher education program spanning three semesters: summer, fall, and spring. At the end of the program, pre-service science teachers graduate with a master's degree in teaching and are certified to teach science in grades 6–12. The NGSS and state standards are also integral to our science teacher preparation. As part of the teacher preparation program, pre-service science teachers take two science teaching methods courses, one in the fall semester and the other in the spring semester.</p> <p>Our EDIS instruction occurs primarily in the first science methods course of the fall semester (see Fig. 1). A collaborative team of two engineering professors: one engineering education professor and one science education professor co-teach the fall science methods course. Additional EDIS instruction and support is provided to pre-service science teachers in a seminar course in the spring semester when they are student teaching in schools. The science educator teaches the seminar course in the spring semester, though the other three instructors are also available to support pre-service science teachers in EDIS teaching as needed.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1A model for integrating engineering design in science teacher education</p> <p>As shown in Fig. 1, prior to introducing pre-service teachers to engineering design and how to integrate it into science instruction in the fall semester, pre-service teachers learn about the rationale for teaching science in schools, the nature of science, state standards, lab safety, learning theories, and how to teach science using a variety of instructional strategies (i.e., guided instructional practice, inquiry-based instruction, case-based learning, the predict-observe-explain, argumentation, problem-based learning, and project-based learning). For each instructional strategy, pre-service teachers participate in a lesson/activity in which the instructor models the instructional method, and then pre-service teachers design lessons and activities exemplifying the instructional method. These instructional strategies lay the groundwork for the focused EDIS instruction, which we describe next.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-4">Engineering in the Science Methods Course</hd> <p>The focused EDIS instruction occurs for 6 weeks in a science methods course in fall semester. The instruction is designed for pre-service science teachers to become familiar with the <emph>Framework for K-12 Science Education</emph> (NRC, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref32">23</reflink>]) and the NGSS (NGSS Lead States, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref33">25</reflink>]); learn how to read the NGSS; understand and apply disciplinary core ideas, cross-cutting concepts, and science and engineering practices prescribed in the NGSS; understand and apply engineering design skills; understand similarities and differences between the engineering design process and scientific inquiry; develop three-page teacher guide manuals for EDIS instruction; create a collection of EDIS teaching and learning resources; develop EDIS units and activities; and teach EDIS units in schools. These learning objectives are achieved through individual and group activities, the development of EDIS instructional materials, and the implementation of EDIS units in schools during student teaching. We describe each in turn next.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-5">Instructional Model</hd> <p>The EDIS instruction is guided by an informed engineering design model (see Fig. 2) (Chiu et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref34">6</reflink>]). The model is designed to help make engineering design processes explicit for teachers and/or students. Informed engineering design involves teachers or students to learn and apply design elements and develop engineering design skills and science concepts through engineering design processes.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2Engineering design instructional model (Chiu et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref35">6</reflink>])</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-6">Reading and Understanding the NGSS Activity</hd> <p>At the start of the EDIS instruction, pre-service teachers learn about the NGSS. The goals for pre-service teachers during this portion of the instruction include increasing their familiarity with the NGSS; learning how to read the NGSS; understanding the organization of the standards; and improving their familiarity with the disciplinary core ideas, science and engineering practices, and cross-cutting concepts prescribed in the NGSS. This is achieved through individual and group activities. For example, working in content-specific (e.g., chemistry, biology, earth science, and physics) groups, pre-service teachers explore the NGSS (e.g., core ideas, standards, performance expectations, practices, cross-cutting concepts, and engineering design skills) for multiple grade levels. To demonstrate their understanding of NGSS, pre-service teachers are given an assignment in which they revise one of the lessons they created earlier in the course to align it with the appropriate NGSS standards. They are asked to include appropriate performance expectations, science and engineering practices, and cross-cutting concepts associated with each NGSS standard the lesson is addressing. They are also required to provide a matrix table showing how the core ideas, science and engineering practices, and cross-cutting concepts are addressed in the lesson. Table 1 shows an example matrix created by a participant pre-service teacher.</p> <p>Table 1 Example matrix table showing how NGSS dimensions are addressed in a lesson</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>This chart shows how science and engineering practices, disciplinary core ideas, and crosscutting concepts in the standard and performance expectations are addressed and connected to the activities in the lesson</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p><bold>Subject</bold>: Life Science</p><p><bold>Grade Level</bold>: 7</p><p><bold>Duration</bold>: 90 min</p><p><bold>Topic:</bold> Cell Structure</p><p><bold>Learning Objectives</bold>:</p><p><underline>Students will KNOW</underline></p><p>• Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life</p><p>• The parts of a cell: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, cell wall, vacuole, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, and chloroplast</p><p>• The difference between plant and animal cells</p><p><underline>Students will UNDERSTAND</underline></p><p>• The structure of a cell organelle is suited to the function carried out by that organelle</p><p>• Division of labor within a cell is essential to the overall successful function of the cell</p><p>• Similarities and differences in plants and animals are evident at the cellular level</p><p><underline>Students will be able to DO</underline></p><p>• Identify plant and animal cell organelles</p><p>• Compare and contrast plant and animal cell structure</p><p>• Describe the functions of cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, cell wall, vacuole, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, and chloroplast</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p><bold><underline>Standards</underline></bold></p><p><bold>MS-LS1</bold> From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3"><p><bold><underline>Performance Expectations</underline></bold></p><p><bold>MS-LS1-1</bold>. Conduct an investigation to provide evidence that living things are made of cells; either one cell or many different numbers and types of cells</p><p><bold>MS-LS1-2</bold>. Develop and use a model to describe the function of a cell as a whole and ways the parts of cells contribute to the function</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><bold>Dimension</bold></p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>Name and </bold><bold><italic>NGSS</italic></bold><bold> code/citation</bold></p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>Specific Connections to Classroom Activity</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><bold>Science and Engineering Practices</bold></p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>Planning and Carrying Out Investigations</bold></p><p>Planning and carrying out investigations in 6–8 builds on K-5 experiences and progresses to include investigations that use multiple variables and provide evidence to support explanations or solutions</p><p>• Conduct an investigation to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence that meet the goals of an investigation. <bold>(MS-LS1-1)</bold></p><p><bold>Developing and Using Models</bold></p><p>• Modeling in 6–8 builds on K–5 experiences and progresses to developing, using, and revising models to describe, test, and predict more abstract phenomena and design systems. Develop and use a model to describe phenomena (<bold>MS-LS1-2</bold>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>• In this lesson, students are working with onion cells and an animal cell model (blob), acquiring and analyzing the data (plant and animal cell organelles viewed under the microscope) to learn that (1). all organisms are made up of one or more cells; (2). Cell structure is correlated with its function; (3). Plant and animal cells can be distinguished from each other based on their cell organelles</p><p>• The animal cell is modeled ("blob"—a balloon containing small objects floating in corn syrup) in this lesson. Students analyze this blob and describe what are the organelles present in a animal cell and how its structure correlates to its function</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><bold>Disciplinary Core Ideas</bold></p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>LS1.A: Structure and Function</bold></p><p>• All living things are made up of cells, which is the smallest unit that can be said to be alive. An organism may consist of one single cell (unicellular) or many different numbers and types of cells (multicellular) (<bold>MS-LS1-1</bold>)</p><p>• Within cells, special structures are responsible for particular functions, and the cell membrane forms the boundary that controls what enters and leaves the cell (<bold>MS-LS1-2</bold>)</p></td><td align="left"><p>• Students work with an onion cell (visualized under a microscope) and an animal cell model (blob) and learn that all organisms are made up of one or more cells. In this lesson, the teacher emphasizes that the organelle characteristic of plant cells and animal cells is consistent across unicellular and multicellular organisms</p><p>• Students analyze the onion cell and animal cell model organelles. They not only study about what organelles are present in plant and animal cells, but also learn about how the structure of the cell organelles and other cell components (like cell membrane) related to their function</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><bold>Crosscutting Concepts</bold></p></td><td align="left"><p><bold>Scale, Proportion, and Quantity</bold></p><p>• Phenomena that can be observed at one scale may not be observable at another scale (<bold>MS-LS1-1</bold>)</p><p><bold>Structure and Function</bold></p><p>• Complex and microscopic structures and systems can be visualized, modeled, and used to describe how their function depends on the relationships among its parts, therefore complex natural structures/systems can be analyzed to determine how they function (<bold>MS-LS1-2</bold>)</p><p><bold><underline>Connections to Engineering, Technology and Applications of Science</underline></bold><bold> Interdependence of Science, Engineering, and Technology</bold></p><p>• Engineering advances have led to important discoveries in virtually every field of science, and scientific discoveries have led to the development of entire industries and engineered systems.<bold> (MS-LS1-1)</bold></p></td><td align="left"><p>• Students study about the plant cell by analyzing an onion cell under microscopes (at varying magnifications) and animal cell by analyzing a model (blob). Teacher emphasizes to students that the onion cells look larger as we progress across 4X, 10X and 40X magnification as they are being scaled. Similarly, we have modeled the animal cell to better visualize it. "Plant and animal cells are invisible to naked eye"</p><p>• Students visualized onion cells under microscope and analyzed animal cell models (blob) to learn why certain organelles are present in plant cells as opposed to animal cells and how cell organelle structure correlated with its function</p><p>• Teacher emphasizes the importance of "microscopes" as special engineered equipment helping us to view things that are microscopic and invisible to naked eye and initiated the field of microbiology</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0175022840-7">Introducing Engineering Design Processes</hd> <p>After the introduction to the NGSS, pre-service teachers learn about engineering design elements, the role of engineering in society, and prominent engineers in the USA, and their contributions to the engineering field and society. They also learn about what engineers do (e.g., design and build things, create technology, and solve human problems) and about different types of engineers and their roles within the field and society. We discuss and model the following engineering habits of mind through activities: creativity; working and negotiating in teams; adopting optimistic mindsets when problem solving and designing; thinking not only about individual technologies but also about how the systems within those technologies operate; and considering the ethical nature of engineering and its products. Then, pre-service teachers are introduced to informed engineering design processes and elements as outlined and described in Fig. 2. Pre-service teachers learn that engineering design is both iterative and flexible. This flexibility means that often steps are repeated and that some steps can occur out of order depending upon the project. These sessions are done through individual and group activities, discussions, and presentations, and are designed to introduce the basics of engineering and lay the foundation for EDIS instruction.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-8">Engineering Design Integrated Science Activities</hd> <p>After introducing pre-service teachers to informed engineering design processes and elements in Fig. 2, we engage them in several EDIS activities. We use <emph>Engineering Teaching Kits</emph> (ETKs, e.g., Richards et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref36">33</reflink>]; Schnittka & Bell, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref37">34</reflink>]; Schnittka & Richards, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref38">35</reflink>]), online resources (e.g., Teachengineering.org), activities from science practitioner journals (e.g., Mason & Evans, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref39">15</reflink>]; Wheeler, et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref40">40</reflink>]), and several EDIS activities we have developed and tested in schools (e.g., Avery et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref41">2</reflink>]; Rice et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref42">32</reflink>]). For example, in a solar-powered car activity (see Schnittka & Richards, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref43">35</reflink>]), pre-service science teachers are presented with a challenge of designing a solar-powered car. They define the problem from the scenario, conduct background research, develop knowledge, redefine the problem, ideate solutions, build prototypes, test, and evaluate the prototypes, and revise their prototypes. After these steps are complete, they present to their peers and instructors their cars (prototypes), the design process, energy transformation processes, and their reflections on the design process. We debrief the activity and discuss the modifications they would make to the activity for students in middle and high school science classrooms. We also discuss how to assess student learning of science concepts and engineering design skills inherent in the activity. In this activity, pre-service teachers learn about force, solar energy, energy transformation, engineering design processes, and science and engineering practices.</p> <p>We also engage pre-service in EDIS activities that address science concepts students find difficult to understand (e.g., photosynthesis, energy, and osmosis). For example, pre-service teachers are engaged in the EDIS activity for teaching osmosis and its related concepts through engineering design (see Rice et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref44">32</reflink>]). Pre-service teachers are provided with a design challenge and tasked to find a solution of plant cells not losing and gaining too much water. They are provided with the materials for the activity and a specific budget for the materials. To explore how and why cells change in different osmotic conditions, pre-service teachers work in groups to do background research, and design a liquid solution that can contain a potato and prevent it from losing or gaining too much water. The design challenge solution is for pre-service teachers to create an isotonic solution, through research, design, and reiteration. In this activity, pre-service teachers learn more about osmotic conditions through background research and engineering design process, and how to teach osmosis using engineering design.</p> <p>Through these activities pre-service science teachers develop understanding of science concepts; apply engineering design process; develop understanding that engineering design is fluid and iterative; understand that the questions posed in science can be solved with solutions designed through engineering design; and identify aspects of the focal activity as steps of engineering design.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-9">Comparing Scientific Inquiry and Engineering Design Processes</hd> <p>After engaging in the EDIS activities described above, pre-service teachers learn about the similarities and differences between scientific inquiry and engineering design through activities that illustrate both processes. Specific examples are provided during discussions and align with the EDIS activities described above. For example, pre-service teachers revisit the solar-powered car activity and identify the relevant science and engineering practices exemplified in the activity. We believe that when pre-service science teachers understand the similarities and differences between science and engineering, they are empowered to integrate these principles into planning, teaching, and learning. Given the strong foundations of science in K-12 education compared to the relative newness of engineering, it is not surprising that our experiences have shown that science teachers frequently and unintentionally label many "engineering" things as "science" in the classroom. Similarly, pre-service science teachers in initial iterations of this course struggled to differentiate science and engineering components of their EDIS units.</p> <p>Therefore, changes to this segment of EDIS in science methods were central to advancing the pre-service teachers' ability to develop balanced EDIS units that engaged their students in doing and learning about both engineering and science. While we initially focused on "front-end" engineering design work (i.e., engaging stakeholders to understand needs and identify opportunities for innovation), we moved towards facilitating pre-service teachers' construction of a robust foundation for understanding the relationship between their existing knowledge of science and new experiences with engineering. A constructivist approach to learning guided our development of this EDIS instruction to help pre-service teachers learn the similarities and differences between science and engineering, engaging "preconceptions about how the world works" (NRC, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref45">21</reflink>]). In this case, many pre-service teachers' worldviews are anchored in how science works. Our methods course leverage pre-service teachers' science understanding and use that as a foundation to add engineering. As such, this segment of the EDIS instruction is now split into two parts to help pre-service teachers navigate the relationship between engineering and science. First, we work with pre-service teachers to identify similarities and differences between scientific inquiry and engineering design. We start with terms that are analogous between science and engineering, then progress to similarities in processes, and finish with differences in the broader context in which scientific inquiry and engineering design operate. Second, we support pre-service teachers in using this new awareness to develop EDIS units. We describe these steps of the process next.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-10">Analogous Terms and Process Similarities</hd> <p>Table 2 highlights the similarities between scientific inquiry (method) and engineering design process, with the specific analogous words bolded. For example, the scientific inquiry process has a scientifically oriented research question (NRC,[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref46">22</reflink>]). Scientists "research" this question, propose "hypotheses" about this question, and test the hypotheses with "experiments" to generate "new knowledge" or reinforce existing knowledge. Engineering design process starts with a "need." Engineers "research" the need, propose "alternative solutions" to address the need, and evaluate the alternative solutions with "prototypes, analysis, and simulations" to generate "new designs." These parallels, which we introduce via both individual and group fill-in-the-blank activities in class, provide a solid starting point from which to build on pre-service science teachers' existing knowledge of science. We acknowledge that these generalities do not fully represent the richness or messiness of either scientific inquiry or engineering design processes, but they do provide a stable starting point for the pre-service teachers.</p> <p>Table 2 Analogous terms and similarities in process between science and engineering</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Science</p></th><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>Engineering</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>--- Starting with ---</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><bold>A motivating question</bold></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>A need</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>--- A scientist/engineer ---</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><bold>Researches the question</bold></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>Researches the needs</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>--- Proposes ---</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><bold>Hypotheses</bold></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>Alternative solutions</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>--- About this question/</p><p>need that are evaluated with ---</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><bold>Experiments</bold></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>Prototypes, analyses, and simulations</bold></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>--- To generate ---</p></td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><bold>New knowledge</bold></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p><bold>New designs</bold></p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0175022840-11">Differences Between Scientific Inquiry and Engineering Design</hd> <p>At this point, scientific inquiry and engineering design look fairly similar to pre-service teachers. However, while they can look similar at times, they are fundamentally different in that science is primarily about gaining new knowledge, while engineering is primarily about impacting people by addressing unmet needs. Some of the ways in which this fundamental difference manifests itself are shown in Table 3. We engage the pre-service teachers with this content through a fill-in-the-blank activity where we only give them the first column, "dimension of difference," followed by discussion.</p> <p>Table 3 Broader context differences between science and engineering</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Dimension of difference</p></th><th align="left"><p><bold>Science:</bold> discovering information about the natural world</p></th><th align="left"><p><bold>Engineering:</bold> designing solutions for real world problems</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Responds to what? (the source)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Addresses an investigative question</p></td><td align="left"><p>Addresses needs of people</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>To generate what? (the result)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Creates new knowledge through describing existing things</p></td><td align="left"><p>Creates new things</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Experimenting to learn what?</p></td><td align="left"><p>Experiments are used to learn new knowledge about an investigative question (and to uncover new questions)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Prototypes are used to learn how to better meet people's needs with new "things" (and to uncover those needs)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>What is success?</p></td><td align="left"><p>Success = gaining new knowledge</p></td><td align="left"><p>Success = positive impact on people/society</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>At any one point in time, is the truth out there?</p></td><td align="left"><p>At any point in time, there is likely only one best explanation</p></td><td align="left"><p>At any point in time, there are lots of good solutions (e.g., there is not one car that is best for everyone)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Nature of background research</p></td><td align="left"><p>Background research is mainly prior work (e.g., reading prior literature)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Background research includes people (e.g., to uncover their needs)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Who reviews the work?</p></td><td align="left"><p>Work is reviewed by peers</p></td><td align="left"><p>Work is reviewed by consumers/users</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0175022840-12">EDIS Canvas Activity</hd> <p>After covering the similarities and differences between science and engineering, we focus on supporting the pre-service teachers as they start applying their new knowledge about the relationship between engineering and science to create their own EDIS activities. To do this, we use the EDIS Canvas Activity (see Fig. 3), a single-page document where the pre-service teachers map out the engineering and science components of the EDIS units they plan to create for the course. This part of the EDIS instruction aims to prepare pre-service teachers to start building their own EDIS units for middle and high school science classes by establishing the relationship between engineering and science. The EDIS Canvas gives pre-service teachers space to identify what engineering their students will be doing and what engineering their students will be learning on the left side of the canvas. On the right side, pre-service teachers describe the science the students will be doing or using and the science they will be learning.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 3The EDIS canvas activity template</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-13">Analyzing EDIS Activities for Science and Engineering Practices</hd> <p>At this point, pre-service teachers are familiar with engineering design elements, science, and engineering practices prescribed in NGSS. We engage them in analyzing EDIS activities from online resources (e.g., teachengineering.org) and science practitioner journals (e.g., <emph>The Science Teacher</emph>) for the representation of engineering design skills, and science and engineering practices. Pre-service teachers are provided with the analysis framework we have developed (see Mumba et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref47">20</reflink>]). The goal for this activity is for pre-service teachers to learn how to identify engineering design skills, science concepts, and science and engineering practices in the activities prepared by others before they start developing their own activities.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-14">Creating EDIS Teaching Resources Collection</hd> <p>After learning how to identify engineering design skills and practices in curriculum materials developed by others, pre-service teachers are given an assignment in which they are asked to collect EDIS teaching resources relevant to their teaching subject areas. Through this activity, they learn more about engineering design activities that are available to teachers and whether the resources are aligned or not with the science curricula in schools and NGSS. This assignment is designed to prepare pre-service teachers in adapting EDIS instructional materials developed by others. For each resource, pre-service teachers are asked to (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref48">1</reflink>) provide a brief description of how the resource would be used to teach science concepts and engineering design to students; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref49">2</reflink>) identify science and engineering practices, disciplinary core ideas and crosscutting concepts the resource is addressing; and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref50">3</reflink>) describe modification(s) they would make for the resource to effectively address science concepts in their classrooms.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-15">Identifying Challenges for Students in Engineering Design Activity</hd> <p>After pre-service teachers have experienced hands-on activities and gathered resources, we engage them in learning about the potential challenges students face in engineering design tasks. In this way, we aim to build upon pre-service teachers' development of professional knowledge bases of engineering content knowledge and engineering epistemological knowledge and support their integration of instructional strategies for engineering design in science classrooms. To help pre-service teachers develop understanding of the kinds of challenges that students may face when engaging in engineering design, we focus on different design practices and work with the pre-service teachers to think of potential student difficulties. For this work, we draw heavily from Crismond and Adams' ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref51">7</reflink>]) framework of informed design and learning. In small groups, each team generates student difficulties for a specific engineering design practice, determines how teachers can support students to address these difficulties, and highlights how to make connections to science. Each small group presents their specific design practice, student challenges associated with the practice, and how to support students. Then, as a whole class, we discuss and add to the small group's ideas. In this activity, pre-service teachers draw from their own experience engaging with engineering design in previous weeks to understand a novice perspective. Pre-service teachers begin to identify instructional strategies that can help their students address difficulties, which in turn can empower pre-service teachers to be more informed designers.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-16">Creating Teacher Guide Manuals and EDIS Units</hd> <p>After pre-service teachers have done the activities described in the preceding sections, they are now ready to begin creating their own EDIS instructional materials. The goal of this part of the preparation is to empower pre-service teachers in developing EDIS curriculum and to take ownership of EDIS instructional materials. Given that this is the first-time pre-service teachers are developing EDIS units, we encourage pre-service teachers to start with existing inquiry-based science lessons/labs and turn them into engineering design integrated science units or activities. We also encourage pre-service teachers to build on the EDIS activity they developed in the EDIS Canvas Activity (see Fig. 3).</p> <p>Each pre-service teacher creates a three-paged teacher guide manual explaining how to create EDIS units (see Appendix 1) and one EDIS unit (see example EDIS unit in Appendix 2). The purpose of the teacher guide manual assignment is for pre-service teachers to familiarize themselves with engineering design, think about instructional strategies for teaching design processes, and create an artifact that other teachers can use to develop and implement EDIS lessons in science classrooms. To help pre-service teachers create EDIS units, we provide them with a unit plan template (see EDIS unit plan template in Appendix 3), and example EDIS units. As shown in the EDIS unit plan template, pre-service teachers start with listing the subject, topic, duration, learning objectives, both state standards and NGSS, materials and resources needed for the unit, and envisioning the overarching engineering design project. The design challenge is presented in a scenario form. Embedded within the EDIS unit plan template itself are prompts that serve as educative reminders about how to create units that motivate and encourage informed engineering design for each design process. In particular, each design process has a column that helps pre-service teachers understand the design process itself, as well as guiding principles to remind pre-service teachers how to support informed design for each of the processes. For example, the "overall design challenge" row specifies that the overall design challenge should be relevant to student's lives and offer multiple solutions where students ideally identify users and needs. The right-hand column, which the pre-service teachers use to plan their own unit, is pre-populated with an example to help them understand what kinds of ideas or descriptions should be included. This is the same column where pre-service teachers provide the details of each design practice for their units. The last section of the EDIS unit plan template (see Appendix 3) requires pre-service teachers to provide a daily overview for each lesson within the unit, focusing on instructional sequences and teacher/student actions and how to structure and schedule time for various design practices. Finally, pre-service develop assessments for student content knowledge and rubrics for students' design portfolios and presentations. This EDIS unit plan template has been refined over years of working with pre-service teachers to develop engineering design units. For example, in the beginning of our EDIS preparation, there were no guiding principles and examples in the template. We added them after we observed pre-service teachers struggling to provide details in their units.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-17">Presentation of Teacher Guide Manuals and EDIS Units</hd> <p>After pre-service teachers have developed their teacher guide manuals and EDIS units, they present them to peers and instructors to receive feedback, thus reinforcing the iterative design process. These presentations are held at the end of the science methods course in the fall semester. Each pre-service teacher presents the following components of the EDIS unit: subject; topic; grade level; duration for the unit instruction (periods, days, weeks); NGSS and state standards the unit is designed to address; learning objectives; the design challenge/problem (presented in a scenario form); daily lesson summaries; and assessments for assessing student learning (science content knowledge and engineering design skills). Pre-service teachers are also asked to make a matrix table showing how each standard, practice, and cross-cutting concept listed in each standard is connected to the activities in the unit (similar to Table 1). The matrix table helps them to demonstrate how and where the relevant NGSS dimensions are being addressed in the unit activities. After their presentations, pre-service teachers revise their EDIS units and teacher guide manuals using the feedback from peers and course instructors in preparation for implementing the units in secondary schools, as described next. In presenting these artifacts to their peers and instructors, pre-service teachers demonstrate their knowledge of the engineering design process and skills for developing EDIS instructional materials.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-18">Implementing EDIS Units in Schools</hd> <p>As part of the requirements for a seminar course in spring semester, pre-service teachers teach EDIS units in schools during student teaching. They teach the EDIS units they created in the science methods course in the fall or create new EDIS units on science topics their mentor teachers are teaching in schools in the spring semester. Mentor teachers are informed about this requirement so they can allow pre-service teachers to teach EDIS units in their classrooms. In some cases, mentor teachers allow pre-service teachers to convert existing science labs into EDIS units. The EDIS instruction is new to most mentor teachers in schools. We have observed that mentor teachers learn about teaching science through the engineering design process from our pre-service science teachers.</p> <p>Pre-service teachers receive additional instruction and support in engineering design and how to integrate it in science classrooms in our seminar course. A significant amount of time is devoted to helping pre-service teachers develop more EDIS activities in our seminar course, reinforcing what was taught in the science methods course in fall semester. We also provide support to pre-service teachers during the planning and implementation of EDIS activities in schools. Pre-service teachers receive feedback on their EDIS units before and after teaching them in schools.</p> <p>Although all the EDIS units contain the same steps of engineering design (Fig. 2) that was taught in the science methods course, the science topics and content vary across the units. The engineering design process presented to students regardless of science discipline has the following elements: identifying the need or the problem, conducting background research, brainstorming possible solutions, selecting the best solution, constructing the prototype, testing the prototype, presenting solutions, and redesigning. We observe the EDIS lessons in schools and provide feedback to pre-service teachers on their instruction. Opportunities for discussion and reflection on their experiences with EDIS instruction are part of the seminar course. For example, pre-service teachers are given opportunities to reflect on their implementation of EDIS units in schools and share with peers and seminar instructors the successes and challenges they experienced in their classrooms. We also assess middle and high school students' learning of science content and engineering design process, and their perceptions of learning science through engineering design. The feedback from the pre-service teachers, mentor teachers, and middle and high school students has been used to revise this model for integrating engineering design into our science teacher education program. For example, when we started using this model, we did not engage pre-service teachers in collecting EDIS resources in their subject areas, and analyzing EDIS activities for the coverage of science and engineering practices. We also revised our Unit template by adding the guiding principles and example columns.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-19">Outcomes</hd> <p>We have used this model of integrating engineering design in our science teacher education program since 2015. In the past 8 years, we have prepared eighty-one (<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref52">81</reflink>) secondary pre-service science teachers in engineering design and how to integrate it into science instruction. Forty-two (<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref53">42</reflink>) pre-service teachers were in biology, 21 in chemistry, 10 in earth science, and 8 in physics. These EDIS prepared science teachers are teaching and serving as EDIS teacher-leaders in schools in several states. We believe this model of integrating engineering into our science teacher education program has provided a smooth transition for our pre-service science teachers from having little or no preparation in engineering to understanding engineering design and being able to begin to integrate it into science instruction.</p> <p>As part of improving our offerings through this model, we have conducted research studies with our pre-service science teachers, and students in schools where EDIS units were implemented. Our research findings show that through this model of implementing engineering design into science teacher education, pre-service teachers developed understanding of engineering design processes (Mumba, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref54">18</reflink>]), demonstrated skills for developing EDIS instructional materials (Mumba et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref55">20</reflink>]), and developed self-efficacy for teaching engineering design in science classrooms (Ochs et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref56">28</reflink>]). Additionally, pre-service science teachers demonstrated skills for identifying science and engineering practices in instructional materials (Ochs et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref57">29</reflink>]). Pre-service teachers also developed positive perceptions of engineering and familiarity with teaching design, engineering, and technology (Ochs & Mumba, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref58">26</reflink>]). We have also developed a framework for determining the nature and extent to which science and engineering are integrated in EDIS activities (Mumba & Ochs, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref59">19</reflink>]). Finally, the pre-service teachers' perceived relevance of engineering practices in science teaching increased after developing and teaching EDIS units in schools (Ochs & Mumba, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref60">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>Some EDIS units developed by the pre-service teachers have been published in science practitioner journals and are available for other teachers to use (e.g., Avery et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref61">2</reflink>]; Rice et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref62">32</reflink>]). Our pre-service teachers have also presented their units and teacher guide manuals at science teacher conferences (e.g., Iuga et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref63">12</reflink>]; McIntosh et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref64">16</reflink>]; Squires et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref65">37</reflink>]). Furthermore, our research findings show that the implementation of EDIS in schools by pre-service teachers during student teaching increased high students' understanding of the engineering design process and science content knowledge, and students developed positive perceptions of engineering design process (Pottmeyer & Mumba, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref66">30</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-20">Conclusions and Suggestions</hd> <p>The purpose of this paper was to describe the model we have used for the past 8 years to prepare eighty-one secondary pre-service science teachers in engineering design and how to integrate it into science instruction. Our outcomes listed in the preceding section suggest that this model can enhance pre-service science teachers' understanding of engineering design and how to integrate it into science teaching if they are engaged in intensive and authentic EDIS activities, EDIS instructional materials development, and implementation of EDIS lessons in schools. Overall, this model has significantly impacted our pre-service science teachers' EDIS instructional materials development skills, as well as their instructional practice. It has also improved participant middle and high school students' learning and perceptions of the engineering design process. Therefore, we believe this model for integrating engineering design into science teacher education is transferable to other institutions and school districts that are involved in preparing teachers in EDIS teaching. However, we suggest science teacher educators collaborate with engineers and/or engineering education faculty members as they adopt and implement this model in their teacher preparation programs. We believe the collaboration of two engineering professors, one engineering education professor and one science education professor has been the key element for the successive implementation of this model into our teacher education. Engineers and engineering education professors had practical experience in the engineering design process, developing engineering education curriculum materials, and working with in-service teachers. The science education professor had experience with scientific research, teaching science, and preparing teachers.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-21">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>We acknowledge all participant pre-service teachers for attending the EDIS intervention in our science teacher education program in which this model was implemented, and for the feedback they provided that led to improve our offerings in the program.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-22">Author Contribution</hd> <p>The authors worked together on this study. Frackson Mumba, Jennie Chiu, and Reid Bailey were involved in the EDIS intervention and data collection. Laura Pottmeyer, Alexis Rutt, Rachel van Aswegen, and John Ojeogwu were involved in mentoring pre-service teachers and data collection. Then, all the authors were involved in writing the manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-23">Funding</hd> <p>This research was supported by two National Science Foundation award numbers DUE 1439858 & EEC 1636443. The funding enabled researchers to do the intervention on engineering design and collect data.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-24">Data Availability</hd> <p>The data used and analyzed for the outcomes reported in the manuscript are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. We have provided example teacher guide manual as Appendix 1, example EDIS unit as Appendix 2, and EDIS unit plan template as Appendix 3.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-25">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0175022840-26">Ethical Statement</hd> <p>We complied with all required ethics for data collection and analysis for the outcomes we have reported in this manuscript through the IRB approval.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-27">Informed Consent</hd> <p>Participant pre-service teachers and students in the studies we have reported in the outcomes section completed IRB approved consent forms before data collection.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-28">Conflict of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no competing interests.</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-29">Supplementary Information</hd> <p>Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.</p> <p>Graph: Supplementary file1 (PDF 310 KB)</p> <p>Graph: Supplementary file2 (DOCX 58 KB)</p> <p>Graph: Supplementary file3 (DOCX 36 KB)</p> <hd id="AN0175022840-30">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0175022840-31"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref27" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Antink-Meyer A, Meyer DZ. 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The Science Teacher. 2014; 81; 9: 30-36. 10.2505/4/tst14_081_09_30</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Frackson Mumba; Alexis Rutt; Reid Bailey; Laura Pottmeyer; Rachael van Aswegen; Jennie Chiu and John Ojeogwu</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib81" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref66"></nolink>
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  Data: A Model for Integrating Engineering Design into Science Teacher Education
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  Data: English
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Frackson+Mumba%22">Frackson Mumba</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4166-0617">0000-0002-4166-0617</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alexis+Rutt%22">Alexis Rutt</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Reid+Bailey%22">Reid Bailey</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Laura+Pottmeyer%22">Laura Pottmeyer</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rachael+van+Aswegen%22">Rachael van Aswegen</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jennie+Chiu%22">Jennie Chiu</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22John+Ojeogwu%22">John Ojeogwu</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Science+Education+and+Technology%22"><i>Journal of Science Education and Technology</i></searchLink>. 2024 33(1):45-56.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
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  Data: 12
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  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
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  Data: National Science Foundation (NSF), Division of Undergraduate Education (DUE)<br />National Science Foundation (NSF), Division of Engineering Education and Centers (EEC)
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  Data: 1439858<br />1636443
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Descriptive
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  Label: Education Level
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22State+Standards%22">State Standards</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preservice+Teacher+Education%22">Preservice Teacher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preservice+Teachers%22">Preservice Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+School+Science%22">Secondary School Science</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+School+Teachers%22">Secondary School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Science+Instruction%22">Science Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Engineering+Education%22">Engineering Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Science+Education%22">Science Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Integrated+Curriculum%22">Integrated Curriculum</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Design%22">Design</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1007/s10956-023-10055-y
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  Data: 1059-0145<br />1573-1839
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: "The Framework for K-12 Science Education" and the Next Generation Science Standards require teachers to integrate engineering design into K-12 science teaching. However, many teachers have no formal preparation in engineering design and how to integrate it into science instruction. Furthermore, few models exist for preparing teachers in engineering design and how to integrate it into science teaching. Therefore, in this paper, we describe the model we have used for the past 8 years to prepare eighty-one (81) secondary pre-service science teachers in engineering design and how to integrate it into science instruction. We have also provided the outcomes and suggestions for implementing this model in science teacher education programs. We believe the model is transferable to other institutions and school districts that are involved in preparing teachers in engineering design integrated science teaching.
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  Data: 2024
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1409412
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        Value: 10.1007/s10956-023-10055-y
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 45
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: State Standards
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preservice Teacher Education
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      – SubjectFull: Preservice Teachers
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      – SubjectFull: Secondary School Science
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      – SubjectFull: Secondary School Teachers
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      – SubjectFull: Design
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      – TitleFull: A Model for Integrating Engineering Design into Science Teacher Education
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